Power Monitoring System1

POWER MONITORING SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION
1.
INTRODUCTION
With the electric industry undergoing changes, increased attention is being focused on power supply reliability and power quality. Power providers and users alike are concerned about reliable power, whether the focus is on interruptions and disturbances or extended outages.
One of the most critical elements in ensuring reliability is monitoring power system performance. Monitoring can provide information about power flow and demand and help identity the cause of power system disturbances. It can even help identity problem conditions on a power system before they cause interruptions or disturbances.
Effective monitoring programs are important for power reliability assurance for both utilities and customers. While power quality problems can do occur on utility power systems, many surveys have shown that most customer power quality problems originate within the customer facility. With this in mind, it is clear that monitoring is essential for both power suppliers and users to ensure optimal power system performance and effective energy management.
Key to the success of an effective monitoring program is flexibility, powerful data processing, understandable reports and easy access to information. The emergence of the Internet and intracompany intranets has made this possible, allowing quick viewing of data that assures effective decision-making and fast responses time. Event notification and program scalability are also critical for addressing the ever-changing environment of the energy business.
Through this project we try to give an effective and cost power monitoring system.
PROJECT SELECTION
2.
PROJECT SELECTION
To build a power monitoring system requires that the input voltage and current be measured and then multiplied with each other to give the active power. The power factor also needs to be considered for complex loads. The most reliable method to do this is using digital techniques. A popular solution to this end is developed by Analog Devices.
This device is the ADE 7756 for single phase and ADE7754 (The three phase counterpart). This IC samples the input voltage and current waves to obtain a high resolution digital number .It perform instant multiplication and give the output as the active power.
It further proceeds to integrate the power to obtain a 40-bit energy value. It thus combines the functions of a power meter and an energy meter in a single monolithic IC.
The IC however was not available in the local market and the interfacing with the microcontroller is difficult. The documentation available about this IC was also limited to the datasheets and application notes supplied by the manufacturer.
A much more economical option is the AVR ATMEGA 16 Micro-controller [1].
Features of AT MEGA16 are: 1. It is an 8-bit AVR micro-controller with 16k Bytes In-System programmable flash. 2. It also has 8-channel, 10-bit ADC. 3. 8 single-ended channels. 4. 7 Differential Channels in TQFP Package only. 5. 2 Differential Channels with Programmable Gain at 1x, 10x, or 100x. 6. Programmable using serial UART. 7. On chip Analog Comparator. AVR Micro-controller with 16k Bytes In-System programmable flash.
POWER MONITORING SYSTEM This AVR AT MEGA 16 micro-controller is faster than the ATMEL 89C51, which works on 1MHz frequency where as AVR works on 12MHz speed. That means 12 times more number of instructions per sample.
AVR on a general purpose board has been used for project implementation. Many extra features have been incorporated for future use and improvements.
The kit has buzzer on board and motor driving IC, which is useful to indicate when the voltage or power exceeds the certain threshold value. And motor IC can be used to cut of the supply by activating a relay.
WORKING PRINCIPLE
3.
WORKING PRINCIPLE
The aim is to electronically measure the power consumed by a load.
P=V x I x cos phi. R = V x I x sin phi

Where P= active power (Watts) R=Reactive power (Watts) V=RMS value of voltage (Volts) I=RMS value of current (Amperes) Phi=phase angle between voltage and current (deg or radian)
Instead of the RMS values, some dc equivalent values have been obtained corresponding to the amplitudes of the voltage and current sinusoidal. The equivalent values bearing a linear relationship with the RMS values. A DC equivalent voltage for phi is also obtained. These dc equivalent voltages are given as input to different channels of an Analog to digital converter, which comes up with 8-bit of digital data.
This data is then read by the microcontroller and stored in the internal registers. The microcontroller proceeds to multiply the voltages and current values to obtain V x I. Cos (phi) is obtained by a look-up table and then multiplied to get a final result.
The power is integrated by the process of accumulation to obtain the energy. E=Integration of PDF The integration time is adjusted to be exactly 1 second, including he programs delays by adding a separate delay subroutine, so as to get the energy in mW-sec.
The results are displayed on an illuminated LCD screen for direct reading as also transmitted on the serial interface. The microcontroller being programmable can be used to link up most of the parallel interface.
DESIGN IMPLEMENTATION
4.
DESIGN IMPLEMENTATION
The power monitoring system developed consists of electronic hardware as well as software embedded inside it. The software makes the system upgradable and more flexible. More features can be easily added and unnecessary ones removed. Various digital communication interface can be programmable to link together many devices and to a central computer as well.
4.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM

The main block diagram of the project is shown below. It consists of the test circuit which is used to replace the actual power generator. Then AC-DC converters are used to make the output of the test circuit compatible with the microcontroller. An AVR microcontroller is used to perform various computational works on the signals by first converting it into the digital signal. The outputs are shown on the LCD display and on the computer.
FIGURE 4.1 BLOCK DIAGRM OF THE PROJECT
4.2
ANALOG CIRCUITS
The analog circuit is responsible for feeding the inputs of the ADC with the dc equivalent values from the load circuit.
The load circuit has high values voltage and current values that are initially stepped down using CTs and PTs (current and potential transformers) to low voltage sine waves.
These sine waves are rectified using precision rectifiers to get full-wave rectified signal. This signal can then be low-pass filtered to obtain the dc value of the rectified wave. The precision rectifier uses 1N4148 diodes along with the low-offset op-amp to perform rectification.
The phase detection circuit comprises of two zero crossing detectors that convert the stepped down sine wave to square waves, the square waves are ANDed to obtain the region of overlap. The duty cycle of this wave thus depends on the phase difference.
There are overall three analog circuits used viz., test circuit, ac-dc converter and phase differentiator. [2] [3]
Detailed analysis and discussions will be made ahead.
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4.2.1 TEST CIRCUIT

For the test circuit, a voltage source is given to an op-amp based amplifier. The o/p is then passed through a RC filter to introduce a phase shift and this current is given to a current amplifier with variable gain. The phase difference between the output signals can be adjustable from 0 to 90 degree, by using the circuit adjustment provided on the board. Thus adjustable values of ac current and ac voltage are obtained to determine system performance.
FIGURE 4.2.1 TEST CIRCUIT
The above circuit has been designed to get output identical to that obtained using the actual power generator machine.
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4.2.2 AC TO DC CONVERTOR
For converting ac currents and voltages to their respective dc values precision full wave rectifiers are followed by PI-filters to convert the rectified waves into stable ripple free DC values.
FIGURE 4.2.2 FULLWAVE RECTIFIERS
This full wave rectifier has a ripple factor of 0.482
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4.2.3 PHASE DIFFERENCE MEASUREMENT CIRCUIT

The phase detection circuit comprises of two zero crossing detectors that convert the sine waves to square waves. The square waves are ANDed to obtain the region of overlap. The duty cycle of this wave thus depends on the phase difference. That is then inverted using inverter and filtered out using the capacitors. This dc value is proportional to the phase difference between the two input signals. The use of logic gates make the output voltage in the range of 0 to 5 volt, which satisfies the limited range of the analog to digital converter input range.
FIGURE 4.2.3 PHASE DIFFERENTIATOR
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POWER MONITORING SYSTEM The working of the phase differential is explained as below. The two OP-AMPs are used to convert the sine wave signal to square wave signal. Two such square wave signals is shown here. One represents the voltage signal and other represents the current signal.
FIGURE 4.2.3.a VOLTAGE SIGNAL
FIGURE 4.2.3.b CURRENT SIGNAL
These two signals are not in the same phase. When this two signals are given to an AND gate as an input. The output is also a square wave. The wave is high only when both the signals are high. That is, at the overlap period only. The wave which we get is as shown below.
FIGURE 4.2.3.c PHASE SIGNAL This square wave is then passed to filter using a capacitor. The output is then a dc voltage. When there is no phase difference in the voltage and current signal the output wave is a perfect square wave and the equivalent output dc voltage is at some fixed high level. And when there is 90 degree phase shift between voltage and current the output at the AND gate is zero, with zero dc voltage. Thus at the end we have used an inverter to give output in such a way that when there is no phase difference output is zero dc voltage and when there is 90 degree phase difference output is high dc voltage.
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4.3 THE MICROCONTROLLER

The AVR has been selected mainly for its low cost along with the built in ADC. It is fast in operation as it performs 12 instructions per cycle. It has build in ADC which performs analog to digital converter.
A general purpose board has been used. There are some extra components on the board which can be used for further advancements in project.
Port A is used as ADC which is a build in the microcontroller. Port B is used for LED interface. Port C is used for LCD interface. Port D is used for speaker output.
FIGURE 4.3 PIN DIAGRAM
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4.4
THE LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY
A standardized 16 by 2 implies 2 lines with 16 characters each display the power and energy. The LCD is equipped with its own RAM and has control words for a fully flexible display scheme. Backlighting is available and is used for a power read out even during dim-light conditions. The backlight can be switched off to reduce power consumption.
The LCD has a contrast adjustment facility which requires a 10k ohm pot to vary the character contrast. 3 control lines and 8 data lines contribute the remainder.
Control lines: RS (Register Select) 1 - Command register 0 Data register R/W 1 Read 0 Write EN 1 Enables Bus 0 Disable Bus Data Lines: DB7 DB0 To carry command and data to the LCD
16 x 2 LCD DISPLAY
CONNECTING PINS
FIGURE 4.4 LCD DISPLAY
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4.5 MAX-232
The MAX 232 is required for the RS-232 interface. The microcontroller transmits data to the PC on the serial port (COM 5).
The RS-232 standard dictates the voltage levels as -3 to -15 volts for logic 1 and +3 to +15 V for logic 0. It provides 2-channel RS232C port and requires external 10uF capacitors. The MAX 232 converts the circuit voltage of 0-5 volt to the RS-232 levels.
The communication parameters are as follows: 1) 8 DATA 2) 1 stop bit 3) No parity 4) Asynchronous
The serial connector can be directly connected to serial port of the computer. Since now a day USB is widely used, here we have used the Serial to USB converter. Using the serial to USB convertor kit, it can be directly connected to computer through USB connector.
The microcontroller is set to transmit the data at a baud rate of 56000. At 56000 baud rate the allowed baud rate error is 0.8%.
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4.6
CIRCUIT BOARD
Test circuit is constructed on a general purpose board. A Zero- insertion socket (ZIF) socket is used to mount the microcontroller. It facilitates easy removal and replacement of the IC during multiple instances of the downloading programs.
FIGURE 4.6 CIRCUIT BOARD
Power on the board is obtained by regulating a 9 V dc input from a low voltage variable DC power supply by IC LM 7805 to obtain precisely +5 V DC .
The voltage input from external circuits is converted to the required range of 0 to 5 volts using an onboard potential divider meter.
The AC-DC convertor circuit requires a dual 12 to 0 to -12 V supply for the OP-AMPs. A 5V dc is also obtained for the TTL gates.
Low resistance multistoried wires are used as the links. 18
ICs are mounted in their corresponding sockets so as to make them replaceable.
A power ON pilot LED indicates the power on the board.
The 16 lines of the LCD are taken out as flat ribbon cable (FRC) and connected independently to the LCD display.
The hardware sets up the base for the system. Rest of the work is done by the software inside the microcontroller.
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4.7 THE MICROCONTROLLER PROGRAM

After getting the digitized current and current voltages values the micro controller has to perform the following functions. Initialize the LCD Initialize the serial port Voltage, current and phi values are multiplied and displayed on the LCD and sent to the PC on the serial port.
The algorithm stated below is followed to develop the program-code.
1.
Assign suitable variables for different parameters. At the start, a function named read_adc has been declared. This function is used for
2.
converting the analog voltage given to the microcontroller ADC pins to convert it into the equivalent digital value.
3.
Port A of the microcontroller is actually an ADC port. When the microcontroller is used
as ADC the analog voltages are given to this port. ADC conversion can be set to 8-bit or 10bit conversion. With 8-bit conversion maximum measurement of 0.053V is obtained which is enough for project & 8-bit conversion is used. The input voltage range for ADC port is 0-5 Volts. The method used here is a SAR i.e. successive approximation method. The reference voltage for the conversion is set to variable so that measurement of voltages more than the 5 V is possible by adjusting the potentiometer.
4.
Port B is assigned as output port for running the LEDs. Port there are 8 LEDs
connected to the port B which are used for displaying the current status of the microcontroller. Whenever the specific conversion is done it is displayed by its LED indication if something exceeds its threshold value. Its respective LED set on for the notification. When the system is halt due to some problem then it is indicated by the red LED which blinks.
5.
Port C is initialized for the LCD interface and port D is initialized for buzzer. 20
POWER MONITORING SYSTEM 6. Initialize LCD. The LCD static information includes setting of function data length to
8-bits, number of lines to be used to 2, and font of 5x7, display control word bits set accordingly to blink cursor on/off, clearing display screen for refreshing of data (power and energy).
7.
Serial port initialization includes setting the USART parameters. It is set as receiver in
asynchronous mode. With baud rate of 56000. And communication parameters as 8-bits, 1 stop bit and No parity.
8.
The voltage, current and phase are given to pins 0 to 2 of port A respectively. Read the a. The function named read_adc is used and the digital output voltage is taken into some variable. Then accordingly it is multiplied 5000/255 ratio to convert it into the equivalent Volts. b. The voltage value is check against the threshold value. If it is greater than the threshold then alarm is set to ON. If it is below the threshold value then it continues.
voltage value includes.
9.
For measuring the current and phase the same procedure as that of voltage is done.
10.
In one cycle the microcontroller takes value of each parameter and then calculates the
power. This cycle continues ten times and at the end of each cycle new power is calculated. Such ten values of the power are then added together to calculate the energy of this ten cycles. The time period of one energy cycle is of one second i.e. after one second new value is calculated. Whenever new energy value is calculated it is displayed on the LCD and at the same time it is send over the serial cable to the computer.
11.
In this way the microcontroller takes various parameters value and then calculates some
new parameters for the monitoring purpose.
12.
The threshold limit for any parameter can be change by reprogramming the
microcontroller using the parallel port. It can also be changed by adjusting the potentiometer. 21
SCREEN MONITORING
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5.
SCREEN MONITORING
MATLAB 7.4 is used for developing the on screen monitoring system. The screen window is as shown in the figure.
FIGURE 5.1 MAIN WINDOW
The above figure is the normal window of the project. All the parameters are shown viz,voltage, current, phase, active power, reactive power, energy. On the right hand side of the figure the instantaneous values of the parameters are displayed. These values are real time values. And units are displayed to the right hand side of the values. There are over all 14 buttons on the window.
Each time new values are received from the microcontroller to the computer these values are shown and at the same time stored in their respective file. All the voltage values that are received are shown and saved in the file dataforgraph.m. Here this file is a mat lab file. Similarly dataforcurrentgraph.m, dataforphasegraph.m, dataforactpowergraph.m,
dataforrepowergraph.m, dataforenergygraph.m, these files are used to store the all the values of remaining parameters.
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5.1 SOFT ALARM SYSTEM

In the power monitoring system the important aim is to maintain the parameter value within the allowed range. Here the soft alarms are shown as a color code. There is a predefined limit of each of the parameter, known as lower limit and upper limit. When value of the parameter is below the lower limit the value is shown in yellow color. When value of the parameter is above the upper limit the value is shown in red color. And when the value of the parameter is within the allowed range it is shown in green color.
FIGURE 5.1.1 MAIN WINDOW DISPLAYING THE SOFT-ALAMS
In the above window voltage value is greater than the upper allowed limit for the voltage, thus it is shown in red color. Current value is within the allowed range for the current thus it is shown in green color. The phase value is below the lower limit allowed for the phase range hence it is shown in the yellow color.
These alarms are called as soft alarm because it just gives the warning that the parameter value is out of the allowed ranges so that necessary action can be taken on it.
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5.2 SOFT ALARM SETTING

All the limits that set the soft alarm can be changed at the run time. The button marked as = in front of every parameter is used for setting the limit for that parameter. When the = button is pressed the command window is opened. It is as shown below.
FIGURE 5.2.1 SOFT-ALARMS SETTING When the command window popup, values can be entered.
It can be entered as [upper limit lower limit]. First the upper limit and then the lower limit of that parameter is entered in a square bracket. And then pressing the return key will set the new range for that parameter.
In the above example voltage limit is to be set. So enter the new limit. The new limits are 4000 and 1000. So when voltage exceeds upper limit it will be shown in red color and when voltage is below the lower limit it will be shown in yellow and when it is in allowable range it will be shown in green.
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5.3
ALARM
These alarms are set in the microcontroller at the time of programming only. The threshold limits for a particular parameter are described in the program. When the parameter value exceeds that threshold value the microcontroller stop the connection. It gives the beep at the same time and it will continue till the value is not returned in its allowed range. Also it gives the command on the computer screen to stop the display and shows the warning window. This warning window is as shown below.
FIGURE 5.3.1 WARNING WINDOW Similarly it sends a SYSTEM AT HALT message on the LCD.
FIGURE 5.3.2 LCD WARNING WINDOW
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POWER MONITORING SYSTEM The microcontroller then switches on the relay which turns off the power supply. The system stays in that condition until the parameter value comes in the allowed range. When the value comes in the range the system restart itself and displays the same on the screen and also on the LCD.
FIGURE 5.3.3 SYSTEM RESTARTING WINDOW
The speaker also stops beeping the warning signal.
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5.4
GRAPH DISPLAY
The six buttons on the main screen are used for displaying the graph of the parameters. These buttons plot the graph of the parameters values that are stored in their respective file.
For example the voltage button plots the graph of voltage values that are stored in the file named dataforgraph.m when the voltage button is pressed all this values are plot against the no. of samples. Voltage graph is displayed in the figure below.
FIGURE 5.4.1 VOLTAGE GRAPH
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Also when the current button is pressed current graph is shown as below.
FIGURE 5.4.2 CURRENT GRAPH
From the above graph all the necessary readings that are required can be directly seen from the graph. Graph analysis has an importance in system performance. Graph can show many values at the same time and give us important information.
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5.5
DISCONNECTION
Connections between the microcontroller and computer are made by the serial connection.
Use the software MATLAB for monitoring the parameter value. So this connection cannot be terminated abruptly at any time. So there is a disconnect button provided. This button is for proper disconnection. When the disconnect button is pressed the values of the parameters are stored in the computer so that when were new connection is established there is no loss of the data. Then it closes the serial object which is used for serially receiving the data. The confirmation window popup for the disconnection before disconnecting.
This window is shown below
FIGURE 5.5.1 DISCONNECTING WINDOW
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5.6
CLEARING THE DATA
All the data that are stored in the computer can be cleared or delete using this Clear All button. When Clear All button is pressed the all the data that contains the all parameter values stored in computer are deleted. This data is useful in plotting the graphs. So for plotting new graphs this button is used.
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INDUSTRIAL IMPLEMENTATION
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6.
INDUSTRIAL IMPLEMENTATION
Our out house project entailed a study tour at the ESSAR POWER PLANT in HAZIRA. At the plant, we were given insights to the power industry and its workings and machineries. [4]
Formal industry training was imparted by experts in the field viz Mr. Jose Numpelli, Mr. Kulkarni, Mr.Mehta, Mr.Shailesh. At HAZIRA we were privileged to view an Energy Management System which comprised of 3 gas turbines (GT1, GT2, and GT3) and 1 steam turbine (STG).
Each gas turbine generates 110MW power. And the steam turbine generates 285MW power. This power plant generates a total power of about 515 MW. This is then distributed over a common grid of 220KV power line to the various other plants.
FIGURE 6.1 POWER PLANT
The system was a state-of-the-art system which was highly energy efficient. The description of the gas turbine and steam turbine is given below.
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6.1 GAS TURBINES (GT1, GT2, GT3):
FIGURE 6.1.1 GAS TURBINES
A mixture of air and fuel (gas mixture) was burned to operate a turbine engine whose drive shaft was connected to a generator which produced power up to 110 MW. The turbine rotates on the torque generated by the force generated by the explosive mixture of air and fuel.
As shown in the diagram, air and fuel are mixed in the turbine producing a torque to rotate the drive shaft and hence the generator.
The 3 turbines generated a total of 110*3=330 MW.
The other output of the turbine in the form of the compressed hot gas is generally wasted. But this system makes use of the potential in the hot, pressurized steam. The steam is given to the Heat Recovery Steam Generator. The generator makes use of the pressurized steam to produce extra power. 34
6.2 STEAM GENERATOR (STG):
LP1
HP1 HP2 HP3

HP STEAM TURBINE
LP
TURBINE
185MW GENERATOR
CONDENSOR
FIGURE 6.2.1 STEAM TURBINES
The steam turbine is a very efficient machine. It takes highly pressurized gas (HP1, HP2, and HP3) from the 3 gas turbines as inputs to the High Pressure steam turbine (HP). The low pressure component of steam is given separately to a Low Pressure turbine (LP). The shafts of the HP and LP are interconnected. The shaft is also connected to a generator. This particular heat recovery steam generator has a potential to produce up to 185 MW of power.
Hence, the whole energy management system produces a total of 515 MW of power.
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6.3 MEASUREMENT AND MONITORING

The Gas turbines and steam turbine are managed by MKV Control System supplied by GE. The boilers are managed by a control system designed by Siemens called DCS.
The voltage is measure from the potential transformer and current is measure from the current transformer. These transformers are the step down transformers. They step down the MEGA watt power into the levels which are suitable for the measurement.
PML meters are the meters which measure the power, voltage line-to-line, voltage line-to-neutral, voltage unbalance, current, phase and various parameters. These meters are provided by power measurement limited. The connection between different PML meters is shown below.
FIGURE 6.3.1 PMML METER These meters have high input range for parameters. There are many parameters that can be measure using these parameters. Whereas these meters are much more costly, their price is in the range of crores. Also these meters are more bulky. And occupy much more space.
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PML PML
ETHERNET PORT
PMLs
RS-485
PML RS-485
PML RS-485
RS-232
HUB
PC1
PC2
PC3
SINGLE PC
FIX-D MACS
ION
FIGURE 6.3.2 MEASUREMENT AND MONITORING These meters are connected using three types of systems they are RS-232, RS-485 and LANs.
RS - 232: It is used when PML meter is to be connected to a single computer over a short distance. The data is send over serial communication. RS 485: It is used when many PML meters are to be connected to each other and to the computer over a long distance using a multiplexer. This is particularly used for long distance communication because of its low transmission loss which is very small as compare to RS-232.
LAN: LAN is a Local Area Network connection. It is used when monitoring of multi-PML meters reading is required on computers within an area. Many computers are connected to each other which individually monitor different PML meters.
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TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
38
7. 7.1
TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT HARDWARE
The analog circuits were first tested on a breadboard and when found satisfactory soldered on a General Purpose Board (GPB). Thin multistrand fibers were used for linking.
Soldering had to be done taking care that there were no dry solders and solid reliable joints are formed. Continuity was tested for each link using the Digital Multimeter (DMM). Troubleshooting had to be done after soldering to find faulty contacts as well as malfunctioning components.
The oscilloscope was also an important tool for monitoring waveforms. The digital storage oscilloscope proved to be of paramount importance as the low frequency waves (50 Hz) were difficult to look on to the standard Cathode ray Oscilloscope.
The Digital Storage Oscilloscope is an excellent tool for the simplest to the most intricate circuit designs. Its Auto Setup mode helps in detecting any type of waveform almost instantaneously and manual tuning is seldom required.
For working on the microcontroller we have developed a board. This board is kept specific only for this purpose. Many extra pins are provided for easy debugging. All ports are made visible by providing connection at each pin for measuring the voltages at that pin. Some extra components are also added for allowing the user to measure other parameters.
LCD is connected on the board. For communication with the computer, a serial to USB connector USB is in widespread usage.
The whole hardware is fitted in the wooden box for protection.
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7.2
SOFTWARE
The programmed is developed using the CodeVisionAVR software. It provides many options and facility for easy programming. Most of the initialization is done by the software once the uses of the each port are entered. It has great support for debugging the program. Once the program is compiled with no error and no warnings it is then used to generate the HEX file. This will then be used to program the microcontroller. [5]
The software also provides the facility to show the output data that is serially transmitted by the microcontroller to the computer.
Pony-Prog software for programming the microcontroller has been used. The HEX file which was generated by CodeVisionAVR software is then opened. Pony Pro software allows to program the microcontroller either using serial port or parallel port. It initially erases the memory or data that is already present in the microcontroller and then loads the new program. [6]
For GUI MATLAB version 7 has been used. MATLAB has great support for serial connection. Windows of various sizes can be shown. On each window useful buttons are provided for user interfacing. Graphs and warning signs are shown to make it more user friendly. [7]
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TESTS AND RESULTS
41
8.
TESTS AND RESULTS
The theory behind the test circuit is as follows. A single-phase ac induction motor or a synchronous motor will have in general the voltage and current phasors shifted as shown.
FIGURE 8.1 PHASOR DIAGRAM Simulation of this behavior using a single stage R-C circuit is shown in the diagram. The 10k-ohm Potentiometer used for the R can change the phase angle from 0 to nearly 90 degrees leading. The amplifiers have high input impedance and amplify the sine waves. The gain of the amplifiers can be set individually by the pots in the feedback paths. Thus a circuit which produces two sine waves, phase shifted (with adjustable phase shift), and variable amplitudes is shown.
This circuit takes an input of a single sine wave from the standard laboratory function generator. This makes the entire setup clean and controllable. A digital CRO was used for observing the waveforms and testing the circuits. The sine waves are adjusted to a peak of 0.5 V at a frequency equal to 50.00 Hz.
The outputs from the simulation circuit were observed on the digital oscilloscope using both its channels. Varying the phase pot showed the sine waves shifting from zero phase shifts to ninety-degree phase shift at extreme position of the pot.
The amplitudes of these sine waves were continuously variable from 0 to 6 V peak by varying the pot in the feedback path of the inverting amplifiers thus varying the gain of the op-amps.
The op-amps chosen showed that near ideal behavior under the particular conditions viz. operation in the linear region and low frequencies. The sine waves were supplied to the analog circuit where they were rectified using op-amp precision rectifiers and then filtered so 42
POWER MONITORING SYSTEM as to obtain the dc content of the full wave rectified wave.
The digital oscilloscope is very useful in observing that there is no diode drop and that the inclusion of the op-amps although increases the complexity of the circuit, proves useful so as to improve the accuracy and reliability of the system.
The dc values at the output circuit are carefully monitored so as to observe the peak value of the ripple. The oscilloscope is kept in AC mode and the ripple content observed, to be 5mV peak. The ADC has a resolution of 5V/255=20mV.
Thus it was concluded that the filter circuit was good enough to an accuracy of 1 Bit. Further it has a noise margin of about 15mV. It was thus concluded that shielding is an absolute necessity in the industrial environment for accurate operation.
The dc values are also observed to vary smoothly as the amplitudes of the sine waves are varied as also the phase angles changed.
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APPLICATIONS
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9. APPLICATIONS
Power monitoring is a crucial element in ensuring cost optimization for energy suppliers and users alike. It also assumes an important role in system stability analysis. A power monitoring system can be incorporated into a power control system. They are used to manage inrush conditions during system startup as well as to provide critical information about voltage irregularities.
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FUTURE SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS
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10.1 FUTURE SCOPE

This system can be used in a plant to monitor the power consumption of electric machines. It indicates whether the instantaneous power consumed is greater or lesser than the rated value. The Energy Meter can also be used for billing and verification. The Alarms for Voltage-sag and high Currents also help in protection and increasing the life of the machines. The PC interface as of now is a very crude one, but can be improved upon to include features like generating logs for analysis and optimization. Computer programs can be written for automatic billing, graphical analysis and feedback control. Several other features can be added like, frequency measurement, sag-cycles detection, voltmeter, ammeter, and power factor measurement.
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10.2 LIMITATIONS
The power monitoring system has to be calibrated from time to time so as to ensure accuracy. The system cannot be used for fractional kW motors, as the current resolution is 1k Watt. The accuracy and regulation of the current transformers and potential transformers is the deciding factor for the performance of the system. The system as of now does not have any indicator, which indicates whether the power factor is leading or lagging. It cannot be used at very high frequencies.
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APPENDIX
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11.1 ATMEGA 16 AVR DATASHEET

Features High-performance, Low-power AVR 8-bit Microcontroller Nonvolatile Program and Data Memories 16K Bytes of In-System Self-Programmable Flash Endurance: 10,000 Write/Erase Cycles Optional Boot Code Section with Independent Lock Bits In-System Programming by On-chip Boot Program True Read-While-Write Operation 512 Bytes EEPROM Endurance: 100,000 Write/Erase Cycles 1K Byte Internal SRAM Programming Lock for Software Security JTAG (IEEE std. 1149.1 Compliant) Interface Boundary-scan Capabilities According to the JTAG Standard Extensive On-chip Debug Support Programming of Flash, EEPROM, Fuses, and Lock Bits through the JTAG Interface Peripheral Features Two 8-bit Timer/Counters with Separate Prescalers and Compare Modes One 16-bit Timer/Counter with Separate Prescaler, Compare Mode, and Capture Mode Real Time Counter with Separate Oscillator Four PWM Channels 8-channel, 10-bit ADC 8 Single-ended Channels 7 Differential Channels in TQFP Package Only 2 Differential Channels with Programmable Gain at 1x, 10x, or 200x Byte-oriented Two-wire Serial Interface Programmable Serial USART Master/Slave SPI Serial Interface Programmable Watchdog Timer with Separate On-chip Oscillator On-chip Analog Comparator Special Microcontroller Features Power-on Reset and Programmable Brown-out Detection Internal Calibrated RC Oscillator External and Internal Interrupt Sources Six Sleep Modes: Idle, ADC Noise Reduction, Power-save, Power-down, Standby and Extended Standby I/O and Packages 32 Programmable I/O Lines 40-pin PDIP, 44-lead TQFP, and 44-pad QFN/MLF Operating Voltages 2.7 - 5.5V for ATmega16L 4.5 - 5.5V for ATmega16 Speed Grades 0 - 8 MHz for ATmega16L 0 - 16 MHz for ATmega16 Power Consumption @ 1 MHz, 3V, and 25C for ATmega16L Active: 1.1 mA Idle Mode: 0.35 mA Power-down Mode: < 1 A
16-bit Microcontroller with 16K Bytes In-System Programmable Flash
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12. REFERENCES
[1] http://www.atmel.com/products/avr/default.asp
[2]
http://www.analog.com J.S.Katre, Wave Shaping Techniques, chapter 6, pp 70-80.
[3]
[4]
http://www.essar.com/power.htm
[5]
http://www.hpinfotech.ro/html/cvavr.htm
[6]
http://www.lancos.com/ppwin95.html
[7]
http://www.mathworks.com
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