2013-03-20 16:12:57 UTC

5149dabd5f250 189.29.96.84 Brazil

AN

INTRODUCTION
GENERALIZED MECHANICS

TO

THE

USE

OF IN

COORDINATES
AND

PHYSICS

BY

WILLIAM
PERKINS

ELWOOD
OF
HARVARD MATHEMATICS UNIVERSITY

BYERLY
EMERITUS

PROFESSOR
IX

GINN
BOSTON
ATLANTA
"

AND
NEW

COMPANY
"

"

YORK
"

CHICAGO
"

"

LONDON
FRANCISCO

DALLAS

COLUMBUS

SAN

COPYRIGHT,

1916,

BY

WILLIAM

ELWOOD

BYERLY

ALL

RIGHTS

RESERVED

116.6

GINN

AND

COMPANY

"

PROPRIETORS

PREFACE

This
colleague

book

was

undertaken

at

the

suggestion
Peirce,

of
with
me

my the

lamented
promise able invalu-

Professor

Benjamin
His the

Osgood

and

of his collaboration.
assistance

untimely

death
chapter
to

deprived
of

of his work
was

while
I have

second

the

still

unfinished,
the
aid
of

and his

been

obliged and

complete

my

task

without

remarkably

wide

accurate

knowledge

matical of Mathe-

Physics.
The
are

books

to

which

am
^^

most

indebted
on

in preparing

this

treatise

Thomson

and

Tait's

Treatise

Natural

Philosophy,"

Watson
"Electricity
a

and

Burbury's and

"Generalized
Magnetism,"
"

Coordinates,"
E.

Clerk
"Dynamics

Maxwell's
of
"

J.

Eouth's and

Rigid

Body,"

A. G. Webster's

Dynamics,"

E. B. Wilson's

Advanced

Calculus."
For

their
to

kindness
my

in reading
Professor

and

criticizing

my

manuscript Webster,

am

indebted
Percy

friends and

Arthur
Harvey

Gordon
Newton

Professor

Bridgman,

Professor

Davis.
W.
E.

BYERLY

CONTEXTS
CHAPTER I

Introduction
Art.
Art.
1. 2.

1-37
Coordinates
Dynamics
motion
a

of

Point.

Number

of degrees
Motion.

of freedom.

"

of
in

Particle.

Free

Differential
Definition

equations

of

rectangular Differential obtained

coordinates. equations the

of

^ective
tem sys-

forces
of

on

particle.

of

motion

in any any done

coordinates

from

fact

that
the

in

assumed
by
the

infinitesimal
effective
"

displacement is equal
to

of
the

the

particle done
Art.

work

forces

work
"

by

the

impressed

forces. Particle.

Art.

3. Illustrative
Motion. Examples.
a
"

examples.
Art.

4. Dynamics example

of a

Constrained
motion. in

"

6.

Illustrative
The The

in constrained ticle (6).Parthe

rectangular

Art.

6(a).
tube. the

tractrix

problem.

rotating
coordinates

horizontal
and

relation

between may

generalized
"

coordinates

contain

the

time

explicitly. forces of
on

Examples. the system. system.

Art.

7. A

System

of
of
the

Particles.
system. The

Effective

Kinetic of of

energy
degrees
"

Coordinates geometrical

the

Number

of freedom.
Art.
"

equations.

Equations Examples. Motion.

motion.

8.

A
9.

tem Sys-

of Particles.
Bodies.

Illustrative

Examples.
Formulas

Art.

Rigid
good. Threei)lane.

Two-dimensional Examples.
Motion,

of
10.
a

Art.

7 hold Bodies.

Illustrative
dimensional

Example.

"

Art.
on

Rigid

(a). Sphere
Example,
11.

rolling

rough

horizontal

(6). The
equations.
choice

billiard
"

ball.

(c).The
of
the

gyroscope, importance
"

(d). Euler's
of
12.

Art.

Discussion Illustrative coordinates.

skillful
Nomenclature.

of

coordinates.

examples.

Art.

Generalized
momenta.

Generalized
expression

velocities. the kinetic

"

eralized Gen-

Lagrangian of
I. motion.

for

energy.
Art.

Lagrangian
Summary

equations

Generalized

force.

13.

of

Chapter

CHAPTER

II

The

Hamiltonian

Equations.

Eouth's
of

Modified

grangian La.

Expression.
Art. 14.

Ignoration
Expression
of
motion

Coordinates
Energy
the

38-61

JlamiUonian
equations
"

for

the

Kinetic

defined.

Hamiltonian Equations.

deduced examples

from of the of

Lagrangian
of solved

Art.

15.

Illustrative
"

employment problems

Hamiltonian
in Article

equations.

Art.

16.

Discussion

15.

Ignoring

coordinates.

Cyclic

coordinates.

Ignorable

vi
coordinates.
Expression
to
"

CONTENTS
Art.
17.

Rouih^s
Energy

Modeled
of
for
rest.
"

Form
momng of the

of the Lagrangian
system

for the
Hamiltonian

Kinetic

enables

us

write

equations

some

coordinates
the
can

and

Lagrangian

equations modified
equations

for

the

Art.

18.

From
we

gian Lagran-

expression

for
even
"

all the
when

coordinates geometrical

get valid
contain
use

Hamiltonian
the time

the

equations example

explicitly.
equations
the time. of

Art.

19. problem
"

Illustrative where Art. 20.

the

of the

of Hamiltonian
contain

in

geometrical

tions equa-

Examples.
the

Illustrative Examples. 20.

"

examples
Art.
21.

of

the

employment of the
"

modified
solved

form.
in Article example
the

Discussion

problems
22.

Ignoration

coof ordinates.

Art.

Illustrative
A
case

of ignoring contribution

coordinates.

Example. coordinates 24.

to

"

Art.
to

23.

where

of

ignored
"

the
case

kinetic where

energy
the
zero.

is ignorable.

Example.

Art.

Important
the

contribution
Example

of ignorable of complete
"

coordinates

kinetic
in

energy
a

is

ignoring 25. Summary

of

coordinates

problem

in hydromechanics.

Art.

of Chapter

II,

CHAPTER

III

Impulsive
Art.
or

Forces
26.
a

62-80
Moments.
"

Virtual

Definition
27.

of virtual

moment

of for
a

force

of

set

of forces.

Art.

Equations

of motion

particle impulsive

under

impulsive

forces

(rectangular coordinates). Effective

of effective forces is equal
to

forces.
moment

Virtual

moment

virtual
forces.
use

of actual of

forces.
"

Lagrangian
Art.

equation

for impulsive
Examples
"

Definition Lagrangian

impulse.

28.

Illustrative
are
:

of
Arts.

of

equations Theorems
on

where

forces

impulsive.
Art.

29-31.

Oeneral
Work Art.

impulsive

forces

29, General

Theorems,

done 31,
"

by

impulsive

forces.

Art.

30,

ThomsorCs of of

Theorem, Least straint. Con-

Bertrand^s
Art.
"

Theorem. Illustrative
In using

Gauss's
examples Thomson's any

Principle
in
use

32.

Thomson's
the

Theorem.
energy

Art.
be

33.

Theorem
way.
to

kinetic
"

may

expressed

in

convenient be made
the

Example. problems
not

Art.
motion

34.

Thomson's

Theorem forces
Arts.

may
when

solve

in
start

under
rest.

impulsive
"

system

does in

from
"

Example.
Summary

36-36. III,

Problem

Fluid

Motion,

Art.

37.

of Chapter

CHAPTER

IV

Conservative
Art.
The

Forces
Definition
done

81-97
of

38.
work

force

function forces

and
as

of
a

conservative
passes

forces. from
one

by

conservative is the

system

configuration

to another

difference

in the

values

of the

force

CONTENTS
function
paths
by
to

vii
and is independent from
the

in

the

two

configorationB
particles
have

of

tCe
89.

which
the

the

moved

first configuration
"

second. and

Definition
the

of

potential

energy.
"

Art.

The

Lagrangian of
the

HamUtonian and

Functions, Hamiltonian function Total energy

41.
at

Canonical
of 40.

forms
motion. Forms

Lagrangian modified
H, and
*

of

the

equations
*.
"

The
of

Lagrangian
compared.

Art.
of i,
When
can a

i,

system

moving

under
the

conservative

forces.

"

Art.

When
once.

H,

or

is given,
given,
the

equations
energy

of

motion and
When the

follow potential JS"

or

is

kinetic by

energy

be

tinguished dis-

inspection.

"" is given,

the

potential

energy have

can

be

distinguished
in which

by
case

inspection
it may

unless be

coordinates
to

been
the

ignored,
terms

impossible

arate sep-

representing kinetic
energy.
a

i)otential

energy

from
"

the

terms

contributed

by

Illustrative of the

example.

Art.

42.

Conservation

of Energy
"

corollary

Hamiltonian deduced

canonical from
the

equations.
Lagrangian deduced

Art.

43.
"

Hamilton's
Art. 44.

Principle The

equations.
from
the

Principle
"

o/Lea^st
46.
"

Action

Lagrangian

equations.

Art.

Brief
Art.

cussion dis46.

of the
Another obtained

principles of

established
action.
"

in Articles
Art. 47.

43-44.

definition in the

Equations

of

motion

projectile problem
directly from of
"

(a) directly
principle
of

from
least

Hamilton's

principle,
Art.

(b)

the

action.
a

"

48.

Application problems. function

principle
Art.

of

least

action Action,

to

couple

of

important

49.

Varying
function.

Hamilton's

characteristic

and

principal

CHAPTER

Application
Arts.

to

Physics
Concealed
Bodies, Illustrative
are as

98-108
example.
to
"

60-61.
in

Art. the

62. trical elec-

Problems
or

Physics,
state
"

Coordinates
as

needed

fix

magnetic
system.

well

the

geometrical
in electrical

configuration

of

the

Art.

63.

Problem

induction.^

"

Art.

64.

Induced

Currents,

APPENDIX

A.
B.

Syllabus.
The

Dynamics
of

of

Rigid

Body

109-113
114-118

APPENDIX

Calculus

Variations

GENERALIZED

COORDINATES

CHAPTER
INTKODUCTION

1.

Coordinates

of
at

Point.

The

position

of

moving

particle

naay
a;,

be
z

given

any
to
a

time
set

by

giving

its rectangular
axes

coordinates
in space.

y,

referred
given

of rectangular

fixed
values values

It

may

be

equally of
x^

well

by

giving
2,

the

of any
in

three

specified

functions

y, and

if from
z

the

question

the corresponding

values
may y, and

of

x^

y^ and
as

may

be obtained
of the

uniquely.
point,

These
the
serve

functions of
x^

be
z

used

coordinates

and

values
as

expressed

explicitly
from examples

in terms

of them
tem sys-

formulas the
a new

for

transformation Familiar
cylindrical

the

rectangular
are

to

system.

nates 'polar coordi-

in space,

plane,

and

and

%pherical
of

coordinates

in

the

formulas

for

transformation

coordinates

being

respectively
x
x
= =

r r
2,

cos

r
r

cos

sin

"^, V 0,

(1)

y
2

sin

0, ] 0, i- (2)

r
r

cos

^,
cos

y
2

sin Q

0, 0.

(3)

J
of possible
that
are

sin Q sin

It is clear
is unlimited.
its motion,

that

the

number
clear

systems

of coordinates
in

It is also
three
to

if the

point
to

is unrestricted

coordinates
in
a

required
since

determine
plane
two

it. If it

is restricted
as

moving

plane,

that

may

be

taken
are

one

of the

rectangular

coordinate

planes,

coordinates

required.
The
position

number
of the
a

of

independent moving

coordinates under
any

required

to

fix the
is
is

particle

given
the

conditions particle,
and

called

number

of

degrees

of freedom
1

of

INTRODUCTION

[Art.
conditions
required
to

equal
the

to

the

number

of independent

fix

point.

Obviously
the position
it impossible any

these without
to

coordinates

must

be
not

numerous so numerous

enough
as

to

fix

ambiguity
any
without

and
one

to

render

change

at

pleasure the

without

changing
of the

of the

others

and

violating

restrictions

problem.
2.
Dynamics

of

Particle.

Free
a

Motion.
under
to

The
any

differential
forces
when

equations
we
use

for

the

motion

of

particle
are

rectangular

coordinates
mx
"

known

be
"

X,
F, Z.

]
-

mi/ niz
X,
F,

(1)*

"

and

Z^ the

components
to

of the actual
rectangular
the

forces
axes,

on
or

the particle rather

resolved
equivalents

parallel
mx^

the
mz^

fixed
are a

their

my^

called
set
on

forces on effective
mechanically

the particle.

They
to the

are

of

course

of forces

equivalent

actual

forces

acting

the

particle. particle

The system

equations

of motion
are

of the
easily

in terms

of any

other

of coordinates g'j,q^y jg, be the

obtained.
in question.

Let

coordinates

The
x^

appropriate
y, and
z

formulas
terms

for transformation q^.

of coordinates

express

in

of q^^ q^, and

For

the

component

velocity
dx
,

we

have
dx
, ,

dx
^

dq^

^'

dq^ functions

dq^

and

x^

y, and

are

explicit

of

j^, j^, j^, q^^

^g, and

j^,

linear

and
time

homogeneous

in terms

of j^, q^^ and

the

q^.
so

For

derivatives
x

we

shall
"

use

Newtonian

fluxion

notation,

that

we

shall

write

for

"

-,

for

-"

at

dt^

Chap.

I]
may
and

FEEE

MOTION

OF

PAETICLE

3 ffU5t that

We a?,

note

in

passing homogeneous
p"-

that

it follows quadratic
p

from

this

y^

are

functions

of

q^^ q^^

and

q^.

Obviously

"-;

(2)
d^x
.

d
J
.

dx
=

S^x
,
" -

d^x
a,

and

smce

o^

(7.,

dx
A
,

d^x
.

d^x
.

___d^x

^^
=

^.
dq^

dtdq^

(3) ^ ^
work iqW done

Let

us

find forces
amount

now

an

expression

for the

by

the

effective

when

the

coordinate changing

q^ is changed q^
in
a:,

by
If
z,

an

tesimal infini-

iq^ without thus iqW

=

or

q^.

8a:, 8y, obviously

and

hz

are

the

changes

produced
m

y,

and

+ [^xSx

ySy

zSz]
We
need,

if expressed
express

in rectangular
terms

coordinates. coordinates

however, q^.

to

BgWin

of

our

q^, q^, and

-T

JN

ow

dx\ ..dxd/. [x ) dq dt\ dql

"

d
.
"

dx
;

"

"

dtdq

but

by

(2)

and

(3)
dx _dx a j, dq^
"

dx _dx dq^
~

dt dq^

d
"

Hence

..dx_d(.dx\ _d x-^-^x-J-x----[^^J--\^-j;
8,.^=

.dx

(3?\

/3?\

and

therefore

[| g 1|]
-

"?.'

(4)

"where
is the

r=^[i"+
kinetie energy of the

2*]

and

particle.

4 To

INTRODUCTION

[Art.
we

get

our

differential
of

equation
to

have

only done

to

write

the

second forces If
we

member
when

(4)

equal

the

work

by

the

actual

q^ is changed

by

Bq^.

represent

the work

in question

by

our Qj^q^,

equation

is

dt dq^

1^
cq^

Q.
for every

(5)
coordinate. will
contain
cannot

and
It

of

course

we

get

such that

an

equation

must

be
their

noted
time

usually
as

equation well
as

(5)
q^^ and

q^

and

q^ and

derivatives
the

therefore

be solved
In

without

aid of the
T must

other

equations

of the

set.

any

concrete

problem,
time

be

expressed
we

in terms

of q^^ sion expres-

q^y q^y and

their

derivatives done

before

can

form

the

for

the

work

by by
the

the

effective

forces.
must

Q^Bq^t
be

Q^%^

the QjSq^y from

3.

work

done

actual

forces,

obtained

direct

examination
an

of
let

the
us

problem. get
the
equations

(a)

As

example in
x=r

in polar

coordinates

for motion
Here

plane.
cos

"^,
=

!/
=

sin

(f).

x'-{-f
and
T
=

v^

r^-\-r'4"%

+ ^[r'
dT
r
=

t^c^^].

mr,

dr

dT
=

dr

mr^^. r"^^]
hr
=

i^W
if R
is the

m[r

"

Rhr
the

impressed

force

resolved
=

along

radius

vector.

"

7wr^9,

d4"
=

0.

(to

Chap.

I]

ILLUSTRATIVE

EXAMPLES

if 4" is the
vector.

impressed

force

resolved

perpendicular

to

the

radius

In

more

f amihar

form

dt\

dt)
where
=

(J)

In

cylindrical
x
=

coordinates
cos

"^,

sin

"^,

"

",

ai

h^W

771

[r

"

r"^^]

8r

Rir^

8JV

m'zSz

ZSz ;

or

'
"

dt\

dt)
dh
_

6 In
x
=

INTRODUCTION

[Akt. 4

(c}

spherical
r

coordinates
i/
=

where
cos

cos

0j

rsm0

"^,

2;

sin ^ sin

"^9

+ 5[r^ 7^^H-7^sin^^"^^], ar

^
"
-

Tnr

[^

sin"

^"^n,

mr^r,

-"

-.

mr^

sin ^

cos

0"i"\

00

"

;-

mr^

sin^ 6d".

S^W

mlr-r

+ (p"

sin*

hr ^"^')]

ESr,

SeW=

m\j

(fd^

r"

sin ^

cos

O^AB0

erB0,

S^W=

m^(f

sin'

0^^ h"f"
=

a)r sin

0h4";

'

f[l(''f)-'"-'-Kf)"".
m

rsin 4. Dynamics of
to
a

Particle,
on

Constrained
some

Motion,
surface,

If the particle
any
two
a;,

is constrained

move

given

pendent indey,
z,

specified
may

functions

of its rectangular
q^ and in

coordinates
that

be taken of

as

its coordinates

q^^ provided

by

the

equation
the

the

given

surface
by

rectangular
q^ and q^ equal

coordinates
to

and

equations

formed

writing

their values

Chap.

I]

CONSTRAmED

MOTION

OF

PARTICLE

7
be

in

terms

of

a?,

y,

and
as

the

last-named functions

coordinates q^.

may For

uniquely

obtained
the

explicit

of q^ and

when

this is done,

reasoning

of Art.
to
z

2 will hold
move

good.
a

If the

particle

is constrained

in

given
as

path,

any

specified

function
that

of by

x^

y, and
two

may

be

taken

its coordinate of its path

its value

g'j, provided

the

rectangular

equations
to

and
terms

the

equation
x^

formed
z

by

writing

q^ equal

in

of

y, and

the

last-named of q^

coordinates
For when

may

be uniquely
the

obtained

as

explicit

functions hold
let
a

this is done,

reasoning
5.
move

of Art. For
a

2 will

good.
particle circle

(a)
on

example,

of of

mass

w,
a,

constrained

to
an

smooth

horizontal
let it be

radius by the

be

given
a

initial velocity
proportional
to

F", and

resisted

air with

force

the
one

square

of its velocity. of
freedom. the particle
t.

Here

we

have
q^ the

degree

Let
has

us

take

as

our

coordinate
the
center

angle

6 which
in the

described

about

of its path

time

and

we

have

"^^mc^d.
is
=
-

Our

dijBferential equation

mame
"

ha'd^W,
Jin
=

1c
"

which

reduces

to

-\

aff^
m

0,

or

at

Separating

the

variables,

"

-^-\

adt

0,

Integrating,

"

~-:H

cit=
m

INTRODUCTION

[Art.

tea

and

the

problem

of the
we we

motion
are

is completely

solved.
pressure

(J)
have
the

If, however,
curve,

interested proceed

in i?, the somewhat

of

the We

constraining
only
center
we

must

differently.
directed

to replace

the

constraint

by
now

force B
two
r

toward

of the take

path.

There the

are

degrees
as our

of freedom, coordinates

and and

shall
two

Q and

radius

vector

form

differential

equations

of motion.

(1)
m

(r

rd^)

Sr

Rhr.

(2)

To

these

we

may

add
r
=

a.

Whence

d*

"

-h
m

^
B

0,

as

before,

(3)
^
'^

and

ma^.

(4)

Chap.

I]

CONSTRAINED

MOTION

OF

PARTICLE

Let ("?)

us

now

suppose friction

that

the

constraining

circle is rough.

Here,

since

the

is /a

(the
B

coefficient of be needed,

friction) plied multiand

we

by
replace

the the

normal constraint
now

pressure, by
^
as

will

must

before.

We

have

at

Replacing

"

in Art.
m

5,

(a), (1),

by

"

H- /i,
m

we

have

(^ .)0]. ",_^,c"[l
+ +
m

(1)

EXAHPLES

1.
1

Obtain
J
1

the

familiar

equation

"

at

^-|--sin^ a

for

the

sunple
2.

pendulum.

Find

the

tension

of the

string in the
An%.

simple

pendulum.
.

B=^m\gQ.Q%Q-\-a\"\
spherical

3.

Obtain

the

equations

of the 6 and

pendulum

in terms

of the

spherical
An%.

coordinates 0 -Bine

"^.
0
=

cos0"}"^-^^8m a
may
not

0.

sin^^"^=a
as
a

6.

(a)
a

The

constraint

be
to

so

simple
on

that

imposed
surface

by
or

compelling
on

the
curve.

moving

particle

remain

given

given

10

INTRODUCTION

[Art.
problem, when
the

Take,
moves
on

for
a

example,
smooth

the

tractrix

particle

horizontal
mass
m,

plane.
to
a

Let
on

particle

of

attached
The

string

of length

a, on

rest

smooth
at

horizontal
start,

platie.
then the

string
not
a

lies straight
to

the

plane

the

and

end
along

attached straight

the particle

is drawn
to

with

uniform

velocity of

line perpendicular

the

initial position
as
our

the

string
2%,

and

lying

in the

plane.

Let
that and

us

take of

coordinates

the

distance
to

traveled
the

by

end

the

string made

which

is not

attached with and

n

particle,

6^ the
B

angle the

by of

the
the

string

its initial position.

the

Let which

be the

tension

string
is drawn

velocity
X, F,

with be
the

end

of the

string of

along.

Let

rectangular
line and string
as

coordinates
the

the

particle, of the

referred

to

the

fixed

to

initial position

axes.

X=x

"

sin ^,

cos

6 ;

X=

"

cos

dd^

r=-asin^^.

r=^(X^-hr^)=^[2:"H-a^^-2acos^i^].
dT
r
=

ex

m[^x

"

cos

^^],

dT
--.

[a^^

"

cos

ffx]j

ma

smin

6xd,
sin Ohx.

dd
d^.
m
"

\x

"

cos

^^] Sa:

-R

Chap.

I]

CONSTRAINED

MOTION

OF

PARTICLE

11

Adding
and

the

condition
"

nt^

reducing,

ma

[cos06

"

sin
=

6^'\

sin ft

ma^'e

0.

maff^.
(7
=
-.

Integrating,

The
the

particle

revolves

with

uniform pull
on

angular
the

velocity

about

moving

center,

and

the
rest

string

is constant.

(J)
tube

particle made

is at
to
o).

in in

a a

smooth

horizontal plane

tube.
with

The

is then

revolve

horizontal of the
r,

uniform

angular

velocity

Find
the
let

the
polar
R

motion

particle.

Suggestion.
our

Take

coordinates
the

of "^,
of

the

particle particle

as
on

coordinates,

and

be

pressure

the

the

tube.

dT
-^
or
=

rnr,

^^
"

rmr"p.
Br

^JL

[r
m
""

"

"

r(f"^'\
=

0.

8"^ ErS"f", (r^"^)

"^
r
"

fA/tr

Adding and

the

condition

"^
0,
Er.

reducing,

"V

mcorr

12
Solving,

INTRODUCTION

[Art.
sinh "^
0 at the
a

-4
r
=

cosh and
cosh

(Dt'\-B f
a)t
=
=

start.

Hence
E
=

cosh
wa"^

(f",
sinh and
more

mcuD^

sinh "^
in the
can

"^.
not

If

we

are

interested

only

motions

in the

reactions,

problems
each
we
were

(a)
to
use

and
one

(J)

be

solved

simply.
in

If and

in
r

less coordinate, coordinates

JT, F,

only

(a)

only

in

(J), rectangular
whenever explicitly

for the
and
r

particle

could

be

obtained expressed

the
in

time
terms

was

given,

therefore
t,

could
careful

be

of
that the

or

and

examination

of Art.
such
g^
a case,

2 will and

show that

the

reasoning done

is extended

easily

to

work
"

by

the

effective

forces
to

when

only

is changed that
as

is still

t-,

"

-r"

^Q."

It i IS

be

noted,

however,
as

when

the

rectangular

coordinates
T

are

functions
a

of ^

well

of q^, q^, etc., the

in q^, q^j etc.
jr=w^
"

energy

is

no

longer

homogeneous

quadratic

(a')

asin^,

F=acos^;

r=-asin^A

"-.=^m

\a^d

"

an

cos

6\

dd
"a.

-"

rtian

sm

dd
m
"

-j("^^

"^

cos

^)

"

an

sin

^^

S^

0,

as

before.

Chap.

I]

CONSTRAINED

MOTION

OF

PARTICLE

18

(6')

+ |[r^ a,V].

dT
Cr

dT
2
" "

nmr,

dr
w

[r
r
=

"

6)V]
a

Sr

0.
as

cosh o)^,

before.

EXAMPLES

1.

particle

rests
a

on

smooth
a

horizontal
to
a

whirling

table
in the

and
table

is attached
at
a

by

string

of length
center.
same

point

fixed
the

distance
center
are

b from

the

The

particle,

point,

and
is

the then

initially in the
rotate

straight

line.

The
""

table
Find

made

to

with

uniform

angular

velocity

the

motion

of the

particle.

Suggestion,
by
the

Take
with

as

the

single

coordinate point.

the

angle
Y, -ST,

made

string

the

radius
of the

of the
particle,

Let
to

be

the

rectangular

coordinates
with
the
as

referred
a

the

tiall line inithereto

joining it
through Then and
the

center

and

to

perpendicular

center

axes.

X=h
F=

cos

a)t'\-a

cos

(^
(^

-|-(of)^ -}-(of).

J sin "^ a -}- sin

+

r=5[JV
and

a2(a)+ ^y-h2a6Q)COS^(a)-|-^)],
0 H
a

sin ^

0 ;

and the
2.

the relative

motion

on

the

table

is simple

pendulum
I
=
"

motion,

length A

of the

equivalent

pendulum

being
fixed
to

7-^
point the
in
a

particle

is attracted

toward

horizontal
It is
rotate

whirling

table

with

force
center.

proportional

distance.
made
to

initially at rest

at the

The

table

is then

14
angular
particle.

INTRODUCTION

[Art.
Find
the

with
table

uniform

velocity

od.

path

traced

on

the

by

the

Suggeatioru
referred
to

Take
the
to

as

coordinates

a;,

y, rectangular

coordinates
as

moving
the
center

radius

of

the

fixed
as

point

axis
X, F,

of be

abscissas
the
with

and

of the

table
to

origin.

Let

rectangular
the
X=

coordinates of

referred
the

fixed
axes.

axes

coinciding

initial positions
X

moving
F=
x

cos

(ot

"

y sin "ot^

sin "^

-f y

cos

w^.

Whence

come

tw

[^

"

o)^
cax

"

w^a;] co^y^
and
= =

"

/i (a;
"

a),

m\_y '\If
"^
=
"

"

"

fiy.

"

the

solution
x

is easy
"

interesting.

2a)y

aG)%

(1)

y-{-2a)x=0.

(2)
=

Integrating

(2),
in

y -\-2
a;

(ox

0,

Substituting
Multiplying

(1),
by
2

4 -j-

oy^x

aG)\

(3)

(3)

a?,

and

integrating,
=

d^-\-4: " V

aoy^x.

Whence

Replacing

2 "^

by ^,

a;

[1

"

cos

^],

Chap.

I]
the

MOTIOl^

OF

SYSTEM

OF

PARTICLES

16

and

curve

traced
j

on

the

table

is the

cycloid
the

generated
axis

by

circle of radius

rolling

backward

along

moving

of Y.

7. A

System

of Particles.

If instead free,
or

of

single
or on

particle

we

have

system

of particles,
mZy

connected
forces
are

otherwise
the

constrain

Twai, my^

are on

the

effective

particle

P.

The

effective forces

forces
on

all the

particles and
are

spoken

of

as

the

effective
to

the

system
on

mechanically

equivalent

the
T,

set

of actual

forces

the

system.
is the
sum

the

kinetic energy of all the

of the

system,

of the

kinetic

energies

particles.

T=^^[f
If hW
is the work

i?^.
supposed

done

by the effective forces in any

of the system,
2w

infinitesimal

displacement

hW= If the
or

\xix -I-yhy
system
connections

-\-zhz\.
are or

particles

of

moving
these

subjected to
constraints
case
a

connections

constraints,

may

or n

may

not

vary

with

the

time. q^^ q^,

"

In
"

the

latter

set

of any
they

independent
the
connections

variables and

",

q^j such

that the

when position and

and

constraints

are

given,

of every
such
are

particle
when
9v the

of

the

system

is uniquely

determined,

that
given,
of

the ?2"
"
"

positions
"'

of all the

particles
may

of the taken

system
as

?"' follow
;

uniquely,
is called

be
number

coordinates

system

and

the

of

degrees

of freedom
that

of the
In

system. the they former and

case a

set
are

of variables
given,
the

g^^,j^,

"

"

",

g,, such

when of the

the

time

position

of every that the

as

particle
when
time

system

is uniquely

determined, of
the

and
system may the

such and

the
are

positions

of

all the
. .

particles

given,

q^^ y^,

.,

j^, follow
;

uniquely,
n

be taken
number

the

coordinates

of the

system system.

and

is called

of degrees

of

freedom

of the

16

INTRODUCTION

[Art.
connections

The
terms

equations

expressing

the

and

constraints

in

of the

rectangular y^, q^,

" "

coordinates
j^, of

of the particles
system
are or

and

of the
the

coordinates

",

the

often
may

called
not

geometrical
the time

eqiuitiona of the
In
to

system
latter the
as

and
case

may
the

contain

explicitly.

the

geometrical
x,

equations
2,

make point

it possible

express

coordinates

y, the

of

every

of

the

system
as

explicitly

functions the
not

of

g-'s; in the

former
The the
time
or

case,

functions

of t and
must

j's.
contain

geometrical derivatives
those they
can

equations of the

explicitly

either cles parti-

rectangular

coordinates
" "

of the
the

of

the

coordinates

q^, q^,

",

q^, of

system

unless

be

freed

from

these

derivatives
not

by

integration.
the time in

Examples

of
are

geometrical

equations

containing

explicitly

the

formulas
the

for transformation for X

the

of coordinates
Y

Arts.

1 and

3, and

equations

and
time

in Art.
are

6,

(a).

Geometrical
for X
The

equations in Art.

containing

the

equations 2.

and

6,

(a'),and
by

in Art.

6, Exs.

1 and when

work, by

S^ PT,

done

the

effective
the other

forces

q^
to

is

changed

Bq^ without

changing

g-'s is proved

be

by

reasoning
we

similar
take time.
x

to

that
case

used
where

in Art.

2.

For

the

sake

of

variety involve Here

the

the

geometrical

equations

the

=f\t,
dx
.

q^, q^,
dx
,

.,

gj.
dx
,

dx dt

dq^^^

ag/2
of ^, q^, q^,
dx
^

dq^^

and

is

an

explicit

function

"

",

q^, q^, q^,

"

"

.,

q^.

dx

(1)
d^x d^x '"r"F~?"'
^

d
1:

dx
^
=

d^x
,

d\

and

smce

r;7-H-7-i?i

^-r"92

""

Chap.

I]

MOTION
dx

OF

SYSTEM

OF

PARTICLES
8'x

17

^x
,

d^x
.

^x
.

and

"

,
"

"

"

f""

"

["\

"

r2'J ^^

dt\dqj dq;

HJ
'^

dt\dqj dt\ dqj

dq-

dq^^"-^

^^

dt[dq\2)\ dqX^y

and

therefore

h,W=

[|(g) 1|]
-

89,,

and

if

Q^q^
by

is the

work
d

done
dT

by
dT

the

actual

forces

when

q^ is

changed

hq^,

If the
result since
x

geometrical
seen

equations

do

not

contain

the

time,

the

same

is

to

hold,

and

in

this

case

it is. to
in the

be
time

noted

that

is homogeneous

of the first degree

that is, in

derivatives

of the is
a

coordinates,

^^,q^^
in
n

"

.,

5-,,the
"

kinetic

energy

homogeneous
every
will

quadratic
one

q^^ q^,

"

.,

q^. of which
equation
"
"

Generally
is the

of the

equations
n

(3)
the

type time

contain

all the

coordinates

5'^,q^^ only

",

q^, and

their others.

derivatives,
is,
we

and

can
n

be

solved

by
the
one

aid

of

That

shall

have

coordinates
equations

and
no

time

connected

by
can

simultaneous

differential

of which

ordinarily If the forces they

we

be

solved

by
by

itself. the
connections

exerted
will
to
not

and

constraints

do

no

work,

appear

in any

our

differential
them,
we

equations.

Should
suppose

care

investigate
in

of

have
the

only

to

the

Constraints

question

removed

and

number
then
to
to

of degrees
replace the full
the
set

of

freedom

correspondingly by
on

increased, they
exert

and and

constraints

the

forces
new

form

of

equations

the

hypothesis.

18
8. A plank
System

INTRODUCTION

[Art.
Examples,
on
a

of Particles.
rests

Illustrative

(a) A
smooth

rough plane

10 feet long
at
as

pointing
30"
to

downward the horizon.

the

inclined
aH

an

angle

of

dog

weighing
enough

much

the

plank

runs

down
What

plank

just fast
when

to

ke(ip it from

slipping.

is his velocity

he

reaches

itH lower Hero

we

end? have
end

two

degrees
the

of freedom. from
a

Take
fixed

x^

the

distance
line
in

of tli(}upper the plane,

and

of

plank

horizontal

y, the
as

distance

of the
and

dog be

from

the

upper

end
force

of tlui plank,

coordinates, dog
on

let R

the

backward

exerted

by

the

the

plank,

and

the

weight

of the dog.

dT
"

"t[2i

y],

dT
"

m[x-\-y-].
2 w^
sin 30"
mg

[2 ij + y]
7n

8a;

ix,

% [i + jf]
2x
,.

[-B-f

sin

30"] hy.

y=:g,
R
..

ml

Hy

hypothesis, therefore

a:

constant,

and

f^^'^gy^c^^gy,
y=.y/2gy.
When
y
=

16,

32, nearly.
R
,

Since
ml

i^

mg
=

Chap.

I]
A

MOTION

OF

SYSTEM

OF

PARTICLES

19

(6)
a

weight
fixed

4w

is attached
The other
m,

to

string
of the which
m.

which

passes

over

smooth
a

pulley.

end
over

string
passes

is fastened
a

to

smooth attached

pulley
to

of

weight
m

second

string
The
motion

weights from

and Find

system
of

starts

rest.

the

the

weight
x^

47w. the

Two

coordinates,

distance

of 4

below
y, the

the

center

of the
oi 2
m

fixed

pulley,
the

and

distance

below will
m,

center

of the

movable
are

pulley,
X

suffice.

The

r^
Am

velocities

for 4 for

"

movable
2
7w.

pulley,

"

a;

+
"

for

]
w,
m

2m

"

y for

T=

^[imd?

-hmx"

2m(y

-^

yy] xy -{-mOb-^-

dT
"

m[8i-y],

dT
"

m[^y-x].
"

?w

[8 ai [3 y
"

"

y]

Sa;

[4 ?w^
[2 mg
8x-y
y-x

mg

"

2 mg Sy,

"

mg"]

Sx,

7W

i] Sy

"

mg"]
=

0.
g.

2Sx

g.
q

23

The
to
one

weight

will descend
the

with

uniform

acceleration

equal

twenty-third dumh-hell by
a

acceleration Two

of gravity.
equal
particles,

((?)The
7n,

problem. weightless

each
a,

of
are

mass

connected

rigid

bar

of

length

set

20
"

"

INTRODUCTION

[Art.
horizontal
Find

moving

in

any

way

on

smooth

plane.

the

"ubH(5(][uent motion. have tliree degrees Wo coordinates by tlie bar The with of the
the

of freedom. of the

Let

a:,

y, be

the

rectangular made

middle axis of X.

bar^ and

0 the

angle

rectangular

coordinates

of the

two

particles

are

(a;"

-coH^,

"

-mi0\

and

(a;-f--cos^,

y-f--sintfj;

tlioir vclociticH

are

and

-Mi
7'=

U + ^ ^sin edj+

cos

d^Jl
sme)"(x
+

ir"+ ^1

/
z'

^ #' +.(" sin ^

f
+

co8d)^(i: + y)
-

^^

(^acoad

^)\

dT
"-

2mx,

ox

dT

dT

ma'

2 mxSx
2 mi/Si/

0, 0,

^680
a;

0.

0, o, 0.

6' =

Chap.

I]

MOTION

OF

SYSTEM

OF

PARTICLES

21

Hence
uniform

the

middle and

of the
the

bar bar
middle

describes
rotates

straight
uniform

line with

velocity,

with

angular

velocity

about

its moving

point.

EXAMPLE

Two

Alpine

climbers
the

are

roped after

together. him.

One
Find

slips their

over

precipice,
while

dragging

other

motion

falling.
Their with
center

Ans.
rotates

of gravity

describes

parabola.

The

rope
center

uniform

angular

velocity

about

their moving

of gravity.

Qd)
passes particle

Two

equal
a

particles hole
in
on
a

are

connected horizontal
at

by

string The

which
first

through is set

smooth the

table. angles of the

a

moving

table,
a

right distance

with

the

string, with from

the

velocity The then of the

Vo^

where

is the

particle distance

hole.

hanging released.

particle

is drawn

short

downward
motion

and

Find

approximately

the

quent subse-

suspended
of the
time
t by

particle.
second
particle the

Let of
the

be the

distance
at

below

its position

equilibrium
hole in the

the

f, and

angle

described

about

time

the

first particle.

+ d^ + T^'^ld^

Ca^xyd^.

ox

--"

"

7w

(a

"

x)0*j

ex

"

m(a

"

xyd,

cd

m\^x-\-(a-'X)

6^'] 8x

mgSaCj

(1)
(2) (3)

m^Ka-xyd'jBe^O.
2x+(a-x)^
(a
-

g.
a

xf6

V^,

(4)

22 holds
well
as

INTRODUCTION

[Art.
particle is being drawn

since

(2)
as

good

while

the

hanging

down

after it has

been

released.

2x-\
a

0, approximately,

and
For

-h 2a
a

a;

0.

small

oscillations

of

simple

pendulum 0.

of length

?,

0 +

^0

Therefore
the

the

suspended of the

particle

will simple

execute

small

tions, oscilla-

length

equivalent

pendulum

being

a.

EXAMPLE

A
string

golf
is
"

ball
teed

weighing
"

one
a
a

ounce

and

attached horizontal

to

strong
The the
on

up

on

large, smooth,
hole
in

table. feet from

rests

string

is passed

through
to
a

the

table, 10
weight

ball, and
prop
at

fastened

hundred-pound The

which

just below
angles

the

hole. the

ball is then
with
prop
on

driven

horizontally, of
a

right

with second,

string, the

an

initial velocity
which the weight

hundred is knocked

feet

and

rests

away.

(a)
f alUng golf
9.
a

How
to

high
the

must

the

table What

be

to

prevent

the

weight velocity

from
the
sec.

ground

? ?

(6)
Ans.

is the

greatest

ball will acquire

Rigid Bodies.
are so

(a) 8.96 ft.

Motion.

(V) 963.4

ft. per

Two-dimensional

If the particles
a

of
a

system

connected

that

they

form and

rigid

body
of

or

system

of

rigid good.

bodies,

the

reasoning

formulas

Art.

still hold

Chap.

I]
Let

PLANE

MOTION

OF

RIGID

BODIES

23

(a)
the the

any

rigid body
fixed
in space

containing
move

horizontal gravity.
Then degree

axis

fixed

in

body body

and

under
the axis.

Suppose
the of
a

that
is

cannot

slide and

along
there

motion

obviously Take
as

rotational,

is but

one

freedom.

the
the

single
axis

coordinate the

the

angle

0 made

by

plane

containin
a

and

center

of gravity

of the

body

with

vertical

plane

through distance

the

axis.
center

Let
and
axis

h be

the radius

of the

of gravity
body
Then

from
a

the

axis,

k the through

of

gyration

of

the

about

horizontal

the

center T

of gravity.

+ A2)^^ |(A^

(v.App.A,""5andlO)

(A' + le)080

mgh

sin 0S0.

and

we

have

simple

pendulum

motion,

the

length

of the

alent equiv-

Simple

pendulum

being
h' +
=

It"

(^)
strings

Two

equal
a

straight fastened

rods
to

are

connected ends of the suspended

by
rods,

two

equal
whole
a

of length
a

the

the

forming

quadrilateral through in
a

which middle

is then

from

zontal hori-

axis
is set 'moving

the

of the
Find

upper
the

rod.
motion.

The

system

vertical

plane.

Take the

as

coordinates and

the "f",

inclination made with

of
the

the

upper

rod
a

to

horizon,

0, the
of
nature

angle

vertical

by
the
are

line

joining the
rod. From parallel Let

point
the

suspension

with

the

middle
the

of

lower
always

of

the

connection

rods

k be

the

radius

of gyration

of

each

rod

about

its center

of gravity.

2i

INTKODUCTION

[Art.

(V. App.

A,

" 10)

"

mcrQ.

mlc'^h^ ^
=

0,

0.

and

the

rods

revolve

with lower

uniform
rod

angular

velocity
as

while
were

the

middle

point
a

of

the

is oscillating

if it

the

bob

of

simple
an a

pendulum

of is

length

a.

(f)
rolling drum
one

If

inclined

plane

just rough
show

enough
that
at
a

to

insure

the

of

homogeneous
slip, the

cylinder,
rate

thin instant

hollow

will roll and

of slipping

any

being

half
Let
X

the

linear
the

velocity.
the axis

be

distance

of

the

cylinder the the

has

moved

down

the
a

incline, the

0 the

angle

through cylinder,

which and
a

cylinder
inclination

has

rotated, the

radius
the

of the force

of

plane.

Call

of friction F.
r

5 [i^+

A^^].

dT
ox

mxix

[mg
FaSd.

sin

"

F']hx^

mi^eSd
If there
is
no

slipping,

aOy
mg
sma
"

rnx

=^

F^

Chap.

I]

PLANE

MOTION
"
"

OF

RIGID

BODIES

23

ml^

F(u

Hence

-rr^

f^g

sin

a"F^

For

solid

cylinder,

A^

"

F=

^
=

Tw^sinor;
cos
a,

R
R

mg

where

is the

pressure

on

the
F

plane;

1^
=
-

tan

a,

where
For

fi is the
a

coefiBcient

of friction.
A
=

hollow

drum,

a,

i^' =

7w^ sin

a,

"

tan

a,

^
ft "

tan

a,

and

the
For

drum

will

slip.

the

drum,
F
=

then,
fiE
=

fimg
a:
"

cos

(x

^
a

mg
=

sin

a,

mx

mg

sin
x

mg

sin
or.

|^ mg

sin

a,

^gt
Fa
=

sin

mc?0
a^

-mgmi
o

a,

(7 sin

a,

S=x

"

au=^-

mgt

sin

where

is the

rate

of slipping.

26

INTRODUCTION

[Art.

10

EXAMPLES

1.

sphere

rotating

about

horizontal and

axis

is placed in
a

on

perfectly
line.
2.

rough
that

horizontal

plane
start

rolls along
exerts
no

straight

Show
A

after

the

friction
moves

force. inclined

sphere

starting the

from

rest

down
must

rough

plane.

Find
to

motion,

(a)
?

What

the

coefficient

of

friction be

prevent

slipping

(6)

If there

is slipping,

what

is its velocity?

An%.
3.

(a)

ft "

tan

a.

(6)
a

gt[^ma
face and
a,

"

^ficma'\.
a

rough
smooth radius Let the

of wedge face, making

face
a
X

mass

Jlf having

smooth
an

perfectly
with
m

with

each

other

angle
a

is placed

its

on

horizontal
on

table, and
and wedge

sphere

of Find

mass

and

is placed

the wedge the

rolls down.
moves
on

the

motion.
y

be

the the

distance
sphere

the

table, and

distance

rolls down

the

plane.

Note

that

T==^\^M-^m']a?-^'^Y-^
M^x
"

Arts. (m +
10.
Rigid

mt/

cos

0,

^y

"

xcosa

^gf
A

sma.

Bodies.

Three-dimensional

Motion,

(a)

geneous homorough

sphere

is set

rolling
the

in

any

way

on

perfectly

horizontal
Let
X,

plane.
y,
to
a axes
a,

Find
the

subsequent

motion.
center

be
set

coordinates

of the
axes

of

the

sphere
two

referred
which,
OB,

of
of X

rectangular
and
F,
axes

fixed the given

in

space;

of
OAy

the
OCy

lie in

plane. and
axes

Let

be

rectangular
;

fixed
OZ,
to

in the

sphere

passing
through and
x,

through
the
center

its center

let OX,

0 Y,

be rectangular
the
axes

of the

sphere

parallel

fixed

in space;

let 6,

^, y^ be
is F,

the
our

Euler's

angles

(v. App.
The
we

A,

" 8).
force
we

Take have
F^

y,
to

6,

and "f",

yjras

coordinates.

only

consider
components

the

friction, and
to

shall
OY,

let F^

and

be

its

parallel

the

axes

OX,

respectively.

+ ^ T=:^ |[i"

FK

+ a,^)], a,J

Chap.

I]

MOTION

OF

RIGID

BODIES sin 0

IN

SPACE

27

where

"^

"

^ ^
eos

sin

+ ^ -^/r

eos

-^j

ft)y

'^ +
0

sin "j"

^ sin

y^,

"o^

"j"

cos

-\-yjr.

(v. App.
+

A,

" 8)

Hence

+ y' T=^[i;^

**(^
F^,

+ "^* ^*+2co8^"^)].

We

get

"ni

(1) (2)
=

%
nt*"
ft

F^,

^ [^^
"

cos

^"^]

0,

(3)
sin 0
cos

mT^

---

+ ["^

cos

0'"^']
=
"
"

aF^

sin ^ sin

4- a^^ -^/r

-^^ (4)

"

"

mlr

[0 +
is
no

sin

0^y^'\
=

"

aF^

cos

'^

"

ai'y sin

-^ ;

(5)

and

as

there

slipping,
=

"

aft)y

"

a(6
a

cos

-^ +

sin "^

^ sin

-^/r)
'^)

0, 0.

(6)
(7)

y +
From

a"^

y +

(" (?sin -^ + ^

sin ^

cos

(4)

and

(5),
^

mJ^

cos + sin [sin^r" QJ"-\^'"^)

cos

-^ (^

+
=

sin

0"f"yjr^'\
(8)

-aF,sm0,
"

flu

"

"

""

"

wAr^

[cos '^ T

("A+

c^s

^'^)

"

sin tfsin

(^ -^/r

-f-sin
=

^"^) ]
sin ^.

aF^

(9)

Expanding

the the

first members

of
get

(8) and

(9)

and

ing eliminat-

by

aid of
"

(3),

we

mJ(^ [cosyjr0

sin

+ slrd-^

sin 0 sin
cos

+ cos yjrff)

0 sin
"

4- sin ^

yjr^']
+ yfr^
cos

-^/r^c^ ai^^, (10)

cos

mlc^

["

sin

cos '^/rd'
"

sjrd^
"

4- sin ^

cos

yjr^^
(11)

sin ^ sin

yfr^'l

ai^^,.

28

INTRODUCTION

[Art.

10

But

the
J

first members
..

of
,

(10)
^^

and
,

(11)
.^.

are

obviously
,
...

mlc^

"-^

dt

,"d(o_.

Hence uniform velocity

the

center

of the

sphere
sphere

moves

in

straight uniform
not

line with

velocity,

and

the

rotates

with

angular change its

about
and

an no

instantaneous

axis

which
into

does play

direction, begins.

friction

is brought

after the

rolling

(6) The
imperfectly ball to
Take

billiard ball. rough,

Suppose
of

the

horizontal
/i, and

table

in

(a)

is

coefficient

friction

suppose

the

slip. the
same

coordinates

as

before, and

and

equations

(1), (2),
Let
a

(3), (4), (5), (8), (9), (10),

(11)

still hold

good.

Chap.

I]
angle
with that the the
is, the

THE

BILLIAED

BALL

29
friction, F=fimg^
the velocity

be

the

direction axis of
X,

of

the

resultant

makes

and
with

let which

be
the

of slipping, of
and the
8

velocity
the

lowest

point

ball
are

moves

along

table.

Of

course

the directions

of F

opposite. Let
S^
F.

and

S^ be the

components

of S parallel

to

the

axes

of

and

We

have
"

cos

a=

S^

"

aft)y,

and

"

sin aS^

/Sy

y -f-"3ta)^.
cos
a,

F^

fimg

and
dS^
"
.

Fy

fimg

sin

a.

da
=

dS
cos
a
---

dto^
..

-rr-

iS

sm

Of

--

"

a;

"

"-""

at

dt

dt

dt

dS"
-"

da
^

dS
..
-

dto^
=

"

"

dt

/Scosa--

sma-"

dt
fJLgcos
a,

dt

y ^

a-"

2.

dt

From

(1),
(10),
da
"

and

from

"

"

/i^

cos

a.

dS
cosa"
CbZ
=
"

a^

XT

Hence

" S^ma--

+
"

"

"

Jc^ ft^cosa,

(12)

.-on

CLZ

fC

and

from

(2)
"

and

(11),
da
.

dS
"

Scoaa

a^-j-Ii^
=
"
"

--

"

sma

CtZ

CLZ

z^
rC

figsma.

(13)
subtracting,

.^on

Multiplying

(12)

by

sin

and

(13)
=

by

cos

a,

and

^1
Multiplying

0.

(14)
sin
a,

(12)

by

cos

and
a^

(13) by
+
Zc" ng.

and

adding,

dS dt

(15)

80

INTRODUCTION

[Art.

10

Integrating From

(15), 5=^^-?l"^^
"
=

(16)

(14),

^o'

and the direction of slipping does not change. If the axes are so chosen that the axis of X has the direction 0. Then opposite to the direction of slipping, a
=

o.

These
and
the

equations

are
on

familiar in the
the

theory
a

of

projectiles,
so

path lasts. slipping Should y^ happen

traced

table

is

parabola

long

as

to

be

zero,

the path

degenerates

into

straight line. When slipping stops,

X
"

aft)y

0,

and

y +

a"^

0,

aad

we

have

the

case

treated in

(a).

EXAMPLE

homogeneous

inclined plane.

sphere is set rolling Find the path traced on

on

perfectly rough

the plane. Ans, A parabola.

77ie ffyroscope. Suppose ((?)

point and
axes

rigid body containing a fixed having two of its moments of inertia about its cipal prinfixed ential differObtain through the the point equal.
a

equations

We

shall have

use

for its motion under Euler's angles with

"^
=

gravity.
a

vertical axis of Z.

We

^ sin

"^
6

(o^

6 cos

sin "^, -^^ sin ^ sin "^, -f"^ '^

"

cos

"g

'^

cos

-{-f^.

(v.App.

A,

" 8)

r=
=

+ C^o^-] (v.App. A, " 10) I lAa"l+Aa"l + ^(^ cos ^ + K-^ (J^+ s^^' ^^') "^)'].

Chap.

I]

THE

GYKOSCOPE

81

^-

0 COB CQ"}r

4"},

d"l"

^'=AsiD!'^^jr-\'C 0 (^jr
COS

COS

0 +

"^),

d0

-;~=A%m0 du Our
are

COS

cos 0'^^ Csia0(yjr

"

-f-

^)'^.

equations

C"

cos (-^

^ +

^)

0,

(1)

+ Cco8^(-^co8d + |-[^sin''d^

^)]

0,

(2)
sin tf.

AS
From

"

Asia

cos

+C 0-^^

am

cos 0(^jr

0 +
a,

^^-^== mga

(3) (4)

(1),
a:

yjrcoa0
initial velocity
A

where

is the

about
Ca

the
cos

axis

of unequal

moment.

sin'
cos

+ 0-^ + ^i^'

0=:L.

(5)
sin ^,

AS
or

"

Aain

0
from

Ca

sin

^-^^ mga
=

(6)

substituting
v^
=

yjr
^^

(5),
.

(X

"

-^4^

Cacos^)(Xcos^--Ca) r^Vs
equations

^"

sm

^ ^.

...

(7)
a

(tf)Obtain
fixed
point.

Euler's

for

rigid

body

containing

Here

i
=

[Acj^+

^o),' +

(7""].

(v. App.

A,

" 10)

O/TT

"

=^G)j

[^ cos ^

^
=

-^sin

^ sin

"/"]
"^+

+-^"2
A(o^(o^
"

[" ^

sin

'^sin

cos

"^]

B(ojX)^.

32

INTRODUCTION

[Art.

11

Whence

[^^
is the
moment

(^

^)

^i",]

^^^
the
C

where

of the

unpressed

forces about

axis.

The
this

remaining

two

Eulers

equations

follow

at

once

from

by

considerations In
the

of

symmetry.

11.

Arts.

and

7 it
of
a

was

shown

that
or

under
of
a

slight
moving

tations limitem sys-

coordinates

moving
at

particle

coujd
equations

be

taken

practically could
not

pleasure,

and the

the

differential
of
comes
a

of motion

be

obtained

by

application

single
to

formula.
a

It does

follow,

however,

that
the

when

it

solving
is
a

concrete

problem of

completely,

choice

of coordinates choices

matter
to
as

indifference.
equations

Different

possible
greatly

may

lead

differential
a

differing
in the

in complication,

and
the

matter

of fact

illustrative

problems
with
care

of

present

chapter That

the coordinates
this
care,

have

been

selected
is not

and
may

judgment.
be
worth the

while
a case

convenient,

essential
we

illustrating
simple
the

by

practical
of
a

example,
in

and
vacuo.

shall

consider

familiar
simplest
to
a

projectile
are
x

Altogether
coordinates
axis

coordinates

and

t/j rectangular

referred

horizontal
of

axis

of X

and

vertical

of

through

the

point

projection.

Chap.

1]

THE

CHOICE

OF

COORDINATES

33

Solving,

v^,

vj,.

Let where

us

now

try

perfectly q^
=

crazy
x

set
,

of coordinates,
,

q. and

q,

+
"

iaxr^y,

and

=a;

tan~*y.
we

Proceeding

in

our

regular

way,

have

sec'

2i^
sec^

(j,

j,).

+ 2 ?A f[??

2lZ^^

?H

(^J

2 q^q^ +

y^)]

g^
^
_

+ ?2 + [?i

sec*

^J-2^

(?i

?,)

J,

sec*

2lJl9?

tan

2l:^^

ro

_oV

^9 g^
^^
_

+ 92 [?i

sec"

^i-2^

(?,

?,)

J,

m
=
-

^^r-i sec-

^--:.--

gi

92

tan
""

2"-_^
2

dq~

(j^

^^)".

f[9x
+

92 +

sec"2i^(^^-^^) 8ec"2i_"tan2L
=

_^sec"2i^.

(1)

84

INTRODUCTION

[Abt.

^8ec"2^.
^a r^,

(2)

Adding Whence VY nence and id

(1)

and

(2),

+ 9,) |(9, + ?, 9i'rq^ ?i

0. ^
^

?i +

?, ?a

v/.

(3)

Subtracting

(2)

from

(1),
+
sec*

(?,-?.) ifsec'

2lZ^

tan

2i^
"

G,

j,)'
.

wi^

sec'

2i-" 2i

Multiplying

by

"

(j

"

), and

integrating,

sec*

2i^=^

(j,

j,)*
=

8 tan

2lZL^

^.

Bec"

2^

(y,
^
=

9,)

"Jt^, 2i^
-

2^

tan

Let

^^''"
"

sec'

-r

2 ^ tan

",

,,

sec'zrfz
=
"

at

"
"

vv^
"
=

2^tanz

-[v,-^y,'-2"7tanz]
=

^[''"-\|"-2^tan
"'2

^^

V-'^-f'.'-fl

Chap.

I]

NOMENCLATURE

85

But

from

(3),

il"^
q^

vj.
vjt +
tan"*

Hence

""

'

9,

t;,"-tan-*[v-^l
agree
with
that
our

Of
moment's

course

this

should

first

answer,

and

consideration
have

shows

it does.

We

Si"3i

^c

=-

vj,
gt*

tan

^*

"^
=

:=!

vjt
"

"-

as

before.

12.

The

parameters

j^, ^j, moving

"

"

"

that

we
or

have

been

using

to
are

fix the called

position

of

our

particle

moving analogy of
any

system

generalized coordinates,

coordinates.
the
time the

Following derivative
generalized

the q^

of rectangular

generalized

coordinate

q^ is called
to

component velocity, it may

or

of
an

velocity angular
more

corresponding
velocity
as

qj^. It may

be

linear
or

in many

of
either
T

our as

problems,
in
our

be

much

complicated The

than

latest

example. of the generalized

the

kinetic and

energy
the

expressed

in terms

coordinates
gian If

generalized kinetic

velocities energy. coordinates

is called

Lagran-

expression
we

for the using

are

rectangular

and

dealing

with

moving

particle,

dT
ox

and

is the

component this

of the
dT
"

momentum

of the
the

particle.
com-

Following
ponent of

analogy,

is the

called
system,

generalized
to

the

momentum

of

corresponding by
p^y and
may

the be
a

coordinate

j^.. It is frequently

represented

8t}

INTRODUCTION in many

[Art.
as

13

momentum,
or our

or

moment

of momentum
more

of

our

lems, probas

it may

be

much

complicated

than

either

in

latest Equations

example.

of the

type

are

practically
although

what

are

called speaking
a

the

Lcigrangian
the

equations

of

motion,

strictly
is

regulation
compact

form and

of the will

Lagrangian

equations

little

more

be

given

later, in Chapter through

IV. the when oi

of
more

Q^^ defined
by
the

property

that

is the work Qj^iqjg by Sj^, is called

to

done
the

actual

forces

9^ is changed

generalized
a
or

component

force
a

corresponding
as

9^.
our

It may

be

force,

or

the be

moment

force

in many

of

problems,
as

it may

much

complicated

than

either

in

our

latest

example.
Summary
n

13.

of Chapter

I.

If

moving

system

has

finite

number

of degrees coordinates
can

of freedom j^, q^^

in
"

(v. Art
"
"

7)
are

and

independent
the

generalized
energy
the will
T

",

y",

chosen,
the

kinetic
and

be

expressed

terms
"

of

coordinates
so

generalized
be
a

velocities in

9^, y^, the

",

q^^ and
a

when

expressed
ratic quadthe

quadratic

velocities,

homogeneous do
not

if the
time

geometrical

equatio7i%

(v. Art. 7)
in
a

contain

explicitly.

The

work

done

by

the

forces effective
the system

hjrpothetical
to
an

itesima infin-

displacement

of

due

infinitesimal

change

dqj^ in

single

coordinate

q^ is

dq, [dt

~dq,\
work
done there by will the

?*"

If this is written

equal

to

"^^Sj^,the
in
^^
-

actual
the

forces

in

the

displacement
,

question,
^^
"

result

Lagrangian

equation

dt dqj^

dqj^ =0*.

Chap.

I]
n

SUMMARY

37
type

The

equations

of which

this is the

form

set

of simultaneous

differential
the
n

equations

of the with

second

order,

connecting
the the
complete

generalized

coordinates

the time. been

When

solution

of this set of equations

motion

has

obtained,

problem

of the
It
a

of the

system

is solved that
a

completely.
to

must

be kept coordinate

in mind
or

in order

single
n

of

set

of
to

of obtain the value less in number coordinates

than

it is generally

necessary

form

and

to

solve

the

complete

set

of

differential
see,

equations. in

We
important

shall

however,

the
some

next

chapter,

that

in certain

classes

of problems
that
some

of these

equations
can

need
be

not

be

formed,

and

of with

the
our

coordinates obtaining
we

safely of the handle

ignored remaining

without

interfering

the be

values
to

coordinates;
some

that,

indeed,
concerning

may

able

satisfactorily
an

problems
of degrees

moving

systems

having

infinite

number

of freedom.

CHAPTER
THE

II

HAMILTONIAN LAGRANGIAN

EQUATIONS.
EXPRESSION.

ROUTH'S IGNORATION

MODIEIED
OF

COORPINATES
14. of the the
The

Hamiltonian

Equations.

If the geometrical
not

equations

system
kinetic
9j, 9j,
s

(v.

Art.

7)
T

do
is

contain
a

the

time

expUcitly
ratic quadvelocities,
as

and

energy
" "

therefore

homogeneous
component

in

",

^,,
can

the be

generalized replaced by

Lagrange
Hamiltonian The
now

equations
equations.

set

known

the

Lagrangian

expression
T^.
^,

for

the

kinetic

energy

we

shall

represent

by
"

Let

"

="

-^, dq^

=-"

etc.

be

the

dq^

generalized of the of p^,p^, the

" "

component

momenta.

Then
" "

jt?^, jc^j,
"

"

"

are

homogeneous
" "

first degree
""

in 9j, 9a, noting

".

Express
they
are

q^, J^,

"

in terms of

9i" 92"
in
T^,

"

"

""

that
"

homogeneous
these

first degree for

them
momenta

terms

/?j" of jt?j,

"

""

and

substitute
an

values

in

which the

will thus

become

explicit

function

of the

and

coordinates, former. This

homogeneous
function
and

of the
is called
we

second
the

degree

in terms

of the

Hamiltonian
it by

expression
T^.

for

the

kinetic

energy,

shall
Ti
=

represent
Tp.

Of

course

(1)

By
^

Euler's

Theorem,

therefore

2 T^

j;=;?^j^+;"A+
dT

'

'

(2)

dT

Let

us

try

to

get

-"^

dq^

and

-^-^

indirectly.

dp^
88

Chap.

II]

THE

HAMILTONIAN

EQUATIONS

89

From

Cl).

!^^
=

!^

!i:^!2i "S!2i+..., +

But

from

(2),

2'^=p^'A+p,'A+...,
Subtracting

(4)

(3)

from

(4), we

get

^'
=

-^'.
Again,
we

(5)

have

from

(1),

"Pi

hi

^Pi

^%

"Pi

From

(2),

2^ j,+^,|+^,|+
=
. .

..

(7)

Subtracting

(6)

from

(7),
dT

we

get

^
The
Lagrangian equation

?i-

(8)

^,^-^
dt dqj^

Q,

dq^
dT

becomes

p^. -f
have

^
"

Q^..

(9) (10)
the
type
are

We

also

6^^

?^.
are

The
as

equations

of which

(9)

and

(10)

known canonical compact

the

Hamiltonian
of the

eqaations

of motion.

The

so-called
more

form
and

Hamiltonian given

equations

is somewhat

will

be

later, in Chapter

IV.

40 The
a

THE

HAMILTONIAN

EQUATIONS

[Art.
are

15

2n

equations

of which

(9)

and

(10)

the

type of the ^^^

in
^

form first
component

system

ot 2n

simultaneous the
n

differential
j^, j'g'
'

equations
'

order,

connecting
momenta

coordinates
* *

'"

?n' ^^^ and

as

p^, J^g'
one

''

Pn^ ^^^
we

^^^

time,

order

to
case

solve

for

any

coordinate equations,

must

generally, make
use

in the

of the
set

Lagrangian

form

and

of the

whole

of equations.
In
concrete

problems forms,

there but

is usually
in

no

advantage

in using

the they

Hamiltonian
are

many

theoretical
that

investigations
process

of importance.
T^

It may

be noted

in the

of

forming and
To thus

from

T^
,

q^ is expressed

in terms

of the jt?'s and

q%
the

equation

(10)
the
we

is anticipated.

familiarize

student shall
already

with apply

the

actual
to

working
a

of

Hamiltonian which
15.
we

forms,
have

them

few

problems

solved

by

the

Lagrange

process.
in
terms

(a)

The

equations

of
3,

motion

in

plane

of

polar

coordinates

(v. Art.
^^
=

(")).

Here

f [^ +

^0']-

"i=:p=,mr, cr

Whence

"-%
=

(1)
'

^,'

"^
T

(2)

and

"

\p* +

^\

dr
dT

mr^

Chap.

II]

ILLUSTRATIVE

EXAMPLES

41

p^B"f" 4"r"^.
=

(4)

Our

Hamiltonian

equations

are

A
If
we

r*.

(8)

eliminate

p^

and

j^^,

we

get

?W

[r

r20']

R,

our

familiar

equations.

(J)
Here

Motion

of

bead

on

horizontal

circular wire

(v.Art. 5, (a)).

T.

J "'^P#
=

"

^
cff

matJ.

mar

T_

P^'
^

'

42

THE

HAMILTONIAN

EQUATIONS

[Art. 15

Integrating,
P0

-^=(7
ma

maV

j__

7"

Vk
Vkt
-f
wi

ak

The ("?) Here

tractrix

problem

(v. Art.
-

6,

(a)).

i;

^
771

[i*+ a"^
[x
"

cos

^i^].

jt?^
=

cos

5(J],
cos

P0 Whence
i

\_a^d
"

^i].
cos

r-^-

+ [jo^

Op^'j^

(1)

"

^-^-f^

[" cos

+ 6!p, Pe]

(2)

^P
^

"

2/1

wa*

sm*

^
=

["X' 4-i?|-f
"^

cos

^i"^(,].
jtxt^j

We

get

j9^

."

sin ^,

(3)
cos^

Pe We

^^2

g^a the

[("'i^x +i".0 cos

condition
x
=

" +

(l-f

e^^p^p,]
=

0.

(4)

have

nt

(5)

With

(5),

p"
P0

mln
ma

"

acosdd^j
"
"

\a6
get

cos

^].

Substituting

in

(4), we
p^
"

mna.

sin
=

Od

0,,

or

mxi^O

0.

Chap.

II]

ILLUSTRATIVE

EXAMPLES

48

Whence

^=C

-.

p^

mn(l

"

cos

tf),
^

p^

mn

sin

Od

sin tf =
a

sin ft

ii=^ a
as

in Art.

6.

(rf)The
hole in it

problem

of
8,

the

two

particles

and

the

table

with

(v. Art.

("f)).
m

Here

T.=

~[2i^

(a-a:y^]

We

get

and

Whence

if

a;

is small,

as

in Art.

8,

(c?).

44

THE

HAMILTONIAN

EQUATIONS
10,

16 [Art.

(") The

gyroscope
^i
=

(v.Art

(c)).

+ H'^(.^
dT.

sin* Of*)+

Cai cos

"?+

"^)'].

p^,

"^

A sin"

+ tf^

cos

tf

(^ cos

^ +

cf

"^),

We

get

p^.

0,
0,
cos'
=

(1)

P*

(2)

P*
~

TTlTJa u ^ Sin

cos C(^* +-P*)

(1 +
=

0)p^p^'] mffa sin ^. (3)

p^

e'er,

P^
or

?_ [(cV
^^
^v
=

+
Ca

X")cos
COS

CLa

(14- cos' ^)]

Ca) ^
.

w^a

sin tf,

ex ^^^

"

^) ex COS ^ "^8/i
^
,

"

sin*

^
"

+ ^^^ "^

sin

^ e.

(4)
^
^

,,.

"

-^
A sin'
as

cos

0 +
Ca

"j" a,
=

+ ^-^

cos

X,

in Art. 10,
16. The

(c?).

last two

closer examination. energy in the Lagrangian

problems have a peculiarity that deserves Let us consider Art. 15, (e). The kinetic form
T^, and

therefore* in the Ham-

iltonian form

T^, fails to

contain

the

Moreover,
*

when
^
=

either of

these

and ^. coordinates "f" coordinates is varied, the

that if a coordinate is missing in

Since

"

dQk

dQk

it follows (v.Art. 14),

7^, it is missing also in Tp,

Chap.

II]
forces
assume

IGNORABLE

COORDINATES

45
Hamiltonian

impressed
equations

do
the

no

work. very

Hence forms

two

of

our

simple

which

give

immediately
p^
(7a,
L^
a

constant,

and
These
nian

p^ enable
equation
us

constant.

to

eliminate

p^

and

p^

from
then

third

Hamilto*
only the

(Art.

15,

(^), (3)),
have
T^

which

contains

third

coordinate
same

0 and

its corresponding

momentum

pg.

This

result

might
in

been their

obtained
constant

just as
values the
T^

well

by
then

replacing
forming

p^
the

and

p^

by

and

Hamiltonian
we

equations
in

for
only,

in

regular
has
once

way.

So

that

if
and the

are

interested by the

and
of

been
for p^

formed and
the
p^y

simplified
coordinates

substitution need yjr

to

constants

and "j"
we
care

play

no

further
of these

part

in

solution.

Should
they the
can

get

the

values the

ignored p^
=

coordinates,
p^
=

be

found
value
=

from

equations

Car,

Z,

by

aid

of the
p0
T^

of 0 previously pg
us
=

determined.

In

Art.

15,

(cT), since
for pg
in

O and

ma

va^,the
solve

substitution problem
to
so

of this far
as

value
a:

enables

to

the

is concerned

without

paying
seen

further

attention

0. form, fails and

these
* ' *

To and
to

generalize,

it is easily

that

if the

Lagrangian
energy system,*
one

therefore
contain
some

the

Hamiltonian
of the

form,

of the
of
a

kinetic

coordinates
are

moving
any
momenta
;

if the

impressed

forces
no

such

that

when

of

coordinates

is varied
to

work

is done,
are

the

p^^ jt?^,

corresponding
substituting
Hamiltonian
to

these

coordinates
for

constant

and

that

after in the

these
form
them

constants

the

momenta

in question

of the
may

kinetic

energy,
in

the

coordinates
and
in

corresponding

be

igno;:ed
for
in

forming

solving

the
*

Hamiltonian
Coordinates
moving
that

equations
do
are

the
the

remaining
expression coordinates.

coordinates.
for the

not

appear

kinetic

energy

of

system

often

called

cyclic

46

MODIFIED

LAGRANGIAJ^

EXPRESSION

[Art.
to

17

Unfortunately

the

ignored

coordinates

have kinetic

be

used and

in
in

forming deducing
Not

T^,

the

Lagrangian
it T^, the

form

of

the

energy,

from

Hamiltonian preliminary
a

form labor form

of the
may

energy.

infrequently

this
using

be

abridged

considerably
expression

by
for

modified
energy

of

the

Lagrangian
as we

the

kinetic

of

the

system,

shall

proceed
17.
the

to

show.
Modified
Energy of
Form
a

Routh's

of Moving

the

Lagrangian

Expression

for

Kinetic

System.

In
we

forming

the

Hamiltonian
the

equations

of motion replacing

(v. Art. 14)

all
terms

first changed velocities

form
" ' '

of ^y

T^

by

the

generalized
the

?i' ?2"
.

their

values

in

of

coordinates
.

q^^ q^^
=

and
=

the
etc.

generalized

momenta

p^^ p^,

.,

where

p^

2,
"

i",

T-~"

Let of the
momentum

us

now

try

the

experiment its value in

of replacing
terms
"

in

T^

one

only

velocities

q^ by

of the
"

corresponding
the

jp^, the
q^", q^^ thus
=
"

coordinates
".

q^j y^,

.,

and

remaining

velocities

"

Call

T,

changed
and

in form,

J^

Of

course

T^

T.,

q,=^F(p^,
+

q^, %^'-^

9^ %^

'

'

0-

We

have

'J^JJk
dq^
dT.

'^'A.
dq^ 8q^
dq,
=
-

dq^
dT"
=

a
rm

Transposmg,

-^-.^^^^
=

[T,^_^^,J.

Hence

j^

_[r,,-^jjj.

is called the

Lagrangian
q^.

expression

for the

kinetic energy

modified

for

the coch'dinate

Chap.

II]

MODIFIED

LAGRANGIAN

EXPRESSION

47

Our

Lagrangian

equation

dt dq^

dq^

becomes

p^

^
" "

Q^.

(1 )

We

have

also

o.

^
"
"

"

C2')

It
tonian

is noteworthy

that

(1)
only

and
in

(2) differ
that in place the

from

the

Hamilof
the

equations expression
T^.

for
Mg^

q^

negative
the

modified
expression

appears

of

Hamiltonian

Let

us

go
"

on

to

the

other

coordinates.

^?,

^9.

^?i

%,

whence

^-!""i_"

?2x-l-rr

-"al-^.
89, 8q^

aj, aj/

The

Lagrangian

equation
d
dMg

for q^ is therefore
dMg

and
only In
must

differs from
in that
T^

the

ordinary by

form
the

of the

Lagrangian
expression

equation
M^^.

is replaced

modified
it must
terms

forming
be

the

modified by
in
T^

expression in

be

noted
*

that
'

q^ ?i"

replaced
not

its value

of p^^ q^y ?8'

as

'

9^,

"

only

but

in the

term

p^q^

well. when
it has
once

An

advantage formed
coordinate
we

of the
can

modified

form

is that

been
one

get

by

its aid

Hamiltonian

equations others.

for

and

Lagrangian

equations

for the

48

MODIFIED

LAGBAJNGIAN

EXPRESSION

[Art.
to
one

18

The
where

reasoning
we

just given
Hamiltonian

can

be extended
for
more

easily than

the

case

wish

equations

nate coordi-

and The
the
their

Lagrangian
may
be

equations

for the
as

rest.

results

formulated
T^

follows:

Let
9^,
are

Tp^,p^...,p^

be
by

form

assumed
in

by
terms

when

j^,

^j,
"

"

"

replaced
"
"

values
" "

of p^, P^y'-'y

Pry

?r+i"

?r+2"

""

in^ ?i"

92"

"

"

9n'

Then,

if
^Pv

^\.
we

9,, """.".=

Pr

'"^Pr-

PAi

P2%

Pr9ry

have

equations

of the

type

Pk

"

r^^

Vt"

?*

"

'^

'

ifA"r

l;

^*

if A "
18.

r.

If

we

modify

the

Lagrangian

expression

for

the

kinetic

energy

for all the

coordinates,
^p

^.,.",..=

-PA

-M
of the

PrAn'y
form

and

we

get

Hamiltonian

equations

.^^

^^.
^Pk
as

(2)
nowhere

for all the reasoning

coordinates,
that
T^
we

and
a

we

have

assumed
in the

in

our

is

homogeneous
use

quadratic
equations time

generalized when Art.

the

velocities,
geometrical

can

these the

safely

equations

contain
equations

explicitly
the
* * *

(v.

7).

If the geometrical
case

do

not

involve
in j^, Jj'

time,
"

in which

T^

is

homogeneous 2

quadratic
+

^i^Piii +M

"

"

"

+Pn%

Chap.

II]
Euler's

ILLUSTRATIVE

EXAMPLE

49 2 T^
T^;

by and

Theorem
assume

and

itf,,,-,,,

T^

and

(1)

(2)

the

familiar

forms

A.+g=e.
dT

(3)

It is important
Mg^^
(?,,
"

to note

that the modified

the kinetic energy
some

Lagrangian

expression although,
to

",

g,.

is not
see

usually later, in As
we

of the system,

as

we

shall

special

problems
seen,

it reduces the
time

the

kinetic
not

energy.
the

have

just

when

does

enter

geometrical

equations,

the

completely

modified
fied modi-

Lagrangian

expression

(that is, the

is the

Lagrangian negative

expression

for all the

19.

coordinates)

of the

energy.

As

an

illustration
the

of the

employment
equations

of the Hamiltonian
contain

equations
us

when

geometrical

the

time,

let

take Here

the

tractrix

problem

of Art.

6,

(a').
cos

^"?

\7^^ Jfo^^'-^
in

an

dd^

and

is not

homogeneous

6.
m

P0

"J

\a^d

"

an

cos

^],

and

"

-^
am
^

-eoad. a

(1)

a^mj

-"2

mn*

sm

cos

^ +

sm
a

Op^ ;

00
n

and

we

have

p0

"

mn^

sin 0
"

cos

0
a

sin 0p0

0 ;

(2)
Let

and
us

(1)
solve

and
them.

(2)

are

our

required

Hamiltonian

equations.

60
From
whence

MODIFIED

LAGRANGIAN

EXPRESSION

[Akt.

20

(1),

p^^ma^d
p^
in
=

"

mndoo^Oy
mna

ma^O

sin

Od,

Substituting

(2),
mn^

ma^d+
or

mna

sin

0d

"

sin 0

cos

tf
"

mna

sin

5d +

mn^

sin tfcos

0=Oy

d*=0,
agrees with the
result

which

of Art

6,

(a').

EXAMPLES

1.

Work
Work

Art
Exs. As

6,

(6'),by

the

Hamiltonian
6, by

method.
method. the 6 and

2.

1 and

2, Art.

the Hamiltonian
of

20.

(a)
we

an

example
the
x.

of

the

employment

modified modify

form,

shall

take

tractrix

problem

of Art.

for the We

coordinate have

(v. Art. 6)
T^
=

+ ^[d?

a^^^-2acos0x^']'
cos

p^
i

m\x'-a
^
+
a

0"\
0d^

cos

2L
-77^
=

TT?
0,

^'\

OX

"

ma'

sin"

66

"

cos

dp,,

"

-s

ma^

sin 0

co"

^^

sin

6dp^.

Chap.

H]
have

ILLUSTRATIVE

EXAMPLES

61

We

for

the Hamiltonian p^
=

equations

Esin0,

(1)
(2)

^
=

acos0",

and

for

0 the
ma'

Lagrangian

equation

00 [sin^

tfcos -h sin

0^must

aco8

0p^

O.

(3)

Of

course

(1), (2), and

and
we

(3)

be solved the

as

simultaneous

equations,

can

simplify
x=^nt,

by

aid of the

condition

(4)

Solving,

we

get

0,
4

^!L
.

(v. Art
take

6 and

Art

15,

(r))
the

(6)
two

As

second
and
for 0.

example
the

we

shall
a

the

problem

of

particles

table

with

hole

in it

(v. Art.

8,

(rf))

and

modify

We

have

T^

+ 5[2i'

(a-a:)^].

p^

"^

mCa-'

xYd,

whence

^=
^'^^ xy m(a
"

,,"

(1)
^ ^

2L
Our
Hamiltonian
equations
are

wi^Ca-a;)*]
(1)
0.

and

/,

(2)

52

MODIFIED

LAGKA^'GIAN

EXPRESSION

[Art.

20

Our

Lagrangian

equation

is

Ux-^

mg.

(3)

.^/'
By

(2),
(3) becomes
8, (d).
a

p^

C=^maV^;
=

whence
as

2 i H

^-".

g^

r4)

{a
in Art.

"

xy

(c)
problem We

As

third

example

we

shall modify

take
for

the
x.

wedge

and

sphere

of Ex. have

3, Art

9, and

f^

"

-T

ex

{M-\- m)x

"

my

cos

a.

,^p^micosa^
M-^m

jp^
-

Tyiy cos^

ma^

+
a^

"'

1{M^m)

2
ma^

^'

+
a^

F^
^

p^

^p^-y^ycos^a 2QM-\-m)
Our
Hamiltonian
equations

2
are

-]-mpjf M-^m

cos

(1)
0.

and

A
Our
Lagrangian
equation
is

(2)

[a^
w

-f

m^

cos^

al

..

7w"^ ^-^

cos

a
=

,"^

mq

sm

a,

(3)

By

(2),
(o) becomes
9, Ex.
3.
xoN

P.=
i_

C=Oi
m

(4)
.

fa^-f-^^
^

costal..
V
=

whence

a' sm

a,

(5)

.r^

as

in Art.

Chap.

11]
a

ILLUSTRATIVE

EXAMPLES

53

(^d) As

fourth

example

we

shall and

take

the

gram flexible-parallelo-

problem
We have

(v.Art

9,

(J))
=

modify

for

"f".

^^

? [2 J^"i"' -f "'^].

Our

Hamiltonian

equations

are

(1)
0.

and

P*

(2)

Our

Lagrangian

equation

is

ma^0

"

mga

sin 0^

(3)
(4)

or

^"-f-^sin^
a

0.

EXAMPLES

1.

Take

the dumb-bell

problem

of Art.

8,

(c),and

modify

for 0.

mx

0.

my

0.

64
2.

IGNORATION

OF

COORDINATES

[Art.

21

Take

the

dumb-bell

problem

of Art

8,

(c),and

modify

for

^'=lk-^]
^ ma^ff
3.
=

0.

Take

the

gjrroscope

problem,

Art. 10,

(c), and

modify

for

-0

6=^^"^

Cp^-^p^

COB

0)coB0

_o,

Jr=.P":zP"^^.
^-^*^^^^

A0

"

"

-^^^^^

^
to

sm^

0 .9^^
on

^w^"

sm

ft

21.

We

proceed

comment

jbhe problems

of

the

preceding

section.

(a)

No

one

of

them

involves

the

tune

explicitly
energy

in
T^

the
in

geometrical
all of

equations,

and

therefore

the

kinetic
in

them

is

homogeneous

quadratic

the

generalized

velocities.

(6)
degree
are

The

momenta,

therefore,

are

homogeneous
the
in

of

the

first

in the

velocities,

and
of the

consequently first degree velocities,

J[f^^,^^,... are

eliminated
the

ties veloci-

homogeneous
and
the

corresponding
energy

momenta

remaining function
momenta

and

the

^^.j,,,..
quadratics

and

the

modified

homogeneous
not

in the

introduced

and

the

velocities

eliminated.

Chap.

II]

IGNORATION

OF

COORDIXATES
.

65

("?)In
modified
cyclic. any
one one

have for which we coordinates for the kinetic energy are the Lagrangian expression is done In all of them the first no when work except
all the

problems

the

of the

coordinates

in question equations

is varied.

Consequently
is of the
a

of the
p^
=

Hamiltonian

for that
p^
=

coordinate
^^

form

0, and

the

momentum to

"?^

where

is
,,....

constant.

Therefore modified
the

it is easy

express

the
terms

energy
of the

^p^,

and

the

expression

in Ji^^.,^,...

remaining
c^^

nates, coordi"?,,""",

corresponding
so

velocities, they
are

and

the

constants

and
not

when

expressed

quadratics
quadi*atics.
it may

in the

velocities

but

necessarily has

homogeneous
so

When
used

the

modified
the

function

been

expressed, for
the

be

in forming

Lagrangian
as

equations

remaining for
the

coordinates
kinetic energy may

precisely
is used,

the the

Lagrangian coordinates
of
the

expression
that

and

have of

been

eliminated
the

be

ignored
we

in the

rest

work
values
:

solving

problem

unless

are

interested

in their

(v. Art. 16).

some

(d)
are

To

generalize

If

of the coordinates forces

no

of

moving

tem sys-

cyclic^ and

if the

impressed
is varied

are

such

that when the

momenta

any

one

of these

coordinates
to

work
are

is done,

corresponding
motion.

these

coordinates of these

constant

throughout
momenta

the in

The

substitution
expression

constants

for the

the Lagrangian

for the kinetic

will

energy
an

modified

for the of the

coordinates
the remaining
constants

in question

reduce

it to

explicit

function and

coordinates, which

the

corresponding
a

velocities,

substituted,
necessarily
the
a

will be

quadratic

in the velocities

but

not

homogeneous
function Lagrangian
as

quadratic.
has

When

modified
the

been

so

expressed,
for the
expression
that

it may

be

used

in forming

equations

remaining

coordinates

precisely
is

the
and

Lagrangian the

for
have of

the

kinetic

energy may

used,

coordinates
rest

been
solving

eliminated
the

be

ignored

in the

of

the

work

problem In the

(v. Art. 16).

case

important
momenta

where

the

system
to

starts

from

rest,

the

constant

corresponding

the

ignorable

coordinates

66 being
zero

IGNORATION
at the start
are

OF
zero

COORDINATES

[Art.

22

the motion, and the modified expression is identical with the Lagrangian expression for the kinetic energy, which therefore is a function of the remaining coordinates and the corresponding velocities and is
a

throughout

homogeneous

(e) The

quadratic in the velocities (v.Art 24, (a)). fact that the Lagrangian expression for the kinetic

energy modified for ignorable coordinates is expressible in terms of the remaining coordinates and the corresponding velocities is in is a terms and of those velocities quadratic often of great
importance,
22. Let
as

we

shall

see

later.

take the gyroscope problem of Art. 10, ((?), and Art. 20, Ex. 8, and work it from the start, ignoring the cyclic
us

coordinates ^ and have T.= We therefore is done

'^.
i

[^(^

and -^ cyclic "f" is varied nor when "f"

are

and C(^costf sin2^^')-h "f"^y], Moreover, no

coordinates. is varied, when

work

-^

so

that

and

'^

are

ignorable.
=

b^

0,

and

p^
p^
=

0,

so

that

p^
+

e^,

and

p^

c^.

We

have

"r=C(;fco80

"^)=c^,
0(;f cos
0
,

p^

"r

A sin^

cos 0yjr+C

0-^^^=c^

whence

I 6 ^

^1
=

C^2
" "

COS "^i ^
.

-i

-^-^

0) /

cos

A 8111^0

and

^
T

t?n
'
=

"

C. COS
"

BUT

.' 2

0
^'

".

-^A^
M

(^2-^1 COS g)n

-^A^^

^^

(^2
-

^1 COS

sy]

Chap.

II]

TOTAL

IGNORATION

OF

COORDINATES

57

Forming

the

Lagrangian e
A

equation
-

for 0 in the usual

+
coa^

way,
.

we

^^""^
.s Ad

^^^
-

cos (^f + c|) ^-^

c,c^

y
sm^

(1
^

g) ^

mija

sni

6,

or

Ad

(^1
-^^^^

^2

cos

ff)(e, '
A
,

"

c,
"

cos

tf)
=

-4^
which
is identical

.^

mga

sm

^ ^,

sin*^

with

(7), Art.
EXAMPLE

10,

(c),

Work
23.

the The

problem

of Art.

20,

(J),ignoring
an

the

coordinate

ft

problem
are

of Art.

20,

has (rf),
there

interesting
no

peculiarity. kinetic
to

Both energy

coordinates that

cyclic, and

is

term

in the

is linear

in

"^,
of

the

velocity the

corresponding
constant

the

ignorable

coordinate

"^.

Consequently
which "^,

momentum

j9^ is
This

constant

multiple
also

is therefore
term

itself a constant. in the

energy

is true involves

of
T^^

p^^
and

and
M^

of
must

the mF"/)',
then

which

"^.
only

differ from
are

mo^^^

by constants,
the
terra

and Lagrangian

as

the derivatives

of M^

used
to

in forming the

equation

for ^,
T^
we

we

have

merely

disregard

mlc^^^
In

in the

energy
like

and
are

use

what

is left of T^
to

instead ignore

of M^. the
as

cases

this

able

practically
the

contribut

to
as

the

energy itseK, thus

made and

by
of

ignored
we no can

coordinate

well the
we

the

coordinate
we

course

conclude
on

that
motion

motion
are

may

disregard
that

has
two

effect

the

studying,

but

the

can

go

on

together

without

interference.
EXAMPLE

Examine

Exs.

and

2, Art.

20,

from

the

point

of

view

of

the

present

article.

24.
to
X

(a) The

wedge

and
class.

sphere Both
x

problem

of Art.

20,

(c),belongs
and

very

important

and

are

cyclic coordinates,

is ignorable.
dT

p^

-~

4(Jtf m^x

"

my

cos

a,

p^

0.

"/X

58 The

IGNORATIOX

OF

COORDINATES

[Art.
it
zero

24

momentum

p^

is

constant,

and

as

is

initially

zero

(since the
motion,
as

system
is

starts

from

rest)
the

it is

throughout
T^

the the

pjc.

Consequently
31^
are

kinetic
and do

energy
as

and
are

modified
homogeneous reduce
to

expression

identical,
and
Z

they
contain

both
y, they

quadratics
the

in y

p^
is

and
a

not

form
our

Ly^j where
Lagrangian

constant.

Therefore

equation

for

is Ly

mg

sin

a,

and If
may form
we

the

sphere

rolls down

the motion

wedge
of the

with

constant
on

acceleration. the

care

only

for the
x

sphere
yet

wedge, of

we

then

ignore
M^
to
course

completely
valuable
we

and

know
as

enough
to

the

of

get

information
that
terms
can
x
'

the

required
the whole

Of
^motion. system
can

know
in
it, we

the of

energy

of
we

be
to
so

expressed
express

y, and

if

are

able

by

any

means

solve
at

completely stage

for y without
process.

using

the
a

ignored striking

coordinate
example

any

of the

(6)

As

of
with
a

this

complete
system
us an

ignoration

of
an

coordinates, infinite number of

a

and

of of

dealing

moving
let in

having
the

degrees
sphere

of freedom, under gravity

liquid the

take

motion

homogeneous liquid,

infinite

incompressible

both

sphere

and

being

initially at rest.

From
can

considerations

of
a

symmetry,
single
a

position
a;,

of the
the
x

sphere

be

fixed

by

giving
sphere

coordinate fixed

distance
is clearly

of
a

the

center

of the

below

level, and

cyclic
The
terms

coordinate.

positions of
x

of the
a

particles

of the

liquid

can

be

given

in

and

sufficiently
"
"

large
a

number

infinite) (practically
of ways.
the Assume cyclic*

of

coordinates
a

q^^ q^^

.,

in

great

variety
all

that Then,
sphere

set

has

been

chosen

such
no

that

q^s

are

since

gravity
the

does
^''sare the

work

unless

the
That

position

of

the
one

is varied,

all ignorable.

is, for every since the

of them
starts
6'^
=

p^. from

0, and
rest

momentum

jt?^
=

c?^,

and
zero,

system

the

initial value

of pj^ is

and

therefore

0.
That

Jf,^,,^,..., the
this is possible
Forces

energy

of the system

modified

for all the g^'s,

with
the
treatment

of Impulsive

will be shown Chap. Ill, Art. (v.

later, in connection

36).

Chap.

II]
identical
with the

SUMMARY

69
T^^.p,.... and
x

is then

energy

must

be expressible corresponding
energy
constant.

in terms

of the

remaining
21,

coordinate
; and
as
a:

and

the
the

velocity
system

(v. Art.
be
the

(d))

is cyclic
Z
a;,

of the

will then

of the

form

L^^

where

is

Forming

Lagrangian

equation
Lx
=

for

we

have

mg^

and

we

leam

that

the

sphere

will

descend

with

constant

acceleration.

Of

course as

this brief solution

to

is incomplete,

as

it gives

no

mation inforsince

the

motion

of the

particles
we

of the
leam

liquid,
the

and

we

do

not

know

the

value

of Z,

do not

magnitude valuable. the aid

of the
The

acceleration.

Still the solution

the
proves

is interesting calculated

and by
one

energy

of

moving
to

liquid,

of
the

hydromechanics,
mass

be

\rt\!^^ where
by
the

rrJ is

half chanics, Hydrome-

of

the
Art.

Hquid 91,

displaced

sphere the
our

(Lamb,

(3)),

and

therefore agrees
II.

energy
result

of the

system

is

(m 1^
25.

-j-m')

i:*, and

this

with

Summary

of

Chapter

The of
'

kinetic

energy
can

of

moving

system
in terms

which

has
n

degrees

freedom
*

be

expressed
^

of the

coordinates
" "

q^^ ?2'

*'

?"' ^^^
so

^'^

ized generalit is
a

momenta

jt?^,jt?^,

",

j9", and
the
time

when

expressed if the

homogeneous
equations

quadratic do
not

in

momenta

geometrical
and
is called

involve

the

(v.

Art.

14),

the

Hamiltonian Hamiltonian

expression expression for

for for the

the the

kinetic kinetic energy,

energy. energy,

If

:7^
T^

is

the

and

the

Lagrangian

expression

kinetic

-"

-^

"

T-^

and

^
"

Oj..

The

work

done

by

the

effective of the

forces

in

hypothetical
an

infinitesimal

displacement

system,

due

to

infinitesi-

[dT'\
this be
written equal
to

Qk^q^,^ the

work

done

by

the

actual

60 forces
in
the

THE

HAMILTONIAN

EQUATIONS
in
question,

[Art.

25

displacement
of the

there

will

result

the

differential

Equation

first order,

The

2w

equations

of which

this and

given

above,
of motion

are

the

type

are

known

as

the

llamiltonian

tions equa-

for the
Ti

system.

If, in the expression

are

-p/i^
values

replaced

by
'

their
"

-p^q^ in terms
Mg^

p^q^, q^, ^a^

of p^, p^,
^
"

"

"

"

?r"

"

.,

jt?^,j^^^,

""""

?"' ?i" ?2'

''

?"' *^" kinetic

result

is the for the the

Lagrangian
coordinates has

expression ?i'
"

for ^^^

the

energy

modified for which

we

"

""

?r'

^^^" coordinates
that is, for

expression

been

modified,

i"r-fl,

have

Hamiltonian

equations

of

the

type
.

CM

dq^
dM

9k=-^

"

For

the

remaining
equations

coordinates,
of
d the
dM

that

is, for

k"

r^

we

have

Lagrangian

type
cM
=

^*-

rf"^^"a7
Whether
kinetic
we

(V.

Art.

17)

work
or

from

the

Lagrangian

expression
T^,
or

T^

for

the

energy,

the

Hamiltonian

expression
are

the

fied modia

Lagrangian
of
simultaneous upon

expression differential the

we iM^^,...,

in general

led to

set

equations

whose

number
in the and

depends
moving
solve all.

merely
system,

number
that
to

of -degrees
solve
one

of freedom
must
are

and

such

we

form
cyclic

If, however, and

the

some

of the

coordinates
such that

(v. Art.
one

16),

impressed

forces

are

when

any

of them

Chap.

II]
no

SUMMARY

61
are are

is varied

work

is done,

the

corresponding

momenta

constant

throughout able
in
the
sense

the

motion,

and
constants

these
are

coordinates

ignorfor
the

that

if
in

substituted
the Hamiltonian former

corresponding for the

the

momenta

Tp

or

-3lf,,....,

tions equacase

remaining
equations
can

coordinates
in the latter

in

the
can

(or
and,
tions equa-

Lagrangian

case)

be formed
the

if capable

of solution,
to starts

be

solved

without

forming

corresponding
If the
system

the from

ignored
rest

coordinates.
and there
are

ignorable for

coordinates

Jtf'g^,..., the

Lagrangian
is identical the
not

expression
with

modified kinetic
from

the

ignorable
the

coordinates,

the
starts
a

energy
or

of
not,

system; is
in
a

and

whether

system

rest

Mg^^...

quadratic,
velocities

but

necessarily
to

homogeneous coordinates

ratic, quad-

the

corresponding

the

which

are

not

ignorable.

CHAPTER
IMPULSIVE

III
FORCES

26.

Virtual

Moments.
to
a

If
system,

hypothetical
the

infinitesimal
of
in

ment displace-

is given distance
the

product
is moved

any the

force

by

the
of
sum

its point is called

of
the

application
virtual
moment

direction
the

force

of the
the

force, and
moment

of all the
set

virtual

moments

is called

virtual

of the

of forces. If the

forces
;

are

finite forces,
work which

the

virtual

moment

is the

vir-

tiuil work

that

is, the

would
forces

be
are

done

by

the

forces forces,

in the the

assumed

displacement.
is not

If the
virtual
we

impulsive has
an

virtual
as

moment

work

but give

tion interpretawe

virtual

action, which
the

shall
a

later system.

when

take

up

what
27.

is called

action
a

of

moving

For
the

the

motion

of

particle

under

impulsive

forces

we

have

familiar

equations

(^1

^0)

^'

are

called

the

effective
equivalent
is given

impulsive
to
an

forces
actual

on

the

particle

and

are

mechanically

the

forces. displacement,

If the

point

infinitesimal

is the
equal

virtual
to

moment

of
moment

the

effective of the
62

forces

and

of

course

is

the

virtual

actual

forces.

Chap.

Ill]

COMPONENT

OF

IMPULSE

68

If the by

generalized
forces q^ by

coordinates
are

of
'

moving
^

system

acted

on

impulsive

y^, Jg'

'

*'

*^^ the

displacement

caused

by

varying

hq^ is given

to

system,

where

hqA

represents

the
dx

virtual
dx

moment

of the

effective

forces.

As

in Art.

7,

Hi
^x
rrx.

Hx
dx
,

1 hereiore

m
=
" "

d
-

mx

-"

mx

-7-

( ir ),

,^.

and

8,^

s?i-

"-[CD.-".:
(where
forces
to

Pq^^q^ is the

virtual

moment

of the

impressed

impulsive

and
is

Pq^
our

is called

the

component and

of

impulse
course

corresponding
we

q^

Lagrangian for every

equation,

of

have

one

such

equation

coordinate
written

5'^. equivalent

Equation

(1)

can

be

in the

form

28.
a

Illustrative

Examples,

(a)
and
the

lamina

of
on

mass

rests

on

smooth

horizontal magnitude
P

table
in

is

acted of

by

an

impulsive

force

of

plane

the

lamina.

Find

the

initial motion.
Let angle
of

(x^ y) be the
made
with

center

of gravity

of the
a

lamina,

let 6 be the
to

the

axis

of X
let

by
a

perpendicular
the

the the

line

action the

of the
center

force,

and

be

distance

of

force

from

of gravity.

64

IMPULSIVE

FORCES

[Art.

26

Then

i'^ =

I [i*+

y" +

i"^.

(V. App.

A,

" 10)

CPxX="ipX=CPi)o
If
we

^0, and

the

axes

are

chosen

so

that

=0,

0,

have
mx
=

0,

Hence

the

initial velocities 0,

are

a;

The

velocities

of

point

on are

the

axis

of X

at

the

distance

from

the

center

of gravity

The

point

in question

will have
lamina

no

initial velocity
to rotate

if 6
an

It follows
center to

that

the

begins

about
center

taneous instan-

in the
action

perpendicular of
on

from
at
a

the

of gravity from
a

the

line

of

the
the

force
same

distance line of the the

that
as

line

and

situated
of

side of the point

force

the

center

gravity.

This

is called

center

of

percussion.

Chap.

IH]
A

ILLUSTRATIVE

EXAMPLE

66
below

(5)
A

wedge
rough of

of

angle
rests
a

and
on
mass
a

mass

M,

smooth
plane.

and

perfectly

above, radius
a

horizontal
m

sphere

and

is rotating
to

with

angular of
the

velocity wedge
motion

ft about

horizontal

axis
on

parallel

the

edge
the

and

is placed

gently

the

wedge.

Find

initial

(v.
as
a

Art.

9, Ex.

3).
Xj

Take

coordinates
axis

the
to

distance it in the of the the

of the

edge

of the plane the

wedge
the
;

from

fixed

parallel

horizontal sphere

; y,

distance
and

of the
angle

point

of contact which

down
has

wedge

0, the We
have

through

sphere

rotated.

both
is set

before
down,

and
y
"

after the

sphere Before
cannot

is set

down.

After
x
=

the
y
=

sphere 0

ad

0.

it is set

down,

and

ft.
F

Since
mp
on

the

sphere

slip,
equal the

it exerts

an

impulsive

force
exerted

the
it by

wedge, the

and

an

and

opposite the
two

force

F
come

is

wedge
dT-

at

instant

bodies

in contact.
We
have

p^

-^ ox
= =

(^M+ m)x

"

my

cos

a:,

Py

-^ dy
=
"

rn(^y-x

cos

a),

Pg

30

mf(^d.

Our

equations

are

(^M-^-rn)x

"

my
"

cos

0,
P,
'

(1)

m(y

cos

a)

(2)
(3)
(4)

7nA;'(^-ft)
and
we

-aP,

have

also

a6

y.

From

(2), (3), and

-"2"

(4),
y
a
-

2^ COS

"

(5)

66
From

IMPULSIVE

FORCES

[Art.

28

(1)

and

(5),
mco9
a

QM-j-m)

\x

11

cos

a,

and In (tf) velocity and y

as

CM+
Art.
v.

m)
8,

m
^

cos*

"^

y 4

(-M'-f m)
be

"

ft.

(6), let
the 8,

the

weight
let P

jerked down
the

with

a
x

Find

initial motion.

Take

coordinates
of the

in Art.

(6),and

be the

magnitude

jerk.

(d) Four
square
one are

equal
at rest

rods
on

freely
a

jointedtogether
table. of the of the of
A
one

in the

form

of

horizontal

blow

is struck

at

corner

in the

direction

of

sides.
four
a

Compare
rods. Take
center
a

the

initial velocities Let

m

be

of the middle the mass and 2 a

axes

points the

length Let

rod. the

pair

of rectangular

in the

table.

be (a:, "/)
made

of the

figure at any

time

and

6 and
a:,

the "\"

angles
our

by two

adjacent
points
are

rods with The rectangular obviously

the axis of X

"/, 0^

"^,

are

generalized four

coordinates.

coordinates

of

the

middle

(x-aoo^"^,y-a
(^x-\-a cos
6^

sin

y -{-a sin

"^), ^),

(1)
(2}

Chap,

ill]

ILLUSTRATIVE

EXAMPLE

67

(x
(x
We
have
"

cos

^^
0,

y + y
"

sin sin

"^),
0).

(3)

cos

(4}

Px

4:mxy

Let struck,

the

values let P

of

x,

y, ^,

"/",

be

0, 0, 0,

"

before

the

blow

is

and

be
are

the

magnitude 4 wi 4 my
=

of the
P,

blow.

Our

equations

0,

2w(a'-f
and
Whence

i^)^"=0,

2m(a^

A;^)"^aP.
=

0,

P
.

a;

im
aP

Let

Vj,

Vg,

Vg,

v^,

be

the required

velocities

of the

four

middle

points.

Then
.

r
.

3a'-hA^
a^^yk^
^2
^
=

5P
8/w
2P
=

^1

^^

'P

4m
P
^
=

4m

Q~' 8

k^-a^

IP

P
V.
*
=

2P

2:

4m

and

Vj^ : ^2

: t^g : v^

"

2.

68 29. General

IMPULSIVE

FORCES If

[Art.
an

29

Theorems.
at rest

Work

done

by

Impulse.

particle

(x^ y, z) initially

is displaced

to

the

position

(x -f Sa:,
brought
particle
v^,

can y '\-iy",2 -f S2), the displacement ht by in the interval of time about

be conceived imposing
to

of

as

upon
axes

the
are
w^,

velocity

whose
=

components
=

parallel

the

w^^

where

hx

u^St^ hy
particle
are
w,

and vJSt,

Sz
in

w^t
with
in
a

If the
components

is initially
v,

motion

velocity

whose

w^

the

displacement
upon it
w, v^

question

could

be

brought
components

about
are

by

imposing

an

additional
v,

velocity

whose

obviously
system

u^

"

"

w^

"

w.

Let forces.
P^,

moving

be
mass

acted
of any

on

by

set

of
the

impulsive
system
on

Let

be

the

particle

of

Pj,, P,,
w,

the
v,

components
w^
v^,

of the

impulsive of the

force

acting

the

particle ;

the
w^

components after, the

velocity

of the have
the

particle

before,

and

w^,

impulsive

forces
to

acted. system by
by

If any
which the

infinitesimal
coordinates

displacement of
the

is given
are

particle
moment

changed
the

Sj-, Sy,
forces

and
equal

S2,
to

we

have

the

virtual

of
actual

effective

the

virtual

moment

of the

forces

(v.

Art.

27);

that

is,

2iw

[(Wj

"

u)hx-\- (y^

"

v)Sy'\-(^w^
"

vf)"]
S

[P"

P^hy upon

PM']'
the cle parti-

If the
w,

velocity
it at

that
rest,

would
to

have

to

be imposed
its assumed
v^^

were

bring

about
u^^

displacement
u^Sty Sy
=

in the

time

ht has the

the

components

w^^

Sx

v^Sty

Sz

and wJSt,

equation
+

above
Vj t^)

may
"

be

written

2w

[(Wj

"

w)

Wg

(y^

"

+
=

(w^

w") wj
i;,P, +

2[i*,P,+
are

t^,P,].

(1)

Interesting

special

cases

of

(1)

I.[nP, +

vP^

wP,l

(2)

^^\u^P^^v^P^^w^p;\,

(3)

Chap.

Ill]
displacement
had
in in

THOMSON'S

THEOREM

69

the have
that

used
time

in

(2) being
the
the

what

the

system

would

the
what

St had
hi
we

initial motion
motion

continued, brought of about and

and
by

(3)

it has

actual

the
we

impulsive get

forces.

If

take

half

the

sum

(2)

(3),

or,

systerrCs gain

in
sum

kinetic

energy

caused

by

the
by

action

of

impulsive
every

forces
by

is the

of
sum

the
the

terms

obtained

multiplying

force

half

the

of

initial and resolved in

final velocities of
the
direction

its point

the

of force.
sum

application^

both

being

of

This

is usually

called

the

work

done

by

the

impulsive

forces.
30.
le
=

Thomson's
=

Theorem.

If

our

system

starts

from reduce

rest,

t^

0, and
to

formulas

(1)

and

(3),

Art.

29,

respec

Sw

+ \u^u^

v^v^

w^w;\

2
S

[u^P^ 4-

v^P^

-f

w^P;\, w^P;\.

(1)
(2)

and
But

27W
the

\ul + v^ -h w^-]
=

\u^P^ +

v^P^

first member

of

(1)

is identically

X I {["' +
and
subtracting

''"-

"J

["" +

^"

'"H

(2)
*''

from

(1)

we

get

X 1 {["

"^

["

^'

"]
.+

If
any

ifcg, Vg,

^^2'

^^"

^'^^ components motion

of velocity the
system

of the

particle

in

conceivable

of

which

could

give

the

70

IMPULSIVE

FORCES

[Art.
the
same

31

points
that

of application
have
and
at

of the impulsive
actual
motion,

forces
then

velocities

they is
a

in the
we

the

second

member

of

(3)

zero

get

Thomson^s

Theorem:
by impulsive

If
energy

%y%tem

rest

is set in motion
any

forces^its
the

kinetic

is less than

in

other

motion

where
are

the velocities
same as

of

the

points
actual

of

application by
an

of the forces
amount

in question
to

in the

motion^

equal

the energy

the system
motion,

would

have in the motion, which,

produce
31.

compounded
motion.

with the actual

would

the hypothetical

Bertrand's

Theorem.

If force

Q^, Q^, and

which would
in
to

Q^
have

are

the
act
on

components

of the particle
component
7n

impulsive
system

to

the
its

of the

considered
w,
v,

Art.
v^,

29
w^^

to

change

velocities

from

w^

w^,

formula

(3),

Art.

29,

gives

us

Stw

[(Wjj w) Wj
-

-f

(Vjj v) Vj
-

0^2

w')w^
+

^-^Iu^Q^
Subtracting
2m

v^Q^-^w^Q:].
get

(1)

(1)

from

(1)
+

in Art

29,

we

+ l(u^u^ SK(P,

v^v^

w^w;)
gj
+

+ (ill
-

"^2

"^2)]
-

v^(I\ (v.

Q,) + w^iP^

Q,)]. (2)

The

first member

of

(2)

is

Art.

30)

identically

X ? {["
If the

^'

'"?] ["' + "

-

"'^

second

member

of
the

(2)

is

zero,

as

will the

be

the

case

if the
actions

Q-forces differ from

and which
the reactions

P-forces

only

by

impulsive

due
no

to

the

introduction in the

of additional hypothetical

constraints

have

virtual
we

moment

motion

into

original
a

system,

have

Bertrand's
on

Theorem:

If
energy

system

in motion

is acted motion any

by

impulsive

forces^the
it would
and be

kinetic

of
were

the subsequent

is greater

than

if

the
on

system

subjectedto

additional

constraints

acted

Chap.

Ill]
same

THOMSON'S

THEOREM

71
it

by

the

impuUive

forces^ by
whichy

an

amount

equal

to

the eneryy

would

have
give

in the motion

compounded

tvith the

first motion^

would 32.

the second.*
the
aid

By

of

Thomson's
can

Theorem

many
as

problems
questions

involv in

impulsive
maxima

forces

be

treated

simple

and

minima.

(a) If, for

force
from
y
P
we

example,

in

Art.
v

28,

(a),

instead of the of
the

of

giving

the

give
center

the velocity of gravity

to

of the

foot
line

perpendicular force,
to
so

the
=

upon
motion

the
we

that

-\-ad
T^

Vy

then
"

find

the

have

only

make

the

energy

a [a?-\-y^ + 1^6^'\

minimum.

dTex

dT' dy

}?
a

Whence

i;

0,

y^^f^''
^=
^

V,

a^-vie
and
Art.
*

these
28,
Gauss

results

agree

entirely

with

the

results

obtained

in

(a).
s

Principle forces,

of Least
Gauss energy
take

Constraint
as

If

constrained
of the

system "constraint" with

is acted what
the

on

by

impulsive
the system

takes

the

measure

is

practically
that

kinetic

of the if all the

motion

which,
were

combined removed,

motion

the

would

constraints

would

give

the

actual

motion.

It
than

follows
in any

easily

from

Bertrand's motion

Theorem

that

this

"constraint"

is less

hypothetical

brought

about Rigid

by

introducing

additional

constraini

forces

(v. Routh,

Elementary

Dynamics,

"" 391-893).

72

IMPULSIVE

FORCES

[Art.
energy

33

(6)

In

Art

28,

((?), since

r,

the

To

make

Tk

minimum,

we

have

and

the

problem
Art

is solved.

{"") In
Tlieu

28,
^i

let (rf},

t)j

i +

a^

be

given.
2

(", f [-1
4 wy
=

+ ""^)*

4 y* +

(a" + F)("^

"^')

0,

ad

^'
dd)

"i[2(a" + F)"^
y
=

a(")j
-

a"^)]

0.

o, 0,
2av^

6
I

a' x
=

A"
=

2
,^
=

-"-,^

,^

-,^,

,
=

-a'

and

,,

a:-"^
Thomson's

^^j"
Theorem for
the

^t.,=--t..
we

33.

In
in

using
the

may

employ

any by

vahd
the

form

expression

energy in the

communicated
case

impulsive

forces.

For

instance,

of any

rigid

body,

is permissible

and

is much

simpler

than

the

corresponding

form

in terms

of Euler's

coordinates.

Chap.III]'
Take, for

THOMSON'S

THEOREM

73 An
elliptic disk axis and
one

example,

the
one

following
extremity

problem:
of

is at

rest.

Suddenly
of the

the
to

major
move

extremity
U

minor

axis
to

are

made
plane

with

velocities

and

perpendicular the
take

the

of

the

disk.

Find

the

motion

of
us as

disk.
the

Let

major
Y.

axis

as

the

axis

of X

and

the

minor

axis

the

axis

of

We

have,

then,

T=-^[f
point

e +

B"ol+ Co)']. Aa"l-\the components those

By

the

conditions
of the

of the problem,

since

of the
of the

velocity

(a,

0,

0)
we

are

0, 0,

Z7, and

point

(0, by 0)

are

0, 0,

F,

have
i:=0,

^
i

+
"

awg

0,
U\

a(D^

and

"

h(o^ y

0,

0,

Hence

|p ^(F-i/ |(Cr_iyj,
+ + +

or

='^\^
smce

\iV zf \iu
-

zy'^.

mh
=
"

ma

"

and

^,

"

--

"

\(u+vy
"i
=

We

have

also

^^

(5

^"

^)"

bo

74

LMPULSIVE

FORCES

[Art.

34

EXAMPLE

One
to
move

extremity

of

side of
to

square

lamina

is suddenly

made
velocity

peq)endieular
the other

the plane
is made
to

of the
to

lamina

with

U^

while

extremity

move

in the with
"

plane

of
F.

the

lamina that

and
the

perpendicular
center

the

side

velocity perpendicular

Show
to

will

move

with
"

velocity
2

the

plane,
on

and

with

velocity
V

in the

plane,

toward

the

corner

which
our

the

velocity

was

impressed.
from it is often system forces

34.
to
at

If

system
to

does
a

not

start

rest,

easy

frame
rest

and
and

solve
on

problem
by
the

in which
same

the

is mitially
as

is acted

impulsive the

in

the

actual

problem, with

and
the

where actual

consequently

resulting
the

motion,

compounded final motion.

For

initial motion,

will give

actual

example,

consider
any axis Find

the

following
placed

problem:
on a

sphere

rotating
horizontal
case,

about

is gently
the

perfectly
in the

rough
actual

plane.
lowest

initial motion. the sphere

Here,

the
rest.

point

of

is immediately

reduced

to

Take through

rectangular the
center

axes

of X

and

F,

parallel

to

the

plane
the

and
component

of the

sphere.

Let and
o)^,

Xl^, Xl^, ft^, be

cd^^, cd^

angular is placed of the Then,

on

velocities plane.

before, Let

after, the

sphere
center

the

i, y, be

the

velocities

of the

sphere.
in the

actual

case,

"

aWy

0 and

y +

cuo^

"

are

our

given
the

conditions.
are
"

Initially
aft^

the
aO^.

velocities

of the

lowest
at

point
rest,

of the

sphere

and

If the
case

sphere destroys

were

impulsive

force which
to

in the

actual the
us

these

velocities
velocities
;

would
that

give

the

lowest
"

point

negatives
then
rest.

of these
solve
the

is, ally

and

aO^.

Let

following the lowest

to

auxiliary point
a

problem:
to
move

sphere with

is at

Suddenly
"

is made

velocities

aO,^ and

all^, parallel

pair of horizontal

axes.

Find

the

initial motion

of the sphere.

Chap.

HI]
u

ILLUSTRATIVE

EXAMPLE

76
component

If

and

are,

respectively, of the

the

and
g)^, g)^,

the
are

component angular

of the
velocities.

velocity

center,

and

g)^,

the

The they
were

velocities

of
as

the
aft^

lowest

point
aO,^.
=

are

"

aw^,

v-f

aa)^,

but

given

and
u
"

"

Therefore

aco^

aH^,

IK
make

[K
this
a

^.y

+ "x)' + ('"i

*"

"l

".*)]}"

To

minimum,

we

have

dT
=

da)
1

[a\co^+ ft,)+ A^G)J

=

0,

dT
"

3(0

0. TWJfe^ffl "
=

Hence

"
^

ft,,
rt

-I,^^

At

""2

IT,

11.
^'

a^

0)
3

=0.

Compounding
actual

these

with

the
we

initial angular

velocities

in the

problem,

ft^, ft^, ft^,

get

ft).

ft,.

These completely

equations,

together the

with

"

atOy

and

y +

og)^

0,

solve

original

problem.

76
35.
A Problem

IMPULSIVE

FORCES

[Art.
now

35

in Fluid

Motion.

Let of

us

consider chapter motion.

that

an

interesting
was

application made by

of

tlie principles
to
a
on

this

which

Lord
m

Kelvin

problem

in fluid

It is shown

treatises

hydromechanics liquid, surfaces

immersed

if

an,

incompressibl in

frictionless,
extent
or

homogeneous
finite closed

either fixed

infinite
or

bounded
any

by any
or

moving,

and
imder
ever

with the

rigid of

flexible bodies
conservative

in it, is moving

action
at
a-,

forces be

(v.

Chap.

IV)

and

has

been

rest,

the
are

motion

will

what

is called

irrotational.

That

is, if

y,

2,

the

rectangular
by if i^ the
t;,

coordinates
there

of any
will

fixed tion funcof

the

point

in the

space

occupied

liquid,
are
2:,

be

y, z) "^(a;,

such

that
at

t^,

the
2,

components

velocity

of the

liquid
dS
OX

the

point
d(b

y,

cd)
cz

cy the

The

function

"^

is called

velocity-potential
the
v^
v,

function.
supposed
equation

Since
to

throughout
incompressible

the

motion

liquid
w^

is always

be

an

continuum^
an

must

satisfy the

of continuity

for

incompressible

liquid,

dx

dy

dz

and

therefore

"^ satisfies
da^

Laplace's

equation,
0
'

^.?!^
"^

dy^

4.^ dz'
^

and
term

will be uniquely if the

at

determined
of --^, the dn

except
velocity

for

an

arbitrary
to

constant

value

normal

the

surface, however
at

is

given

every
that

point

of

the

boundary
the

of

the

liquid,
motion

irregular
point motion of the

boundary.
at

Therefore
instant

actual

every if the

of the

liquid

any
when

is uniquely normal

determined,
at

is irrotational,

the

velocities

all points

boundary
wish
now

are

given.
prove
that

We
motion

to

that of

the

kinetic

energy

of the
not

actual

is less

than

any

other

motion,

necessarily

Chap.

Ill]

PROBLEM

Ds

THIRD

MOTION

77

irrotational,
the actual

consistent

with

the
at

equation the
at

of continuity

and

with

normal
w,

velocities
the

boundary.

If
let

tiy

V,

are

velocities

(xy y, z)
velocities
normal
"

in the in

actual

motion,

u-\-aj

v-f

/8, t^-f 7,
v^

be

the

the

hypothetical
at
=

motion,

and

let

be

the
we

actual have

velocity

any
v,,

point

of the
Z,
w, w,

boundary.
are

Then
direction
of the

lu-j-mv-\-nw

"^
on

where
Wj

the

cosines

of the normal,
at

and

w,

v,

are

the

components

velocity
motion,
+
7W

the

point

in question.

In

the

hypothetical

?(w
at

a)

+ /8) -f-n (w (t;

-f

7)

v^

the

same

point;

therefore

la'\-m^-hny
at

(1)

every

point

of the

boundary.
velocities
as

As
must

the obey

hypothetical the
law
+
dx

well

as

the

actual

velocities

of continuity,

dCu

a)

d(y-h^}
^
^

^(^^ + 7)^0
dz

dy
ca

dS

dy

f
--

and

therefore

ox

-f

-^

oy

-i 02

(2)

at

every

point
is the

in the

bounded
of the

space. actual
motion,

If T

energy

-i///t
where
p

w^

-h

v^

w^^

dxdydzy

is the
is taken

density

of

the

liquid,

and

where

the the

volume

integral

throughout
of the

the' space

filled by
motion,

liquid.

If jT' is the
T^

energy

hypothetical

+ ")' + ^ /YTEC^

(^ + ^y
^
+

(^

7)']

dxdy

dz

^^
+ P

CCCla'+
I jj ["^^ +

r/]dxdydz

/3v + ywl dxdydz.

78
By
the

IMPULSIVE

FORCES

[Art.
prove
0.

35

aid of Green's

Theorem

we

can

that

Ml
We
have

[aw H-

/8v -f

yw']
I

dx dy dz

III
-r-dxdi/dz=

UcosadS

(v. Pekee,
the
volume

Newtonian integral

Potential
is taken
over

Function,

p. 92
any

(143)),
bounded the
space,

where space
cos
a

throughout the

and

the the

surface
x

integral

boundary
normal
to

of

being
Now

direction

cosine

of the

the

boundary.

au

a-;^
ex

"

('a"p)" 07-,
ex

ex

and

lit
like

audxdydz

j la^dS

"

III

"f"
"

dxdydz.

In

manner,

III ^vdxdydz=

mfi^dS

"

III

"^
"

dxdydz^

and

III

'iw dx dydz=

ny^dS

"

I11

"f"

dx dy dz.

-^

Hence

III [au

-f

^y

dx dy ds -|-ytv^

^
But

^Ur%".
the
T'

the

surface

integral

vanishes

by
the

(1),

and

volume

integral
than It
the

vanishes
actual

by

(2).
T.

Therefore

energy

is greater

energy
the

follows

that

irrotational

motion under

of
the

any

frictionless of

incompressible
forces
which

homogeneous
is at every

liquid
instant

action

conservat

identical from

with
rest

the

motion
a

would

have

been
applied

suddenly
at

generated
in the

by

set

of

impulsive

forces
that the

points

boundary
all the

of the points actually

in Art.

liquid of the
have

and

such

they
normal

would

suddenly that

give these

boundary
at

velocities

points

the

instant

in question

(v. Thomson's

Theorem

30).

Chap.

Ill]
now

PROBLEM

IN

THIRD

MOTION

79

36. If

we

have

liquid

contained
a

in

material

vessel

and containing
?i' ?2'
'

immersed
^^^

bodies,

set to

of generalized the

coordinates
of the
'

"

*'

?"'

chosen,

equal

number by
the

of degrees vessel point

freedom immersed

of

the

material
and the and

system normal

formed
velocity surfaces

and

bodies,

of every

of the bodies ^^^

surface of the
can

vessel

of the

of the immersed

be expressed

in terms

of the

coordinates

q^^ q,^^""'"?""
" "

the corresponding

generalized
choose
other

velocities

j^, q^^

",

q". Ja, q{^

our
" "

We

can

now

ihdependent
which, the

coordinates with

",

practically

infinite in number,
"

together
of

nates coordi-

j'j,?2,

"

",

g'", will

give

positions

all the

particles

of the

liquid.
the system
set

Suppose
rest.

immersed (vessel,
of impulsive
in the

bodies,
not

and

liquid) at
in
number

Apply
than
71,

any
at

forces,

greater
and

points

surface

of vessel of motion.

of immersed
any

bodies

and

consider
we qj^

the

equations

For

of

our

coordinates

have

the

equation

where
since

p'^. is the

generalized
q'^ no
no

momentum

corresponding
coordinates
impulsive
moment

to
*

9^.,
5'n' its

(as

in

varying and

one one

of the

9^, Jg'

*'

is changed,

therefore

of the

forces

has

point

of

application

moved)
at

the
to

virtual

of the

component

impulse As

corresponding
motion from

q^

is

zero.

the

actual

every

instant

could

have
as

been
we

erated genhave
actual

suddenly

rest

by

such

impulsive

forces

just considered,
motion
;

the momentum impressed

always

pl^
forces

is

zero

throughout

the

and

the

being
a

by

hypothesis
no

conservative,

and

the

liquid

forming

continuum,

work

is

done

when

9^
dT
"-7 -f-

is varied.
=

Consequently,
=

in 0, and

the

Hamiltonian
dT

equation
Hence

"^
every

^^,p'i,

Q and

^^

therefore

-"7

0.

^k
q^^ is cyclic, and
it is also

Hk
completely is identical q'j^

coordinate The energy

ignorable.
with

modified

for the

coordinates
the

the

energy,

which,

being

free from

coordinates

q'j^

80

IMPULSIVE

FORCES

[Art.
of the
n

37

and

the
'

moment^/?^,
"

is expressible

in terms

coordinates
"

'/i"%"*

*'

^A" ^^^

^^^" corresponding

velocities

q^^ q^j these

"

",

j",

and

is Art.

homogeneous 24,

quadratic

in

terms

of

velocities

(v.

(")).
of Chapter system
care

37. which

Summary
a

III.

In

dealing
to

with
acted
on

problems by

in

moving
we

is supposed

be

sive impulabout
that

forces, by
the

only

for

the

state
on

of

motion

brought
assumption

forces
is
no

in

question, in
we are

since

the

usual

there

change forces, but

configuration
not

durmg
with

the the

action
values

of of

the

impulsive

concerned
the values

the

coordinates
The

merely
moment

with

of their of the

time

derivatives.
impulsive

virtual
in
an

(v. Art.

26)
Sq^^ in

effective

forces due
to

hypothetical infinitesimal

infinitesimal change

displacement
a

of the system, coordinate q^j is

single

If either
of the
we

of these

is written

equal

actual
one

impulsive

forces

tbe virtual moment -Pj.S^'^, in the displacement in question,

equations

to

have

of the

equivalent

The

equations

of

which
equations

either
in

of
the

these
n

is

the

type

are

simultaneous

linear

final the

velocities initial

(5'j)i
of

(5^2) 1'
motion

'

*'

^^^

^^"
to

configuration

and
no

state

are

supposed

be
one

given,
in
or

integration

is required,

and
A

the

problem
use

becomes

elementary of

algebra.
Theorem forces

skillful many

of Thomson's
in
motion

Bertrand's
impulsive

reduce

problems
in

under
mimima.

to

simple

problems

maxima

and

CHAPTER
CONSERVATIVE

IV

FORCES

38.
a

If

X,

F,

Z,

are

the

components

of
y,

the

forces work,
TT,

acting done

on

moving forces

particle

(coordinates x^
the particle
moves

2), the
from
a

by
^0'

the

while
^

given

position equal
to

(^0'^0' ^0)'^^

second
p.

position

P^,

(a;^, y^, 2^),is

{Xdx
one

rrf^ +

Zdz\
X,

and

since
case

every
a

of

the

quantities

F,

and
x^

is in
we

the

general
to

function

of

the

three

variables

y,

2,

need
to

know
W,

the Let

path

followed
y,

by
0,

the

moving
=

particle, 0, be the

in order equations

find the

f{x^
can

2)
in

y, 2) "^(a;,
z

of
then

path.
y

We

eliminate
terms

between of
a;;
we

these
can

equations then
z 2

and

express

exphcitly
same

eliminate
terms

y
x\

between and
we

the
can

two

equations these values

and

express

in
in X,

of

substitute

for y and

which
Xdx
can

will

I
found
Y

be

by

simple
Z
we

quadrature.
can

By
I

proceeding
and work Xdx
-\I

in the
Zdz^

same

way
sum

with

and

find

Ydy

and

the

of these
It

three

integrals

will

be

the

required.
Ydy
+

may
an

happen,
exact

however,

that

Zdz

is what
a

is

called

that differential^ such

is, that

there

is

function

U=(t"(Xy

y,

2)

that

I^.X,
OX

^^=Y,
cy
81

^^=z.
oz

82
Since the

CONSERVATIVE

FORCES

[Akt.
is

38

complete

differential

of this function

ex

cy

cz

or

Xdx

-h

Ydy

Zdz^

we

have
Ydy
?7,

[Xdx /I
and

Zdz'] "^(a:, y, 2)
=

r \xdx+
in

Ydy

-i-Zdz']

and

obtaining

this result

we

have

made

no

use

of the

path

followed When
exists,

by
the

the

moving
are

particle.
such
to

forces
are

that

the

function
and
U

U="\"(x^
is

y^

z^

they

said

be

conservative^

called

the

force function.
We forces
position is equal
minus
can
on a

infer,

then,

that

the
by

work
any path

done
from

by
a

conservative

particle
a

moving

given

initial

to

given

final position of the

is independent

of the

path

and

to

the

value in the
a

force

function

in the

final position

its value

initial position.

If instead
the

of

moving

particle applies. particle the

it

we

have

system

of particles,

reasoning
Let

given

above
any
at
as

(r^,y^., Zf!)be
forces
on

of the

system, the
one

and
whole

Yj^^ JE^.,

Z^^

be

the

applied
system
to

particle.
moves

Then

work,

TF, to

done
another

the

from

configuration

is equal

If y^t?
"
"

there
"")

is
25^,

function
" "

TJ
"
"

^{p^^i ^^g,
such that

"

"

",

a;;,.'

'

'"

V-^ ^2'

*'

^1?

.,

2^,

")

^-]r
then
U=

^_TYj^ dyj^ +
Zj^
"

^-y
is
"
*

dxj^ + \_Xj^ ^Jg, 4"(x^i

"
"

dzj^
^j,

an

exact

differential and
integral
set ; and

",

y^, ^2,

"

",

^2'

")
are

^'^^^" indefinite
a

and

is the

force function ;

the

forces

conservative

Chap.

IV]
work
to

POTENTIAL

ENERGY

83

the

done
a

by

the

forces

as

the

system

moves

from
to

given

initial
the the

given

final in the

configuration

is equal

the

value

of
in

force

function

final configuration
no

minus

its value the

initial configuration,

matter

by

what

paths

particles

may It such

have

moved known
as
or

from

their

initial to

their

final positions.

is well

and
the

can

be

shown

without

difficulty any

that

forces

gravity,
repulsion

attraction

of gravitation,

mutual

attraction

between
acts

particles
line
are

of

system

which

for
and such
to

every
is
a

pair

of particles

in the
apart,

joining the
conservative
or

particles
; while

function
as

of their distance
or

forces
the

friction,

the

resistance
are

of the
not

air

of

liquid

motion

of

set

of particles, force

conservative.
a

The

negative

of the

function
the
V,

of

system energy

moving
of the

under system,

conservative

forces

is called it by

potential

and If
are

we
we

shall
are

represent

dealing

with

motion

under
and

conservative

forces

and

using
not

generalized
the

coordinates,
time,
we
can

the

geometrical
the

equations

do

contain

replace

rectangular

nates coordi-

of the separate
or

particles energy

of the
their ?"' ^^^

system values
^^
^^^

in the force function

in terms

in the

potential

by
'
'

of the

generalized

coordinates
F,

g'j,5^3'

*'

\h\i^ get

U^ and

consequen

expressed expressed,
-system

in terms

of the

generalized done
by

coordinates.
the

If U is thus
forces
when

Q^^qj,(the work
is displaced

impressed

the

by changing
"

qj^by
";;"

hq^^ is h^JJ
hence

and

therefore

is approximately

hq^^

or

"

hq^^ and

dq^

cqj^

".=
dq^
39.
The
are

""

dqj^
Hamiltonian Functions.

Lagrangian

and
our

the

If the

forces

conservative,

Lagrangian

equation

^'

dt dq,

dq,

"

may

be written

"

dt

-^ dq^

-_i

dqj^

(2)

dq^^

84
V

CONSERVATIVE

FORCES

[Art.
of the

39

where

is the potential
"
"

energy

expressed
the
r,

in terms velocities

nates coordi" " ""

j'j,^ji If
"

'1

and

not

containing
L=T^-

j^, jg,

(3)
and
the velocities

is

an

explicit the

function

of the

coordinates

and

is called

Livjranyian

function.
and
=

Obviously
^-

^,
cq^

;;"

"?--

"

cq^

cq^

dqj^
can

dq^
very

Hence

our

Lagrangian

equation

(1)

be written

neatly

dt\cqj
If
tonian
our

dq.

forces
equations

are

conservative,

and

we

are

using
T^

the

Hamilof
let

and
and

express the

the

kinetic

energy

in terms

the

coordinates

corresponding
If=T^-hV.

momenta,

and

if

we

(5)
and
is
a

I"
...,

is called

the

Hamiltonian
"

function

function

of q^^ q^^

q^, and

;?^, ;"2'

"

"'

A-

Our

Hamiltonian

equations
p

Pk^

can

now

be

written

(6)

(7)
these
our

and
If
the

are

known
are

as

the

Hamiltonian and
we

canonical
are

equations.

forces

conservative, the

using
for
"

instead
the

of

kinetic
for
we

energy
some

Lagrangian coordinates
=

expression
q^^ q^^
F,
"

energy

modified and

of the
4"

""

Jr

(y* ^^'

17)" (8)

if

let
.!/".... .,,-

Chap.

IV]
have

THE

LAGRANGIAX

FUNCTION

86

we

for any

coordinate

q^^j^ the

Lagrangian

equation

--

and

for any

coordinate

q^^^. the

pair

of Hamiltonian

equations

40.

The

Lagrangian
T^

function

is the

difference

between

the j^, q^^

kinetic
"
.

energy
the

(expressed
terms

in terms
" "

of the
q^, and

coordinates

",

5'^,and

velocities

q^, q^^

",

homogeneous the j^, q^,

of the potential
"
.

second
energy

degree
V

in

of

the

velocities)and
coordinates
the
sum

(expressed

in terms

of the
If

.,

q^^.
q^,

The energy

Hamiltonian
T^

function
in terms
momenta

is

of

the j^, q^y

"

kinetic
.

(expressed
the

of the

coordinates
"
.

.,

and

the

corresponding
second energy

jt?^,jo^,
in
terms

.,

jo", and

eous homogenand

of the

degree
V

of
terms

the

momenta)

potential

(expressed

in

of the

coordinates

The

sum

of

the

kinetic

energy

and

the

potential
total energy

energy, of
the

however
system,

expressed, and
we

is sometimes represent
^=T+F.

called
it by
E^

the
so

shall

that

(1)
section is the

The

function
the q^^ jg,

"I" of

the

preceding

difference
the nates coordithe

between

kinetic
" "

energy the
"

(expressed
momenta

in terms
" "
"

of
,

"

q^^
"

jt?^, p^,
the
terms

jt?^, and

velocities

J^+i?

?r+2"

'"

?")? niinus

(similarly expressed), and

terms

the

potential
"
" "

energy

(expressed
shall

in

of the

coordinates

q^^ q^^

q^.

We

call it the

modified Lagrangian

function.

86
It
is to

COXSERVATIVE

FORCES

[Art.
of
"I" except

41

be

observed
the

that

all

the

terms
are

those

contributed
second

by

potential

energy

homogeneous and
the

of

the
not

degree
by

in the momenta the

introduced

velocities

eliminated

modification.

41.

In

dealing
we

with may

the

motion

of

system

under

conservative

forces, in any
one

form
ways,
a

the

differential
the

equations

of

motion
are

of given
or

three

and

equations
"

in

question

practically

by giving
the

single function
function,

X, the
or

Lagrangian
modified

function,

H^

Hamiltonian

"I", the

Lagrangian
Every parts
:

function.*
one

of

these

functions

consists

of two depends
the

very merely

different
on

one,

the potential

energy

Fi which
on

the

forces, which
system; the

in turn
other,

depend
the
M^
...,

solely

configuration
T
or

of the

kinetic

energy

the

modified
the velocities

Lagrangian
or

expression
momenta

either of which system

as

involves
as

the
are

of the
as

well

its configuration.
as

If

we

using freedom,
us

many
a mere

independent
inspection

coordinates of
the
or

there

are

degi'ees
will which

of

the
two

given

function, of

enable

to

distinguish
the
terms

between
energy

functions

it is formed,

potential
not

its negative
or

being

composed

of all the
we

involving
some

velocities

momenta.

If, however, 16, 21, and

are are

ignoring
using
/T

of the

coordinates

24)

and

(the Hamiltonian
for the
or

(v. Arts. function) or ^

(the Lagrangian
tlie portion

function

modified
to H

ignored
J!f

expression

contributed for the kinetic

quadratic and may
contain

by

T^

to

"I" by

coordinates), (the modified

necessarily
momenta
a

energy)
in the
temis

is

no

longer and
merely
terms

homogeneous Art.

velocities

(v.
nates coordito

21)
and

involving

the

therefore energy would

a

indistinguishable
;

from
the that

belonging
of
the motion

the
not

potential

and

consequently with

part

ignored
by

be

identical quite

which the

would
actual

be

duced pro-

set

of forces

different

fronj

forces.

Indeed,
serve

for equations
as

of the
L
or

Lagrangian

type,

any

constant

multiple

of L

or

4" will

well

as

4".

Chap.

IV]
may
note

ILLUSTRATIVE

EXAMPLE

87
does

We

that

the
so

last paragraph

not

apply
are

if the
zero

system

starts

from

rest,

that

the

ignored

momenta

throughout
Let
us

the

motion

(v. Art.
problem
to

24,

(a)).
8,

consider
V

the
seen

of Art.
"

(c?), where
in

the potential

energy

is easily
are

be

mgx.

If

we

using
^

the
_

Lagrangian

method,

as

Art.

8,"rf), (1)

we

have
=

f [2^
1

("-^)^
method,
t?2

2^r].
as

If

we

use

the

Hamiltonian

in

Art.
-I

15,

(cf),we

have

[v^

If
Art.

we

use

the

Lagrangian have

method

modified

for

^,

as

in

20,

(6), we

^^^hd^ 2L
A
us mere

P^'

2.
,,+

J.
J
functions
niffx.

(3)

nr(a^xy
one

inspection
out

of any
potential
are

of these
as as

three
F
=
"

enables

to

pick

the
we

energy

If, however,

ignoring

^,

in

^Vrt.

22,

Example,

we

z\_
and
may here,
so

m\a
function
or

"

xy
the

J
potential
e"
"

far

as

the

"I" shows, it may

energy
mgx.
were

be

"

mgx^

as,

in fact, it is,

be
A
Vfi \0l/
"

"^
Xj

Indeed,
2
m

the
it

hanging
were

particle
on

moves

precisely force

as

if its

mass

and

acted

by

having

the

force

function

^=

"

-2

mgxi
(j^

{a

"

xy
equal
to

that If,
to

is,

force

vertically important
measure

downward

mg

^_"

m^a
as

xy

in many

problems
the

(v.Chap.
forces

V),

we

are

unable and
are

discern

and
to

impressed

directly
on

attempting

deduce

them

from

observations

the

behavior

of

88

CONSERVATIVE

FORCES

[Art.
know
cannot
to

42

complicated

system,

wliich
the

for

aught

we

may

contain

undetected
with

moving

masses,

fact that

we

discriminate
the

certainty

between by
the

the
the

terms

contributed
energy energy
of may

modified and

Lagrangian
those

function

kinetic

the

system
to

contributed
and

by

potential

lead of
the

entirely

different phenomena
42.

equally

plausible

explanations

observed

(v. Art. 51).

of Energy.

Conservation

If

we

are

dealing

with

system
" "

moving
are

under of

conservative
t, the

forces, the
as

coordinates

q^^ q^,
q^^ ^a'

",

q^^ ?""
are

functions

time,

are

also the velocities

'

*'

Therefore
functions
Let As the
us

Fi the potential
of the time, find
-"

energy,
sum,

and

T,

the

kinetic

energy,
function

as

is their

the Hamiltonian

H.

"

dt

^depends

explicitly

on

the

coordinates

q^, ?2'

'

"'

?"' ^^^

momenta

p^, J^j'

*'

i^"'

dt
But

^[Sq^ dt
equations

dp,,

dt]
39,

by

our

Hamiltonian

(v. Art.

(6)

and

(7)),

^
=

%=.^, _?^, dqj^

and
dt

dt

dp^

and

(1)

becomes

dt

dp, [dq,
T-\-V
=

"

dp,

^ ^

dq,\
(3) forces
the

Therefore
where Hence
sum

ff==h,

A is

constant.

in

any

system
energy

moving and

under

conservative
energy

of
This

the

kinetic

the potential

is constant

during

the motion.
is called the any

Principle

of the

Conservation
energy during

of Energy.
the
motion

Since
is

by

(3)

loss in potential
an

just balanced
in potential

by

increase
is equal

in
to

the
the

kinetic work

energy, by

and
the

the

loss

energy

done

actual

Chap.

IV]
during familiar
or

HAMILTON'S

PRIKCIPLE

89

forces

the

motion,
:

our

principle
a

is

narrower

statement

of the

principle
not,

If

system kinetic

is moving

under is always

any

forces^
equal
to

c"mservative

the gain

in

energy

the

work
43.

done

by

the actual
Principle.

forces.
Let
a

Hamilton's

system
at

move

under
t^

conservative

forces
at

from the

its configuration

the

time

to

its configura

time

t^.

We d
dL

have
dL
.^

dt C(i^

cq^

where

X,

the

Lagrangian
the

function,
had

is equal made that

to to

T"V.
move

Suppose
first to slightly that
in
at

that the

system

been
so

from

the

second

configuration
with

the

particles
velocities,

traced but
so

different
any
actual time

paths
t

slightly

different

every

coordinate
an

qj^ differed
amount,

from

its value
so

the

motion

by

infinitesimal
its value
or

and
actual

that

every

velocity
an

q^^ differed
amount,

from

in

the

motion

by

infinitesimal

(using
hqj^ and

the
were

notation

of

the
;

calculus

of variations)* so
it had

that

hq^,

infinitesimal
at

and
time

suppose
t^.

reached
time

the
t the

second

configuration between
value
^

the

Then,
the
is SX,

if at the hypothetical

difference and
_

the
the

value actual

of

in

motion
^"

its

in

motion

Now,

at

the

time

f,
,

dL^.

dL

dt\cq,^7

dtdq,

^*

For

brief

introduction

to

the

calculus

of variations,

see

Appendix

B.

90

CONSEEVATIVE

FORCES

[AaT.44

Therefore,

by

(2), "Z

| J)[?^ "?*]'
are

and

fydt Bj^'Ldt=[x'4M'
=

Since
motion

the and

terminal
in the

configurations hjrpothetical

the and
t

same

in the
time

actual

motion
t^

the
=

of transit

is the

samcy

Sq^

0 when

and

when

t^,

and

f'Ldt=S f\T-V^dt 0.
=

(3)
be
as

But maximum

(3)
a

is the necessary
a

condition and
under

that

should

either follows
time

a
:

or

minimum

is sometimes

stated

When

system

is moving

conservative

forces^the
and

integral

of
energy
is known

the

between difference
system

the kinetic
"

energy

the potential
motion.

of the
as

is

"

stationary

in

the actual

This

Hamilton's

principle,*
Action.

44.

The

Principle

of Least
'*

If the

limitation

in the preceding
motions

section

that

in the
the

actual

and
the

the

hypothetical

the
*

time

of transit
principle
worth systems.
use

from

first to
important
a

second

configuration
and

is

Hamilton's
it
seems

plays
to

so

part

that

while

obtain

formula

for

in mechanics it which is not

physics
to

restricted

conservative
We

shall

rectangular
and
the

coordinates,

the

actual For

motion

hypothetical
system
we

every

particle

of the mi
=

to the hypothesis as shall make has been motion which above. employed have the familiar equations

and

we

X,

my

F,

TTw;

Z.

Since

^ I (*^ +
dt

1^2+ i^),

at
"

at

But

?7ix

"

5x

"

(xto)

"

mxbx

"

(mxbx)

Xbx,

dt

Ot

at

Hence

5T

[Xdx
2

Ydy

Z8z]
+

2m

[x8x + ^5y
2

iSz],
=

and

r
If the

'{5T +
system

[XSx

Y^

ZSz^jdt

[mxdx
+

i^V + iSz]'.^
=

0.

is conservative,

2[X5x

Ydy

Zdz]

5Z7

"

5T,

and

we

get

the

formula

(3)

in

the

text.

Chap.

IV]
"

PEIKCIPLE

OF

LEAST

ACTION

91
taken
t will
as

the
same

same

be but

removed
at

and

the

variations

be

not
no

at

the

time

arbitrarily corresponding variable but

will
r.

times,

longer

be

the

independent

be
We

regarded
now

depending

upon

some

independent

parameter

have

(v. Art

43)

dL
^.

dL

dL
^
.

^.

and

^^

|S[^^*]-|^'-2;["
dL

dT^

smce

Hence

Sx

4S^ t|s"|^[^
=

If

now

we as

impose

the the

condition

that

during
the

the

hypothetical
of
the

motion,

during

actual

motion,

equation

conservat

of energy

holds

good,

that

is, that

then
"

ST SZ
=

+
=

Sr

0,

ST-Sr

2ST

S(2T),

and

(1)

becomes

92

CONSERVATIVE

FORCES

[Art.

45

and,
The

finally,

C'2Tdt
defines

0.

(2)
forces,

equation

-^

2Tdt

the

action^ A^ of the the principle

that

and

the

fact As
a

stated
matter

in

(2)

is usually

called

of

least is

action.
"

of fact,

(2)

shows

merely

the

action

stationary."
45.

In

establishing followed

Hamilton's

principle
to

we

have

supposed

the
to

course

by
that

the the

system time

the

limitation

varied, of transit from

;

be

subject merely
initial to
as

final
total

configuration
energy
course. we

should

be

unaltered
the the

consequently,
course

the
a a

is not

conserved, is, to
compel

varied
system

is

not

natural
course

That

to

follow forces

such
that

should
work.

have

to

introduce

additional

would

do

In have

establishing supposed
the

the
course

principle

of

least

action, system

however,
to

we

the

followed
that
the

by
total

the

be

varied,
unaltered

subject to
is, to

limitation

energy
is
a

should
course.

be

; consequently

the

varied
to

course

natural
a

That
we

compel

the

system

follow

such
that from motion

course

need
work. of

introduce

merely

suitable
both
the

constraints

would
the
can

do

no

We
motion.

have

deduced

principles of

equations

Conversely,
either

equations

be
a

deduced necessary

from
and

of

them.
condition

Each
for

of
the

them
equations

is therefore of
motion.

sufiicient

Chap.

IV]
The
action,

DEFINITIONS

OF

ACTION

93 of forces

46.

Ay

of been

conservative

set

acting

on

moving
the

system

has

defined
^

as

the

time

integral

of twice

kinetic

energy.
A=

f '2Tdt.
C \m

(1)

But

A=

''^m

(d^-i-f-hi')dt=
=

(^\

dt=

C \mv^dt
(2)

Therefore

C^mvds,
well

so sum

that

the

action any

might
one

just as
the

have

been

defined of the

as
momentum

the

of terms of
There
a

of which along

is the

line integral

particle

taken

actual

path

of the particle.
the action, which

is another involve the

interesting
time
even

expression

for
a

does

not

through

velocity.

Since

T+r=A,
m

2T=2(A-r).
+ T=^'^(i?

As

i^,

".(|)'.2(*-r),
and

Cy/2(hproof under principle of giving

r)^md8\
differential forces

(3)

47.

We

have

stated for any

without system

that

the

tions equa-

of motion be

conservative
or

could of
will

deduced

from
action.
a

Hamilton's Instead
case,

from

the

principle
we

stationary

the proof

in general,

give it in

concrete

that

of

under projectile

gravity.

94

CONSEEVATIVE

FORCES

[Akt.
F

47

We
X

shall

use

fixed

rectangular taking

coordinates,
the

horizontal
starting

and
point

vertically

downward,
In

origin

at

the

of the

projectile.

this

case,

obviously,
V=-w^.

+ y^), T=|(i^

and
have

(a) By

Hamilton's

principle,

we

2gx']dt^Q, hp'jii!'^f
+
or

(1)

r'i[f +
I

f^2gx']dt

().

\_xSx -|-^S^

-|gSx]

dt

0.

0. j\xj^Sx-\-if"Bi/+gBx\dt
=

Integrating

by

parts,

but
the

since

Sx and

Sy

are

wholly

arbitrary, this is impossible

are

unless

coefficients

of Sx and

Sy in the integrand

both

zero.

Hence

^-^
dt'

0,

""

(6)

By

the

principle

of stationary

action,

we

have

whence

C'C^
Jr.

+ f)i^dr-^r'^h(f Jr.
"""

f)dr

(i.

(1)

ar

Chap.

IV]
fit

LEAST

ACTION

95

But
o"

(^
S ^^
"

"*"^)

"~

^^^^

Hence

gix^

and

S(i" +
^_l_ ^
d

^)=8f""+^8a;.
d d

sm""

^-^di~di^-Ttdt^'

(^- App.

B,

"

6,

(11)

and

(1)

becomes

or

Integrating

by

parts,

we

get

^xSx ifSi/y-JY^
+

But the

52; and
and

Sy
the

are

zero

at

the

beginning
so

and

at

the

end

of

actual

hypothetical

paths,

that

i(x-g)hx X^i
11

dt
+

yhy']"dr

0,

and

as

hx and

hy

are

wholly

arbitrary, this necessitates

that

y
as

o,

in Art.

47,

(a).

96
48.

CONSERVATIVE

FORCES

[Art.
in
a

48

Although

we

have
the

proyed
action

merely

that

system

under

conservative

forces

satisfies the 0, it may

cases

necessary

condition
an

of

minimum,

namely,
that
**

SA
in

be

shown is

by
a

rate elabo-

investigatioD

most

it actually

minimum,

and

that

the

name

least

action,'^

usually

associated

with

the

principle, A very
to
a

is

justified.
corollary
mo\'ing
no

pretty
system

of the principle under

In
no

comes
or

from

its application

forces

under
cases

constraining
the

forces energy

that
V

do
zero,

work.
and
,

either

of these
the kinetic
,

potential

is

consequently

energy

is constant,

thatis,T=t
A=

r'2Tdt=2h
is proportional is along

r'dt
to
course

2h(t^-^Q
time

and
the

the

action motion

the

of

transit.

Hence

actual

the

which

occupies

the

least

possible
For energy

time.

instance,
v*

if

particle the
start to

is moving

under

no

forces,

the

-^ it

is constant,

velocity
to

of the in the

particle

is constant,
time,

and

as

moves

from from

finish

least possible

it must

move

start

finish by

the

shortest

posi^ible path,

that

is, by

straight
of

line. freely
the

If
move

instead
on

moving

the
same

particle
argument

is

constramed proves
that

to

given
a

surface,
on

it

must

trace

geodetic
Action.*

the The

surface.
action,
A,

49.

Varying

between
forces

two

tions configuratheoretically and

the

of

system
in terms

under
of the 46,

conservative

is

expressible
total

initial and

final coordinates
so

energy
it the

(v. Art.
if

(3)), and,

when

expressed,

Hamilton

called
In

characteristic

function.

like

manner,

S=

r\T-V^dt=^ f\f^2V}dt, f*'Ldt=

account
or

For

detailed
chap,
x,

of Hamilton's
Dynamics,

Dynamics,

Webster,

method, " 41.

see

Kouth,

Advanced

Rigid

Chap.

IV]
be expressed
system,
the

VARYING

ACTION

97
final coordinates of transit. When

may
the

in terms
total

of the
and

initial and
the
time

of
so

energy, called

expressed,

Hamilton the
the
variation

it the in

principal

functioTL By
functions
Hamilton integrals

considering

produced

either of these
the

by

varying
that

final

configuration of
these

of

system,
the

show^ed the could equation would

from

either

functions for
a

of

differential

equations

of
he

motion

the

moving

system

be

obtained,
of the

and

discovered
S

partial

differential
one

first order
so

that

would problem

satisfy and

that

satisfy, and of motion

reduced

the

of solving
to

the

tions equa-

for any

conservative

system

the

solution

of

partial It must
thus

differential be

equation

of the

first order.
in most
cases

confessed,

however,

that rather

the

advantage
as

gained

is theoretical

than is apt

practical,
to

the
as

solving

of the
as

equation

for solving

or

for A

be

at

least

difficult

the

direct

of the

equations

of motion.

CHAPTER
APPLICATION

V
TO PHYSICS
in

50.

Concealed

Bodies. system

In

many

problems

mechanics
so

the
a

configuration of
coordinates
at

of the
can

is completely

known,
fix
are

that

set

be
time;

chosen

that the

will

the

configuration
go

completely the system that

case

any

and
the

forces

given,
can

that found.

if

is conservative the
can

potential
function
L

energy
or

be

In

Lagrangian formed, and

the

Hamiltonian

function
of the
the
In

be
can

then

the

problem
by forming

of the
and

motion

system

be

solved

completely

solving

equations
most

of motion.
in physics,

problems
the
to

however,

and

in

some

problems
It may
in

in mechanics

state

of things
the choice

is altogether
or

different.
the forces

be

impossible
so

know the

configuration
of
a

their
or
'our

entirety,

that

complete

set

of coordinates
is beyond

the

accurate

forming

of

the
to

potential

function
to
measure,

powers,
control
we

while
the

it is possible

observe,
by

and

partly

to

phenomena

exhibited
results experiment

the

moving
have
are

system

which
or

are

studying.

If from from

which
we
or

been, observed able

to set

have

been
the

deduced

up

indire

Lagrangian Lagrangian
and

function,

the
we

Hamiltonian
can

function,
our

or

the

modified

function,
them

then

form
and
in the

feren dif-

equations
51.

use

with

confidence considered

profit.

Take,
two

for instance,
equal

the

motion the

problem
in it

of the Art.
8,

particles suppose with

on

and
the the

table

with

hole

(v.
the
to
sees

("i)),and
provided
is going

investigator
tools

placed

beneath but
unable
He
mass,

table
see

and

of

his

trade,

what

above
and

the
is

surface
to

of the
determine

table.
its

the

hanging

particle

able
08

its

Chap.

V]
and

THE

DANGLING

PARTICLE

99

velocity,
measure

its acceleration its motion

; to

fix its position conditions

to note

of equilibrium
; to

to

under

various

apply effects.

tional addi-

forces, His system

an

finite has

or

impulsive,
one

and

their

apparently
mass
m

degree

of freedom. acted
on

It, possesses

apparent

and
mg.

is certainly He

by

gravity of

with

downward
and
he

force taking
as

determines

its

position
x

equilibrium,
that
position,

his

coordinate

its distance

below
eration accel-

painfully

and

laboriously
is equal
to

finds that

i, the

of the

hanging

mass,

^"

He

is

now

ready

to

call into

play
L

his knowledge is the Lagrangian

of mechanics.
function for

If T
the

is the

kinetic he

energy
sees,

and

system

which

and

L=T-V=^x'-V.
dt\dx/
dx
dx dx

Therefore

|[_^_lj^.
accounted
with
"

The

motion,

then,

can

be

for
a

as

due

to

the

downward

force
the

of

gravity

combined

second
a;
,

vertical

force having

potential

energy

-^
the
intensity

-5 +

that

is,

force vertically
and of due
course

upward
this force

having

-^
pull of the
set

-^

"*""'^

'

must
some

be the

string

and

may

be

to

the

action

of

concealed

of springs.

100
On
the

APPLICATION

TO

PHYSICS

[Art.
may
contain
some

51

other body
or

hand, bodies
if
a

the

moving

system

concealed strongly
to

in motion,

and

that

this is the

fact

is

suggested

downward
when
at

impulsive
rest

force

is applied of equilibrium.

the hanging
For such
P
=
"

particle
a

in

its position
an

force

is found

to

impart

instantaneous if the

velocity particle should

"

just half
only
were

what
in

we

should
system,

get

hanging

were

the

body
a

the

and
mass
a

just what
m

we

have

if there
with

second

body
particle

of

above

the

table, connected
of fixed

the

hanging

by

stretched

string

length.
this
a

Obviously
already

concealed
from

body

is igrwrahle^
we

since

we

have ential differ-

found
equation

function
for
x^

which
the

can we

obtain
have

the

namely,
X.

function

just called

the

Lagrangian

function

It is

and

contains

the

single

coordinate
a

x.

But
part function function

if

we our

have

ignored
this
or

concealed

moving
is not
to

body

forming

of
Z,

system, is equal

expression proportional
or
or

the

Lagrangian Lagrangian of the

terms

but

"E", the

modified body
;

for the
in that
as

coordinate
case
some

coordinates
all of the

concealed

and

which of
the

we

have

regarded
may

representing the kinetic

the

potential of the

energy

system

be due

to

energy

concealed

body

(v.

Art.
course

41).
the complete
Let
us

Of

system
what
we

may
can

have

two

or

more

degrees
Take
x

of freedom. and
able
a

see

do

with

two.
as

second

coordinate

and

remember
and

that
must

^ is ignorenter

it must potential
us
now

be

ct/clic coordinate

not

into

the

energy.

Let
We
of
X.

form
T
"

the
-h

Lagrangian

function
A^
B^

and
and

modify
C
are

it for 0.

have

A^

Bxd

-|-(7^^ where

functions

Chap.V]

the

dangling

PARTICLE

101

A_P"

"

^i
'

20

To

modify

for 0

we

must

subtract

^p^

We

get

2C^

4C

2C

'V-^k
Suppose
so

that

no

external

force

acts

on

the
is

concealed
"

particle,

that Then,

the

potential

energy

of the function

system

mgx.

if the

Lagrangian

modified

for ^ is 4",

Since
potential

on

our

ignoration the
momentum

hypothesis Pq
=

6
K^
a

does

not

enter

the

energy,
*

constant,

and

M-T"

i^-hTT^^iJ-TT,"'4(7 2C

'^9^'

But

we

know

that
m

is equal
mg
a'

or

proportional
mgx

to

the
we

function

which

on

our

hypothesis

of

no

concealed

bodies

called

L.

We

see

that

if
-5

0, if ^

tw,

and

if

^
-j"
-

=
.^

"

"

4 C/

(a

"

a;)^

whence

^^
=

-t

"

"

j-^

"

"E)

2Z.

Then

we

have

=^

mi? +

)-^-^~^ 6",
2

mgar

102
K

APPLICATION

TO

PHYSICS

[Art.
to

51

where and If

is the

momentum constant.

corresponding

the

coordinate

may
we

be

any

take

for K^

the

value

m^ga\

is obviously

the
a
"

kinetic
x

energy
0
as

of

mass

moving The

in

plane

and

having

and
to

polar

coordinates.

Lagrangian

function

is equal

and

the

Lagrangian
2
mx

equation
=
"

is

(a

"

x')d^+

mg.
mass

(1)
when the
is

If the

angular
is at

velocity
rest

of the

concealed

ing hang-

particle in that

in its position
^

of equilibrium

6^, since
"

case

x=0 motion

and

0, equation

(1)

gives

us

6^

The
for

-^accounted

observed
completely
to
an

of the
the

hanging

particle

is then

by

hypothesis revolving
the

that
on

it is attached

by

string
a

equal

particle
a

the in

table
the

and

describing
with
in

circle

of

radius

about
the

hole

table

angular
its position the
term

velocity

-vj-when

hanging
see

particle
that the
on

is at

rest

of equilibrium.
'

We

this

hypothesis that the

o7

\2"*"^

which hanging
is due

on

hypothesis

system

contained
the

only

the

particle
to

was

an

unforeseen
energy

part

of

potential moving It may

seem

energy,

the

kinetic

of the

concealed

body.
that

giving
as

different
motion

value

might concealed

lead

to

different
would

hypothesis
account

to

the

of the

body

that

for

the

motion

of the

hanging

particle.

Chap.

V]
however,

PHYSICAL

COORDINATES

103
have

Such,

is not

the

case.

We

Let

"f,
r

-^=0.
+ ^ [ir* ir*+

Then

(a
the

a:)" i^"].
energy

+ (a [ir*
mass
w,

"

^y "f"^'] as
polar
as

is,

above,
a
"

kinetic
and

of

body

of

with

coordinates

"^;

and

the concealed

motion

is precisely used
as our

before.

In

using

the

form

(2)
^,
polar
there
a

we

have

merely suitable
52.

second

generalized less simple

coordinate
than

perfectly
angle. may

parameter
Problems

but

one

the

in Physics.

In physical

problems

be

present
molecular

electrical
motions,

and
as

magnetic
well
as

phenomena visible
cases,

and

concealed
material

the

motions

of the

parts of
the

of the

system.
even

In

such
as

to

fix the

configuration

system
we

so

far

it is capable

of

being

directly

observed required parameters

we
are

must

employ
positions

not

only

geometrical

coordinates

to

fix the
that

of its material
or

constituents,
state

but
; and

also
as

will
sure

fix its electrical

magnetic
of

rarely
we are

of

the
allow

absence for the

concealed
that

molecular
the

motions,
we

must

often
to

probability
aid
our

tion funcand
equations

trying

form
we

by
are

the
to

of

observation Lagrangian

experiment

and
motion

on

which may

base

of

be

the

Lagrangian
corresponding

function
to

modified

for

the

ignored
motions.

coordinates

the

concealed

molecular
53.

Suppose,

for instance,
wires,

that
through

we

have which

two

similar, parallel,
currents

straight,
to

conducting

electric

due

applied

electromotive that

forces
wires

are

flowing.
each

It

is found

experim

the

attract

other
other

if the

currents

have

the

same

direction, and

and
that

repel

each

if they

have

opposite

directions,

reversing

the

currents

without

104
the

APPLICATION

TO

PHYSICS

[Art.
forces
It

53

altering
not

strength observed

of

the

applied
or a

electromotive
repulsion.
current

does

affect
an

the

attraction

is known the
ance resist-

that

electromotive

force

drives
that

against
of the

of the
proportional that
an

conductor,
to

and

the

intensity

current

is

the

electromotive

force.
not

Moreover,
cause

it is known

electromotive

force

does

directly
as

any

motion
currents

of the
are

conductor.
the

It is found phenomena
currents.
we

that,

far

as

electric
on

concerned,
direction

depend

merely

the

intensity

and
To

of the

fix

our

configuration
wires

shall

take
to

as

the

distance

between
the
two

the

and

take

parameters

fix the

intensities

of
as

currents.
or
as

These

parameters
velocities,

might but

be
many

regarded
experiments
y^ and

coordinates

generalized
are

suggest
and

that

they
y^
as

velocities.

We
units

shall of

call them

y^

define
a

the
section

number
of the
upon

of

electricity
since
a

that

have

crossed
As
y^ and

right

first wire
ij^ and

given
on

epoch. and
y^,

all effects
y^
us
are

depend

y^ and

not

y^

cyclic coordinates.

Let
the
y^.

suppose

that
T

there
a

are

no

concealed

motions. in
x^

Then
y^^ and

kinetic Let

energy

is

homogeneous

quadratic

T^A^^Lyl-VMyJj^^Nyl^Bxy^^
where

Cxy^,

(1)

the

coefficients
the

are

functions

of

x.

Since
the it must

reversing
signs
not

directions
y^^ does

of the
not

currents,

that

is, reversing

of y^ and
affect
are

change

the other
are
zero.
=

phenomena,

T\

therefore allowed

B
to

and
move,

If the
to

wires
My^y^

not

0 and

reduces
energy

Lyl
be Let

-}-Ny^^ which

is called

the

electrokinetic

of the

system.

Since by

from

considerations the

of symmetry
N=

this cannot

altered
us
now

interchanging
that the

currents,

L.

suppose
only

first wire
are

is fastened

in position

and
E^

that
and

the

external the

forces
currents

the

electromotive
two

forces
ances resistU^

E^,

producing
and
Ey^
currents

in the

wires

the
to

Ey^
U^

of the
y^

wires, and
y^

equal,
are

respectively,

and

when

the

steady;

and

an

ordinary

Chap.

V]

PAEALLEL

LINEAR

CONDUCTORS

105 We

mechanical have

force

F^

tending

to

separate

the

wires.

now

^rp

and

for

our

Lagrangian
dA

equation
dL
."
."

dM
. .

dL
,"
_

2^^

c\

i"

ckdA 2-^--a:"--y/--^,,^,,--y"

."

i^.

(2)

,^.

Let forces and

us

study
the

this

equation.

First
F

suppose
zero,

the
so

electromotive y^^y^
=

and

impressed

force
reduces

all
to

that

0,

F=0.

Equation

(2)

Q, 2Ax-\-^d? dx
=

1
or
.

dA
."

x=-

ir,

2Adx
a

If, then,
wire, the

transverse

velocity have
an

were

impressed
unless

on

the
=

second
0.
But

wire
on

would
our

acceleration

---

dx

both
attract

wires,
nor

hypothesis, other,
=

being

inert, is
-4
a

they

can

neither

repel
y^

each
=

therefore
is
a

constant;

and Therefore

as

T=Ax^

when

y^

0^ A

positive

constant.

Let

us

now

suppose

that

^2
"
--

0,

and

F=0.

Equation

(3)

becomes

2 Ax

dx

y^* =

0,

1
^
=

dL
."

21^^and
even

the when

second
no

wire
current

is is

attracted
flowing

or

repelled
the
-r=

by

the

first,
wire.
L

through Therefore
x

second
0,
zero,

This
a

is contrary

to

observation.

dx

and
X

is
a

constant;

and

as

T=Lyl

when

and

y^

are

is

106

APPLICATION

TO

PHYSICS

[Abt.

54

positive

constant.

Equation

(3)

now

becomes

and

if 2^=0.

-i^^^jj,^.
y^*
are

If y. and * sign.
currents
---

of the
to
same

same

sign,

and
the

-r"

have

the

same

ax

But

according in the

observation
direction,

wires
x

attract

if

the and

flow
negative. ^
=

therefore

is negative

IS

dx

If

2;

0,

we

have
The

single

wire

carrying

current

sity of inten+

if^ -h

^j.
+

electrokinetic 2

energy
X^a
a

Ly\
,

My^^
that

Lyl
value

come beof
M

-^(^1
M

^2)^ *^^ -^y?+

0 -is 2 Z.

X^j^j +
as

so

the

when

a;

Hence,
As

i(f is

decreasing
seen

function, be
x.

is less than
X

2 L

always.

-If

is easily

to

zero

when

is infinite, it must

be

positive

for all values

of

We

have,

then,

T^A^^
A and where function
L
are
x

Lyl

My^y^

+
^

Lyl
is
a

(4)
positive
the
M

positive always

constants

and
2 Z.
Z

decreasing

of

less than

is called and

coefficie
the

of of self-induction

either wire of the

per unit pair

are

of length, per

co^-

dent
Our

of mutual

induction

of wires

unit

of length.

Lagrangian

equations

'^^i-^vA-'F, JfyJ JF,-i?^,, |[2Xy,

+
= =

(5)

(6)
(7)

E^-Ry^.

jPLy^+My;\
S4.
Induced
Currents,

(a)

Suppose

that
in

no

current

is flowing

in either that the

an

of

the

wires

considered

the

last
a

section,

and

first wire

is suddenly
force

connected
jE'^, and

with
that

battery
a

nishin fur-

electromotive

thereby

current

Chap.

V]
impulsively

INDUCED

CUERENTS

lOT
by
Thomson's

if^ is

established.
impulsive the

Then,
velocities

Theorem
up

(v.

Art.
as

30),
to

such make
the

must

be

set

in

the

system

energy

have

the

least

possible
impulse.

value

consistent

with
current

velocity up

caused in
the

by

the

applied has the

If the

y^ set

first wire

intensity

i^

and

making

minimum,

we

have
=

2^i Mi+2Ly^

0, 0; will have
no

whence

0, and Mi
-r"
"

the
a

second
current

wire

initial velocity, in the

cur-

and

^2

"

and

will

be

set to

up

impulsively
intensity
M

second
rent

wire,

of intensity

proportional
as
we

the
seen,

of the
L
are

in the first wire.

Since,
and

have

and

both

positive, y^ is negative, opposite

in direction
current

this so-called

induced

current

will be

to the impressed
soon
a

current

y^. This

impulsively of the
the
the
wire.

induced

is

destroyed

by

the

resistance

(6)
wire

Suppose
force

that
-"j,

steady
in

current

y^^ caused

by

motive electro-

is flowing that
E^^

the

first wire

is inert, and

and

consequently
the

second y^^ is impulsively

while
This
amounts

destroyed
to

by suddenly applying
"E^.

disconnecting
to

battery.
the

impulsively force

the

first wire
were

additional inert, up
the

motive electro-

If the
in

system

initially
set

this,

as

we

have

just seen
Mi
,

(a), would
second

immediately
wire,

induced
y^
=
"

current

y^
"

"

in the
.

and

we

should

have

f,

Mi y^
=

-T

as

the immediate initial motion

our

result in

of
our

our

impulsive

action. y^
=

Combine
i, y^
=

this with
and
we

the get

actual y^
=

problem, Mi
=
-"

0,

for

actual

result

0, y^

(v. Art. 34).

from
as

So

that
an

if

our

first wire
current

is suddenly

disconnected
is the
wire.
same

the that

battery, of the

induced

whose

direction in the

original
soon

current

is set up

second

ever, It is, how-

destroyed

by

the

resistance

of the wire.

108

APPLICATION

TO

PHYSICS

[Art.
fixed wke,
no

54

((?)Suppose
by
a

that

we

have

current

y^ in
E^^

our

caused
in
our

battery
wire,

of and

electromotive

force second

and

current to
move

second from

that

the

wire

is made

away
section

the
us

first. Equations

(6)

and

(7)

of the

preceding

give

dt

-(2Ly,-My;)i^,
(4 z"
-

Jir")

2i

(je; Ey;)- M^E^

-

By;)

-(^iLy^-My;ix^
When
we

are

starting
=

to

move

the
0,

Becond E^-Ry^^Q,

wne,

0,

-^",

^,

and

we

have

(4 L^

Jf

")

^
=

My^x

^,
Ol/X

Civ

As
tive.
current

we

have

seen,

Z,

4 L^ Jtf",
y^

"

are

-M^,

positive
in
y^

and

""

is negar
ax

Hence
y^

the

current

will

decrease
as

intensity,

and

having
wire.

the

same

direction

will

be

induced

in

the

moving
The

phenomena
from
our

of

induced

currents

which
are

we

have

just

inferred

Lagrangian
experiment.

equations

entirely

confirmed

by

observation

and

APPENDIX
SYLLABUS.
DYNAMICS OF

A
A

RIGID

BODY

1. D'Alembert's
resultant

Principle.

In

moving and
on

system

of
that

particles
act
on

the
any

of

all the the

forces

external force
mz.

internal particle.

particle components

is called
are

effective

that

Its rectangular

rrdi, my,

and

The
ciple
:

science

of

rigid

dynamics
system forces the

is based
actual

on

lyAlewher^s impressed form

prin-

In

any

moving

forces

and
a

internal,

and
in

the

effective

reversed
system

in is

direction,
a

set

of forces
the

equilibrium,
forces
are

and
a

if the

single

rigid
and

body,
may

internal

set

separately

in

equilibrium

be

disregarded.
It follows
forces

from
and

this

principle

that

in
are

any

moving

system

the

actual Hence,

the

effective

forces

mechanically

equivalent.

(a) {b)

Smd; Sm
2m

2X,
-

(c)
These

iri/] 2 iyX + yhj + [aJScc "8"] lyx

=

xY], [J^"c+
words

FSy
as

Zhz],
:

equations
The
same
sum

may
those

be

put

into

follows have
a

(a)
is the

of

components

which
and

given

direction

for
sum

the

effective
moments

forces

for the any

actual

forces.

(h) The

of the
forces

about
actual

fixed

line

is the

same

for

the effective

and

for the

forces.

(c) In
work actual
done

any

displacement the
effective

of the

system, is equal

actual
to

or

hypothetical, work

the the

by

forces

the

done

by

forces.

Equations for the

(a) and

(h) are

called

differential equations

of

motion

system.
=

2, p^
the
moment

^mv^

Imx
;

and
=

is the

linear

mxymentum,
=

of the
"

system

in

direction

h^

2m
about

[yv^
the

"

xv^"]
axis
109

2m
Zm

[jjx

and xj/"]

is the

of

momentum,

of

110
Equations

APPENDIX

(a) and

(b)of "
5Z,

1 may

be

written,

respectively,

f
and

and
now

f
to

S[y^-.y].
as

" 1, (a), and

" 1,

(6), may
is equal have

be stated of change
the
sum

follows

(a)
in any
the

In

moving

system

the rate

of the linear of
those

momentum

given

direction
which

components

of

actual

forces
a

the
the

direction
rate

in question.
change

(b) In
momentum

moving
about any

system

of

of
to

the

moment
sum

of
of the

line fixed
forces

in

space
that

is equal line.

the

moments

of the
Center

actual

about

3.

of Gravity.

x=^"-"'

Hence

v^

Smi

ilf

--

at
or,

the

linear

momentum
were

in the

direction

is what

it would

be

if

the

whole

system

concentrated

at its center

of gravity.

or,

the moment
mass

of momentum,
were

about

the axis of Z
at the
were

is what

it would

be if
what the

the whole

concentrated
center

center at rest

of gravity
at the

plus and

it would
actual

be

if the
were

of gravity

origin moving

motion

what

the relative

motion

about

the

center

of gravity

really is.
motion

4.
same

The
as

of

the

center
were

of
and

gravity

of

moving and

system
all the

is the

if all the

mass

concentrated

there
were
same

actual

forces, The

unchanged motion
were

in direction
the
center

magnitude,
is the

applied
as

there.
center

about

of
and

gravity

if the

of gravity

fixed

in space and

the

actual

forces

were

unchanged

in magnitude,

direction,
system

point

of application.

5. If the

is

rigid

body

containing

fixed

axis,

where and

Mk^

M(h^
is the

k^)and

is the moment
of the
"

of

inertia

about

the axis,

where

angular 1

velocity
Mk*^

body.
iV,

Equation
of the
moments

(b) of "
of

becomes

where
the

is the
axis.

sum

the

impressed

forces

about

fixed

APPENDIX

111
a axes

6. If the
a"y,
Wg,

system

is

rigid

body

containing three

fixed point fixed

and

o),,

are

its angular the

velocities

about

in space

and

passing

through

fixed

point,

where
are

is the products

moment

of inertia

about
the
axes

the

axis

of Z, and
y,

and

and

E
;

the
is,

of inertia

about

of X

respectively

that

Sm

+ (a:^ y^,
1 becomes
dm^ dt

^myz,

^Sanzx,

Equation
dh dt

(h) of "
dta^
dt

dm.
^__

dt

(^

"

B)

"Og.iOj,

E"aj,"Dg

where the

is the
of Z.

sum

of

the

moments

of

the

impressed

forces

about

axis

7. Euler's
a

Equations.

If
w^,
Wg,

the
are

system its that

is

rigid

body

containing about the

fixed

point
axes

and
of

w^,

angular

velocities

principal
the

inertia

through

point

(a

set

of

axes

fixed

in

body

and

moving

with

it), equation

(h) of "

1 becomes

8. Euler's
system
F,
-Y, Z,

Angles.

Euler's

angles
A,

6,
B,

are "f"y ij/,

coordinates
to
a

of

moving

of

rectangular

axes

C,

referred

fixed

system

having

the

same

origin

0.

9 is the
the ij/

colati-

tude

and

longitude
axis

of
in

the the

moving fixed
as
a

of

system

garded (retem sysof

spherical fixed

with
Z
as

the

axis

the the

polar angle

axis),and
made

"!"
the

is

by

moving plane
of Z of
C

C-4-plane

with

the

through and
the

the fixed
moving

axis axis

112
\\

APPENDIX

hare

^
"^

^ ^^^ ^

~~

^ ^^

"^"^

^7

cos

^ +

^ sin

$ sin ^^

"i^

^C08tf + ^;
~

and

M^

^
tfCOS

sin ^ +

sin tfcos

^,

M,

^ +
*
-h

^ sin tfsin ^^

",

cos

^.
particle

9. 4^ wi**,

the

kinetic

energy

of

becomes
y

7,

+ [-r^

y* -h

2^

in rectangular

coordinates,

MA

"

ad

in [r^+ r*^*]

polar

coordinates,

-^

[r^+ 1^1^^+ sin-^*)]in

'^J

spherical

coordinates.

10.

"o"

^^^

kinetic

energy

of

moving

system

becomes
y

V-^(i*

y^ +

i^in

rectangular

coordinates

Ar^w* if

rigid

body

contains

fixed axis ;

V (~//)
is two-dimensional

I "^ '^Vif)
;

'o^^

*^"

body

is free and

the

motion

|[.4a"/+5"/+C"."-22"",".-2"ai.",
body
is rigid

if

-2Fai,a)J
and the
axes

the

and

contains

fixed

point

^[^""i*+5"u2*+ Ca%*]
the

if the

body

is rigid

are

principal

axes

for the

fixed

point.

11.
the
act

ImpnlsiTe

Forces.

In

system

acted
forces

on

by

impulsive and

forces,

resultant
on

of all the

impulsive the

external

internal
force
on

that that
"

any

particle Its

is called

effective
are

impulsive
m

jjarticle.
"

rectangular

components
principle

(x^

"

x^), m (y^

y^),
It

(?fiz^ z^).

D'Alembert's

holds

for

impulsive

forces.

APPENDIX

113
forces, equivalent.
the

follows forces

that and 2m Sm

in any

system

acted
are

on

by

imptilsive

actual
HencOi

the

effective
X

forces

mechanically

(a)

[i;^
-

2X,
-

(b) (c)

[y^x^
-

x^y^

y^x^ -f
-

x^^"]

[yX
-

F],

2m

l(x^
-

8^ "c x^) 4- (y^ y^) + (k^ 2[-X:"c4-F8y+Z8"]. may

of the
the

82] ;^^)
follows
have
a

These

equations
The
same
sum

be put

into words

as

(a)
is the

components

which

given
for

direction
the

for

effective

impulsive

forces

and

actual

impulsive

forces.
sum

(b)
the

The

of the

moments

about
and
of the of for

given

line is the impulsive

or

same

for

effective
any

impulsive

forces

the

actual actual

forces.

(c) In
the
sum

displacement
virtual of
moments

system,
the

hypothetical,
forces

of the
to

effective

impulsive
actual

is

equal
forces.

the

sum

the

virtual

moments

of

the

impulsive

Equations
under In
a

(a)

and

(b) are
(a)
by
given
on

the

equations

for be

the

initial
as

motion

impulsive
system
momentum

forces,

and

(b) may
forces,

restated

follows: in the
of those

acted

impulsive

the

total change
to

linear

in any of the
actual

direction

is equal

the

sum

components in question.

impulsive

forces

which

have

the

direction

In
moment

system of

acted

on

by

impulsive
any

forces,
line

the

total

change
to

in the
sum

momentum

about

fixed

is equal

the

of

the

moments

of the
4 holds

actual

impulsive

forces

about

that

line.

Section

unaltered

for impulsive

forces.

APPENDIX
THE

B
OF VARIATIONS

CALCULUS

1. The
solve
a

calculus very

of

variations

owed
of the

its origin
in of
a

to

the

attempt

to

interesting
to

class find

problems
form

maxima

and such

minima that and the its

in which definite

it is required

function that

integral
shall
simple
form
or

of be

an

expression maximum If
or

involving
a

function

derivatives Take
the
a
a

minimum.

case:

y=^f(x\
/,
so

let
that

it be
I

required
aj,

to

mine deterbe

of the
a

function

"^

y,

maximum Let

minimum.

*^'o

-^

L/a; shall

f{x)
forms

and

F(x)
y

be

two

possible

of the
graphs

function.

Consider
and
y
=

their

=f(x)

F(x). Urj(a')is F(x)^f(x),rf(x)

be

can

regarded
to

as

the

ment incre-

given
the

by

changing from

form
to

of the

function
value
x

f(x)
held

F(x)y

the

of

the

independent fast.

variable

being

This

increment
a

is called of y, rj (x),

the variation
a

of y and

is written of
x.

Sy ; it is The

function

of

x,

and

usually
in

wholly
y'
=

arbitrary dv

function

corresponding

increment
of

y\
and

where

-f^ "

can

be shown
dv

to be

and rj'(x)f

is the variation

y\

is written

Sy', ot

B-f-'Obviously,
(1)
in the
of This

'y'=fjyIf
an

infinitesimal
calculus
than

increment that
-7-

hy is given

to y^ it is proved

differential
higher
order

"f"(y)^y
114

differs

by

an

infinitesimal
in

Sy

from

the

increment

produced

"f"(y)*

APPENDIX

115
so of "^(2^),

approximate

increment

is called

the

variation

that

8*(y)

|;"^(2/)8y+

(2)

Similarly,
or

8,^(y,
varied,

since

is not

^,8y', y')=^8y
+
=
"

(3)

|^,8y'. 8"^(^,y,y')=^8y
As

(4)

d"^ (y)

"^(y)

dyy

and

d^ {y, y')
can

-^dy '^,
the

dy\
formulas

we

calculate
in

variations

by

familiar

and

processes

used

calculating
a

differentials. independent
is
one
a
=

2. Let
or

be
+

an

parameter.

Then

(Xrj(x =if(x)-\including

y
to

any aSy, =f(x) to =f(x) (corresponding

y
a:
=

of

family
y

of
+

curves

0) and

=f(x)
and

rj (x) (corresponding

1).

If

Xq

and

x^

are

fixed

values,

if

3/ -f a^y, y' + "^(ic,

aSy')
A

dx,

1(a)
that
or a

is

function

of

the of
a
=

parameter
a

only.
er,

necessary

condition
a

/(a),a
minimum

function

single

variable
=

should
a
=

be

maximum

when

0 is

/'(a)

0 when

0.

when That

0.

'"-X"K''^v'^']^
^'(0)=

is,

'3"^rfa;.

(v. "

1,

(4))

l
maximum
or

y, 2/')^^should "l"(x,

be

minimum

when

=f(x)

is

8"^(a;, y, y')dx

0.

116

APPENDIX

j if^dx
our

is taken

as

the

definition

of

the

variation

of

and "l"(ixy

necessary

condition

is usually

written

How of

this

condition be
seen

helps
from
an

toward example. find

points
=

the

determination

of

the

form

/(jr) can
3.
Let
it

be

required
given

to

the

form

of

the

shortest

curve

two =/(a;) joining

{x^, y^ and
-f y^'dx, -H y'^dx,

Here, (x^, y^).

since

""

Vl

f'Vl
-0

and

/ is to be

made

minimum.

3/=

C
0

sVl

Z'-eia;

dx

-L

Vl

2/'*

"

cfe

Integrating

by

parts,

this last reduces

to

since,
when

as
X
=

the
x^.

ends Then

of

the
=

path
0 if

are

given,

8y

when

x^x^

and

8/

"

82/rfx

0;

c?a; Vl

-f- y'^
a

but since

our

Sy

(that is,

i; (a)),

is

function

which

is wholly

arbitrary,

APPENDIX
d

117

v'
,

the

other

factor,
'^ ^-r

must

be

equal

to

zero

if the

integral

is to vanish. This
gives
us

y
7/' ^
=

vrT7

and

the In

required
our

curve

is

straight

line.

4.

more

general

problem

it may

be shown

in like

manner

that

leads
as
a

to

differential
of
x.

equation

between

y and

and

so

determines

function
course a

Of
either

8/

0 is not
or

sufficient
and

condition does
not

for

the
us

existence
to

of

maximum

minimum
and
or

enable

inate discrim-

between
-~

maxima
a

minima, minimum
to

but

like the in
a

necessary

condition
of
a

0 for

maximum
is enough

value
us

function

single

variable,

it often
us
now

lead

to the

solution
3^, ;sj,
"
" "

of the
.,

problem. of

5. Let
an

generalize

little. Let
let
a,
sc'
=

a;,

be

functions
d%
"'
=

dx

d\i

independent
we

variable
a

r,

and

"

y*

-j-y
"

"-,....

Suppose
By
^j

have

function
forms the

"^(r,
of
the

2^, ",

"

.,

x\ y\ z\
but

"

").
r

changing
"

the

fimctions

holding
"
" ..

fast,

let

3^" ^?
X

"

""

given

then

becomes
aj'

sc'

becomes

^(r), 17 (r),^(r), x z becomes " + f ^ (r), y + 17(r), y becomes -f- (r), becomes "' "' 4- ^W? f '(r), 3/'becomes 3/'-f-17'(r),
"
"

increments

"

"

;
""

"

i(r),$'(r),are
and "c'.

the

variations

of
d

and

aj'

and

are

written

"c

Obviously,
"k'
=
--

"c.
increments

ar

The

increment
.,

produced
.
.

in
to

"^ when
the
to

infinitesimal

"r,
their

81/,

"

"c', 8y',
with

.,

are

given
to
r

dependent

variables

and

to

derivatives

respect

is known

differ from

by

terms

of higher

order

than
the

the variations variation

of

involved.

This

mate approxi-

increment

is called

and if"

is written

8"^. It is

118
found in

APPENDIX

any

case

precisely

as

c?^, the

complete

differential

of ^,

is found.

That

8^(r,",
^(r,
can
aj,

y,

"

"

",

x',

y',

"

"

"

) c?r
dr

0 is

necessary

condition

that

y,

"

"

",

x',

y',

'

"

")
by the
I

should reasoning

be

maximum in

or

minimum

be

established
The

used

the

case

of

^(cc,y, y^)dx.
I

integral

8"^c?r is called

the

variation

^c?r, so

that

^c?r

B"l"dr.

6. It should

be noted

that

our

important

formulas

r.dX dr

__^CS dr
I

'

and

3 I

"l}dr=
independent

h"f"dry

hold
when

only
the

when forms
to

is the

variable
are

which that
,

is held

fast 8r is

of
zero.

the

functions

varied;

is, when

supposed
If
X

be
y
are

and

functions

of
^

and
f

we

need

8-^"

we

get

it indire

thus:

dx

cc'

"^
so

^^

""^^^
^3^
aic
=

"^^'^^

-'xid'r^^~'d^Try
dx

that

3-^^-T^T-^dx dx
must

(1)
^

If

we

need

8 I ^6?ic, we

change

our

variable

of

integration

I"l"dx=:S j4t"dr.

^Ji,dx=jh{^^^dr.

(2)

iNGtNEERlNG UBRM

bias

010

ab3

ibo

^
DATE

DUE

=1

V
\

STANFORD
STANFORD,

UNIVERSITY
CALIFORNIA

LIBRARIES
94305-6004

ENGWEERtNG

UBiMf

bios

010

Ab3

"o 1

STANFORD
STANFORD,

UNIVERSITY
CALIFORNIA

LIBRARIES
94305-6004