MECH7350 Rotating Machinery

8. Generators

8. GENERATORS
Fig. 8.1 is a reminder of the components of a turbine/generator system. Here it includes the exciter which provides DC current to the rotor of the generator.

Fig. 8.1 Components of a turbine-generator system (from Black and Veatch).

8.1 Synchronous Generator Theory Synchronous means that the generators rotor runs at the constant mains frequency as load varies. 8.1.1 Electromagnetic Induction The instantaneous voltage induced in a stator conductor is given by;

e = kl
where;

dB dt

k = constant l = length of conductor

dB = rate of change of magnetic flux density dt

If e is to be a sinusoid, dB/dt must also be sinusoidal. Excitation coils are wound on the rotor to produce a flux with a density which varies approximately sinusoidally around the circumference. A two-pole arrangement (one pole pair) is shown in Fig. 8.2. The magnitude 8-1

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Fig. 8.2 Production of sinusoidal voltage (from MPSP).

of the flux density can be changed by varying the direct current to the excitation coils on the rotor.

Speed, Frequency and Pole Pairs If f = frequency, Hz n = rotational speed, r/s p = number of pole pairs Then f = pn In Australia, generators are 2-pole (i.e. p = 1). Hence generators run at 3000 rpm. Three-phase Windings Fig. 8.3 shows how three phases are generated by having three winding spaces on the stator. This is still a 2-pole generator. It is economical to have many stator conductors in parallel so the individual conductor voltages are additive. Each go conductor is connected to a return conductor, acted on by the pole of opposite polarity, and thence to a third conductor adjacent to the first, and so on through the phase. The return conductors are disposed in a layer displaced radially from the go conductor, both in the slots and in the end region. The discrete nature of the windings gives rise to generation of harmonics.

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Fig. 8.3 Arrangement of stator conductors (from MPSP).

Torque The mechanical torque provided by the turbine is balanced by an electromagnetic torque caused by the interaction of the magnetic flux and the current flowing in the stator windings.

8.2 The Rotor

(This section is mainly from MPSP)

The rotor must: carry the excitation windings provide a low reluctance path for the magnetic flux transfer the rated torque from the turbine to the electromagnetic reaction at the air gap resist large centrifugal forces. A steel

Steel is the most suitable material.

forging is used with machined slots (Fig. 8.4).

Fig. 8.4 Rotor section (from MPSP)

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The winding slots are cut in diametrically opposite pairs over about two-thirds of the circumference, leaving the pole faces without winding slots (Fig. 8.6). Equalising slots are cut across the pole faces to avoid a difference in stiffness in two orthogonal directions which would produce a twice-per-revolution vibration.

The rotor shaft and the coupling must be designed to withstand four to five times full-load torque in the event of a sudden short circuit.

Journal bearings are used.

Fig. 8.5 Stiffness compensation (from MPSP).

8.2.1 Rotor Winding Full detail of the winding of a rotor is shown in Fig. 8.6. Winding coils are assembled into diametrically opposite pairs of rotor slots symmetrically distributed about the pole axis, but in the opposite senses in the two poles; i.e. clockwise current for the north pole and counterclockwise current for the south pole.

Each coil must be assembled as a half-turn, with brazed joints in the end turns (end windings). There are usually one or two turns in the width of a slot. Axial passages and radial holes in the copper conductors provide for forced cooling with hydrogen. The high rotational speed causes hydrogen to flow axially from both ends and radially outwards. Fans mounted on the rotor, primarily to circulate hydrogen though the stator, help the flow through the rotor (Fig. 8.7). Insulation is achieved with slot liners of glassfibre material

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Fig. 8.6 Rotor winding (from MPSP).

Fig. 8.7 Axial flow fans on rotor (from MPSP).

Thick end rings are used to restrain the rotor end winding under the action of centrifugal force. The ends of the windings are connected to flexible leads and there are radial copper studs to connect to the sliprings and thence to the exciter. The contents of the winding slots are retrained by an aluminium wedge (Figs 8.4 and 8.8).

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Fig. 8.8 Rotor slot (from MPSP).

8.2.2 Sliprings, Brushgear and Shaft Earthing

For a 660 MW generator the excitation current is about 5000 A. This must flow through sliprings with a large area (Figs 8.9 and 8.10). Brushes only last about six months but they can be changed while running on-load.

In normal operation there is 10-50 volts between the two shaft ends of a generator, due mainly to magnetic dissymmetry. To stop an axial current from flowing and damaging bearings, an insulation barrier is provided at the exciter end.

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Fig. 8.9 Sliprings and connections (from MPSP).

Fig. 8.10 Slipring brushgear and brushes (from (MPSP).

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It is important that the shaft at the turbine end of the generator is maintained at earth potential, using a pair of shaft-riding brushes connected to earth through a resistor. The voltage at the exciter end is monitored as an indication that insulation is intact (Fig. 8.11).

Fig. 8.11 Shaft earthing and monitoring (from MPSP).

8.3 The Stator

(This section is mainly from Klempner and Kerszenbaum)

The stator core with windings are assembled into a skeletal core frame which is inserted into a strong outer casing.

The stator core provides paths for the magnetic flux from one rotor pole around the outside of the stator winding and back into the other pole. It is made up from tens of thousands of electrical grade steel laminates, each about 0.4 mm thick. This prevents large circulating eddy currents with their associated losses. Each lamination is insulated on both sides with a very thin layer of an organic or inorganic compound. Winding slots, location notches and holes for ventilation are cut in one pressing operation. The laminate segments are fitted onto key bars in a stator frame structure and clamped axially (Fig. 8.12).

The core is cooled with hydrogen which passes axially through ducts cut radially in each laminate.

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The stator outer casing provides support for the stator core, which can be 500 tonnes, and acts as a pressure vessel in case of an explosion of the hydrogen cooling gas. Casings are fabricated steel cylinders of up to 25 mm thickness and reinforced externally (Fig. 8.13).

Fig. 8.12 Core frame (from MPSP).

Fig. 8.13 Outer stator casing (from MPSP).

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8.3.1 Stator Windings

Insulated copper bars are distributed around the inside of the stator core. To reduce eddy current losses, bars are made up of numerous copper strands that, within the core, are insulated from each other and Roebel Transposed so that each strand occupies each position in the stack at least once over the full length of the stator bar. This reduces the effect of circulating currents caused by all strands in a bar being electrically connected at the ends of the core.

Figs 8.14 and 8.15 show stator end-windings which must be strongly braced to resist peak forces and to minimise 100 Hz vibration.

Fig. 8.14 Stator end windings (from MPSP).

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Fig. 8.15 Bracing of end-windings (from Klempner and Kerszenbaum).

Stator cooling is achieved indirectly if the strands within the conductor bars are all solid and the heat generated (I2R) is removed by conduction to the stator core.

In directly gas-cooled bars, hydrogen passes from end to end in cooling ducts.

In direct water-cooled bars, the copper strands are made hollow to carry demineralised water. These cooling designs are shown in Fig. 8.16.

Hydrogen is used (rather than air) because:

its low density minimises fan and rotor windage losses its heat transfer coefficient is 50% more effective than that of air at the same pressure.

Hydrogen is contained between the casing and the rotor shaft with journal type seals which use a flow of seal oil which is supplied at a pressure slightly higher than the hydrogen pressure.

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Fig. 8.16 Stator conductor bar cross sections. (a) Indirectly cooled stator conductor bar; (b) Directly gas-cooled stator conductor bar; (c) directly watercooled stator conductor bar (from Klempner and Kerszenbaum).

8.3.2

Generator Auxiliary Systems

There are five main auxiliary systems: Lubricating oil system Hydrogen cooling system Seal oil system Stator cooling water system Excitation system

8.3.3 Exciter Systems

The exciter system provides the DC current to the generator rotor windings. The system is designed to control the applied voltage, and thus the field current to the rotor, which in turn gives control of the generator output. DC currents can be as high as 8000 amps. There are three types of excitation system;

Rotating Static

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Rotating

Brushless

The exciter is connected to the free end of the generator shaft. The AC output of an alternator (stationary armature and rotating field) is rectified by stationary diodes located off the generator and fed to the main rotor sliprings as DC current. Static An external source of power is used to supply AC power to an excitation transformer whose output goes to a rectifier bridge for conversion to DC. Brushless A high frequency (multi-pole) AC generator is attached to the generator shaft. The diode rectifying components rotate on the shaft.

8.4 Generator Vibration Issues

(This section is largely from MPSP and Kempner and kerszenbaum.)

8.4.1 The Rotor

Rotor mechanical unbalance is caused by:

loss of a balance weight oil whirl in a journal bearing bearing loading coupling alignment misaligned hydrogen seal or oil wiper rubs foundation resonance a general rotor structural problem cracked forging shorted turns thermal effects (e.g. rotor shorted turns, blocked ventilation duct).

The level of severity is usually determined by the magnitude of the vibration present, and may require an outage to correct the source of vibration, or to apply balance weights. Mechanical vibration problems are usually independent of load. Thermal unbalance usually worsens with load.

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Bearing and shaft vibration on both ends of the generator may be monitored in terms of magnitude, phase and frequency at variable load conditions. Accelerometers and proximity probes are used in two sets, set 90 degrees apart. Sophisticated vibration analysers are available. Each manufacturer gives its own recommendation for alarm and trip. A typical maximum allowable amplitude is 1 mm at 3000 rpm.

Generator rotors are relatively flexible and pass through two main critical speeds during runup to rated speed of 3000 rpm. Two-plane balancing is inadequate. Facilities for balancing are provided along the length of the rotor in the form of tapered holes in the cylindrical surface. Imperfect equalisation of the stiffness of the rotor in two orthogonal directions (associated with the creation of poles) will cause 100 Hz vibration to occur, superimposed on the normal 50Hz. It is important to distinguish between these two components. A significant crack in the rotor will have a comparatively greater effect on the double frequency vibration component; run-down traces are recorded and analysed to provide assurance that no significant change has occurred since the previous run-down.

Oil whirl in bearings can cause vibration at 25 Hz.

The torsional resonance of the generator rotor coupled to the turbine rotors is at about 13 Hz. It is important that this is significantly different from the frequency of torsional exciting influences such as the steam governor control (1-2 Hz).

Transient oscillations in torque occur during electrical disturbances (switching operations, lightning strikes, imperfect synchronising events). Some of the torque cycles may be large enough to cause plastic deformation of the turbine-end shaft and the generator/excitor coupling (if there is one).

8.4.2 Stator End-Winding Vibration

Vibration of the stator end-windings must be minimised. It can cause fatigue cracking in the winding copper. This is a serious problem if cooling hydrogen can leak into the cooling water circuit. Resonances close to 100 Hz must be avoided, since both the core ovalising and the winding exciting force occur at this frequency. Accelerometers in the end-winding structure allow any increase in vibration due to support slackening to be monitored. 8-14

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Looseness can be corrected by tightening bolts or by inserting tightening wedges.

If

permanent mounting of accelerometers is not possible, a bump test, or impact frequency spectrum analysis is done with temporary vibration transducers and a calibrated impact hammer. Vibration amplitude is highly dependent on current.

The general aim is to keep the maximum amplitude of vibration of stator end-windings to less than 50 m peak-to-peak, with no natural frequencies within the ranges 40-65 Hz and 80-120 Hz.

8.4.3 Stator Core and Frame

The plus/minus magnetic field revolves. This alternating effect causes vibration of the core at the rotational frequency and with harmonics, due to the nature of the flux patterns. In a two-pole generator, the driving frequency is 50 Hz and there is a 100 Hz (twice per revolution) component due to the four-node pattern of the flux. This can be seen in Fig. 8.17 where there are two areas of high flux density and two of minimum density at any given point in time, as the flux patterns rotate at the rated speed. This causes the core to be distorted minutely by the electromagnetic pull into an oval shape, in and out, in the radial direction. The result is vibration of the core and subsequently the frame.

Fig. 8.17 Rotor flux pattern (from Kempner and Kerszenbaum).

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Because of the inherent vibration and the large forces involved, the core must be held solidly together such that there are no natural frequencies near the once and twice per revolution forcing frequencies. Designers take care to ensure that the natural frequencies of the core are not near 50 or 100 Hz. It is desirable to keep the natural frequencies at least 20% away from the once and twice per revolution frequencies. Damped spring mounting of the whole generator on its foundation might be needed, or spring mounting of the core in the casing.

In addition to the vibration due to the alternating flux, there is a large rotational torque created by the electromagnetic coupling of the rotor and stator, across the airgap. This is in the direction of rotor rotation. The torque due to the magnetic field in the stator iron is transmitted to the core frame via the keybar structure at the core back. Therefore the stator frame and foundation must be capable of withstanding this torque and large changes in torque when there are transient upsets in the system or the machine.

Vibration in the stator core is naturally produced by the unbalanced magnetic pull in the airgap, origination from the unequal magnetic field distribution of the rotor. The core must be maintained tight or fretting will occur between the laminates. If the core becomes too loose, the laminates and/or the space blocks might even fatigue, with loose core material breaking off. Monitoring of core vibrations can be done with accelerometers mounted on the core back in strategic locations.

Frame vibration is also excited by unbalanced magnetic pull and by any vibration produced in the core. There are known results of vibration resonance occurring on the frame as a result of the frame having a resonant frequency near line or twice line frequency. Severe damage to the frame can occur by the initiation of cracks in the frame welds. Good core-to-frame coupling is required to ensure that the core and the frame move together. Such vibrations have been corrected by spring mounting of the core to the frame or installing a damping arrangement to de-tune the vibration modes. Monitoring of frame vibration can be done with accelerometers mounted on the keybars, frame ribs or casing structure.

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