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Nanoscale and Microscale
Thermophysical Engineering
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Silver Nanofluid Containing Oleic Acid
Surfactant As Working Fluid In The Two-
Phase Closed Thermosyphon (TPCT): A
Thermodynamic Study
T. Parametthanuwat
a
& S. Rittidech
a
a
Heat-Pipe and Thermal Tools Design Research Laboratory (HTDR),
Division of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,
Mahasarakham University , Mahasarakham , Thailand
Published online: 27 Jun 2013.
To cite this article: T. Parametthanuwat & S. Rittidech (2013) Silver Nanofluid Containing
Oleic Acid Surfactant As Working Fluid In The Two-Phase Closed Thermosyphon (TPCT): A
Thermodynamic Study, Nanoscale and Microscale Thermophysical Engineering, 17:3, 216-235, DOI:
10.1080/15567265.2013.776652
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15567265.2013.776652
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Nanoscale and Microscale Thermophysical Engineering, 17: 216235, 2013
Copyright Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 1556-7265 print / 1556-7273 online
DOI: 10.1080/15567265.2013.776652
SILVER NANOFLUID CONTAINING OLEIC ACID
SURFACTANT AS WORKING FLUID IN THE
TWO-PHASE CLOSED THERMOSYPHON (TPCT):
A THERMODYNAMIC STUDY
T. Parametthanuwat and S. Rittidech
Heat-Pipe and Thermal Tools Design Research Laboratory (HTDR), Division of
Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Mahasarakham University,
Mahasarakham, Thailand
The effect of using a surfactant on heat transfer rates in a two-phase closed thermosyphon
(TPCT) in an operating state was investigated. A TPCT was made from copper tubes with 7.5,
11.1, and 25.4 mm international diameters and aspect ratios of 5, 10, and 20

L
e
d
i

. The lling
ratios chosen were 30, 50, and 80% with respect to the evaporator length. Three working
uids were investigated: a silver nanouid with a concentration of 0.5 wt% containing 0.5, 1,
and 1.5 wt% of oleic acid. The operating temperatures were 40, 50, and 60

C. This research
reports the effect of the following dimensionless parameters on heat transport:
L
e
d
i
, Pr, Bo, Ja,
Pe, Co, Cd, Ar, Z, and Ku. It was further found that the lling ratio had no effect on the ratio
of heat transfer rates in the vertical position, but the properties of the working uid affected
the heat transport. In addition, a correlation for predicting the heat ux for the two-phase
closed thermosyphon in the vertical position was established.
KEY WORDS: silver nanouid, working temperature, aspect ratios, oleic acid,
thermosyphon, correlation
INTRODUCTION
Atwo-phase closed thermosyphon (TPCT), shown in Figure 1 is essentially a gravity-
assisted wickless heat pipe, which utilizes the heat of evaporation and condensation as a
working uid. Contrary to the conventional heat pipe, which uses the capillary force to
return the liquid to the evaporator, the TPCT uses gravity to return liquid to the condensate.
Because the evaporator of a TPCT is located in the lowest position, the gravitational force
will support the capillary forces duty [1, 2]. TPCTs have a number of advantages, includ-
ing a simple structure, very low thermal resistance, high efciency, and low manufacturing
Manuscript received 9 May 2012; accepted 12 February 2013.
Financial support from the Thailand Research Fund through the Royal Golden Jubilee Ph.D. Program (Grant
No. PHD/0340/2550) to T. Parametthanuwat and S. Rittidech is acknowledged. T. Parametthanuwat and S.
Rittidech were also supported generously by the Faculty of Engineering, Mahasarakham University, Thailand.
Address correspondence to S. Rittidech, Heat-Pipe and Thermal Tools Design Research Laboratory (HTDR),
Division of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Mahasarakham University, 41/20 Kantrawichai
Subdistrict, Mahasarakham 44150, Thailand. E-mail: s.rittidech@hotmail.com
216
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EFFECT OF SURFACTANT ON HEAT TRANSFER 217
NOMENCLATURE
Ar Archimedes number,
Ar =
g
s
L
3

2
(
s

l
)
Aspect ratio
L
e
d
i
Bo bond number, Bo =D
i
_
g

_1
2
Cd drag number,
Cd =
g
_

f
_
L
V
2
Co condensation number,
Co =
h
k
_

2
g
2
_
1
3
c
p
specic heat capacity con-
stant pressure, J(kg

C)
1
D, d
i
diameter, m
h
fg
latent heat of vaporization,
kJkg
1
Ja Jacob number, Ja =
h
fg
C
pl
T
v
k thermal conductivity,
W(mK)
1
Ku Kutateladze number,
Ku =

q
_

v
h
fg
_

2
v
__1
4

L characteristic length, m

m mass per unit time, kgs

1
NP 0.5 wt% of silver particles
NP+OA silver particles contained
oleic acid
NP+OA0.5 silver particles contained
oleic acid concentration of
0.5 wt%
NP+OA1 silver particles contained
oleic acid concentration of
1 wt%
NP+OA1.5 silver particles contained
oleic acid concentration of
1.5 wt%
Pe Peclet number, Pe =
LVC
p
k
Pr Prandtl number,
Pr =

l
C
pl
k
l
Q heat transfer rate, W
T
in
inlet temperature at con-
denser section,

C
T
out
outlet temperature at con-
denser section,

C
T
v
operating temperature,

C
V velocity, ms
1
Z Ohensorge number, Z =

(gL)
1
3
Greek Symbols
viscosity, Pa s
density, kg m
3
surface tension, N m
1
Subscripts
a adiabatic
c condenser
e evaporator
f uid/volume fraction
l liquid
s solid
v vapor
costs. They have therefore been widely used in various applications. These include indus-
trial heat recovery, electronic component cooling, turbine blade cooling, and solar heating
systems [35].
This literature review consists of a number of points to be reviewed and discussed.
The requirements of a TPCT and the nanouids will be summarized, together with the exist-
ing characterization measurements and application of online methods. Thus, the addition of
nanoparticles to a base uid forms a so-called nanouid, as the nanoparticles can improve
the heat transfer rate. Then, the primary task is to create the correlation of Kutateladze
number [1, 6], which can be used to predict the heat transfer rate in a TPCT to design and
construct the heat exchanger applications. Then, nanouids are used as working uids in
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218 T. PARAMETTHANUWAT AND S. RITTIDECH
Q
in
Q
out
POOL
E
v
a
p
o
r
a
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o
r

s
e
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r

s
e
c
t
i
o
n
Vapor flow
Liquid flow
Figure 1 Two-phase closed thermosyphon (color gure available online).
heat pipes. Points to be considered include the method using the nanouids and the effect
this has on the TPCT. Thus, the heat transfer rate behavior of a TPCT is essential in estab-
lishing adequate applications and processing design. Noie et al. [7] studied the effect of the
inclination angle at 5 to 90

with different lling ratios (distilled water as the working uid)

of 15, 22, and 30%. The thermal performance of a TPCT (copper tube diameter of 14.5 mm
i.d., length 1,000 mm) was investigated experimentally under normal operating conditions.
It was found that the TPCT had the highest thermal performance in the inclination angle
range of 15 to 60

. The interesting phenomenon of geyser boiling occurred in our experi-

ments for lling ratios equal to or greater than 30%. Geyser boiling puts no limitation on the
thermal performance of the thermosyphon; however, it should be avoided because it dam-
ages the condenser end cap due to the slug striking. Another study on nanouids by Noie
et al. [8] investigated Al
2
O
3
in water and showed the efciency of the TPCT was enhanced
by up to 14.7% at 3 vol%. It was found that the temperature distribution in the TPCT was
at a lower level when nanouids were used as opposed to pure water. Therefore, the higher
thermal performance of the TPCT loaded with nanouids proved its potential as a substitute
for a convectional one with pure water. Khandekar et al. [3] used Al
2
O
3
, CuO, and laponite
clay mean diameter <100 nm in water. The TPCT was made from copper tubing with a ll-
ing ratio of 100%. It was found that nanouids showed inferior thermal performance than
pure water. The wettability of all nanouids on copper substrate, having the same average
roughness as that of the TPCT, was better than pure water. A scaling analysis in an evap-
orator side Peclet number found this eventually leads to poor thermal performance. The
condenser and evaporator were an important factor on overall performance.
When nanouids were used as working uids, they increased the thermal and heat
transfer capacities. Nanouids are created by suspending ultrane metallic or nonmetallic
particles, typically of several tens of nanometers in size, in base uids such as water,
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EFFECT OF SURFACTANT ON HEAT TRANSFER 219
oil, and ethylene glycol [911]. Nanouids are well known for their ability to enhance
thermal conductivity and convective heat transfer. However, to obtain a sizeable enhance-
ment in thermal conductivity, the particle volume concentration needs to be signicantly
high, on the order of 0.5 vol% or above [6, 12]. A distinct feature of nanouids is their
need for stronger temperature-dependent thermal conductivity than the base uid requires.
Thermal conductivity also depends upon the concentration of the added surfactant. In some
instances, the nanouids were unstable and the nanoparticles were found to have precipi-
tated [1315]. A surfactant improves the stability of a nanouid by uniform dispersion of
particles. A surfactant can adsorb gas in a liquidgas interface and decrease the interfa-
cial tension. Some surfactants may occulate in the bulk solution [16, 17]. For example,
Patel et al. [18] investigated Au nanouids in toluene. This showed a thermal conductivity
enhancement of up to 21% even at very low loadings (26.10
3
vol%). Ag nanouids that
were in toluene showed a lower thermal conductivity at a higher volume percentage con-
centration than Au nanouids. Although Ag has a higher thermal conductivity than Au, less
thermal conductivity enhancement in this case larger particle size was observed. Godson
et al. [19] studied silver nanouids in water and showed thermal conductivity enhance-
ment of 80% at 0.9 vol% loading. It was concluded that the thermophoretic velocity in
one mechanism is responsible for the enhancement of the thermal conductivity. Its contri-
bution is higher than that of Brownian motion. Kang et al. [10] diluted silver nanouids
in water used as the working uids for conventional heat pipes. Nanouids showed bet-
ter cooling capacity as opposed to water. An explanation for why nanoparticles can atten
and transverse the temperature gradient of the uids and reduce the boiling limit is due
to the increasing effective liquid conductance in the heat pipe. Hence, the nanouids were
more attractive as a cooling uid for devices with higher energy density. Li et al. [14],
Hwang et al. [16], and Vekas et al. [20] recommended changing the thermal conductiv-
ity with practical application of nanouids. The Cu in water contained 0.1 wt%, mixed
with sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate surfactant up to 0.14 mass fraction percentage at
pH 8.59.5. The maximum thermal conductivity of Cu-H
2
O nanouids could increase
to 10.7%. A long chain length decreased the surface tension, which decreased viscosity
better than a short chain length. Optimization of the chain length of the group oleic acid
organic compounds was C18. This showed that relatively larger particle dispersion stabi-
lized at approximately 30%. Hence, the surfactant could reduce the surface tension of the
working uid, which improved the colloidal stability and increased the nonprecipitation
period for uniform nanoparticle dispersion. The surfactant could increase the surface area
by silver nanouids for absorbing heat, this was an enhancement for boiling uid accord-
ing to Qi et al., [15]; Hwang et al., [16]. Lu and Kessler [21] investigated changes in the
physical properties of Al
2
O
3
. The Al
2
O
3
in water 1:10 weight ratio dispersion ammo-
nium poly(methacrylic acid) (PMAA-NH
4
) and poly(acrylic acid) as a surfactant showed
shear thinning behavior. The surfactants are caused by decreasing the surface tension with
a changed viscosity of nanouids. Shear thinning could be observed at a viscosity higher
than 0.2 m and solid loading up to 40 vol%. The rheological behavior was found to be
the higher dispersion when using PAA suspension up to 47.5 vol%. In conclusion, PPA has
good adsorption on Al
2
O
3
particles suspension as solid loading has a direct effect on the
shear stress. A higher PPA content achieved stable suspension increased with increasing
of content more dramatically than the particle specic surface area. Thus, the shear stress
and viscosity increasing of solid loading. Therefore, due to the solidliquid suspension,
the viscosity of nanouids, shear rate/shear stress, nanoparticles, nanouid concentration,
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220 T. PARAMETTHANUWAT AND S. RITTIDECH
temperature, etc., may have been affected by the rheological behavior. The rheological
behavior of nanouids strongly depends on their thermal properties.
In general, the heat transfer characteristics of the TPCT are shown by its capability
to transfer heat (Q). In the case of the TPCT, because there are many parameters involved
in the heat transfer mechanism, it is necessary to normalize the heat transfer rate of the
TPCT shown in Payakaruk et al. [1] and Parametthanuwat et al. [6]. Hence, the objective
of this study was to experimentally investigate the effect of the inner diameter of the TPCT.
Payakaruk et al. [1] studied TPCT copper with 7.5, 11.1, and 25.4 mm i.d. using R22, R123,
R134a ethanol and water as the working uids with lling ratios of 50, 80, and 100% and
aspect ratios of 5, 10, and 20. It was found that the lling ratio had no effect on the ratio of
heat transfer in any condition. However, the properties of the working uid affected the heat
transfer rate. Bond number (Bo), Froude number (Fr), Weber number (We) were studied
to formulate a correlation for predicting the heat transfer characteristics of the TPCT to
the Kutateladze number (Ku) as follows: Ku

= Ku
d
L
e

l
. The modied Ku can be
employed as a dimensionless parameter to predict the maximum Q/Q
90
. Parametthanuwat
et al. [6] used TPCT copper tube with a 7.5, 11.1, and 25.4 mm i.d. with deionized water
and silver nanouid of 0.5 wt% concentration. The lling ratios were 30, 50, and 80% and
aspect ratios of 5, 10, and 20 at an inclination angle of 90

. The dimensionless parameters

studied were
Le
d
i
, Bond number (Bo), Prandlt number (Pr), Nusselt number (Nu), Weber
number (We), Froude number (Fr), and other group differences from Payakaruk et al. [1]
studied were Archimedes number (Ar), condensation number (Co), Jacob number (Ja), and
Grashof number (Gr). The dimensionless values can also be formulated to Kutateladze
number (Ku) correlation as follows: Ku = 3.11
_
Le
d
i
2.1
Pr
2.2
Bo
2.5
Ja
2.1
We
1.4
Fr
1.4
Co
2.5
Nu
2.5
Ar
0.5
Gr
0.5
_
0.13
. It was
found that the standard deviation of the experimental heat ux and predicted heat ux was
5%. Therefore, we can predict the heat ux of the TPCT because the condition parameter
had no effect. However, properties of working uids affected the heat transfer rate.
There are indications that exploratory research is indeed required to study the effects
of dimensionless parameters of these uids in engineering systems. Furthermore, this arti-
cle aims to study correlation of heat transfer behavior of silver nanouids containing oleic
acid surfactant in a closed two-phase gravity-assisted thermosyphon.
EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS AND PROCEDURE
Nanouid Preparation
Nanouid is produced by metal or metal oxide nanoparticles being suspended in a
base uid such as oil, water, acetone, ethylene glycol, etc. Nanouid preparation involves
many methods such as changing the pH value of the suspension, using surfactant activators,
and using ultrasonic vibration. The nanoparticles suspended in the base uid are stable for
a considerable amount of time. For this research, the nanouid was prepared in a sonicator
(bath type; operating frequency and power source of the sonicator were 43 kHz and AC
100120 V/AC 220240 V 50/60 Hz, respectively, Triad Scientic, NJ, USA) for 6 h.
Nanoparticles were prepared by Sigma-Aldrich, Inc. (Milwaukee, WI, USA). Firstly, sil-
ver nanopowder with a particle size <100 nm, 99.9% (metals basis), was suspended into
deionized water at a concentration of 0.5 wt%. Secondly, silver nanoparticles were sus-
pended in deionized water at a concentration of 0.5 wt% mixed with oleic acid (surfactant)
at concentrations of 0.5, 1, and 1.5 wt%. Some models have been developed to better
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EFFECT OF SURFACTANT ON HEAT TRANSFER 221
describe the inuence of nanoparticles on a pure substance and the gain in liquid thermal
conductivity that it might represent. Usually the Maxwell model is applied in this case as
[12]
k
eff
=
k
p
+2k
l
+2
_
k
p
k
l
_

k
p
+2k
l

_
k
p
k
l
_

k
l
. (1)
The volume fraction () of the particles is dened as
=
V
p
V
p
+V
l
. (2)
Equation (1) represents the effective thermal conductivity of the homogeneous suspension
however, not only the thermal conductivity was affected to effective thermal conductivity
such as size and shape of nanoparticles by the addition of nanoparticles in the substance.
In this case, proper consideration and evaluation of the solid particles in a liquid must be
considered according to the two-phase theory [22]. Thus, the nanouid density is
1

n
=
_
f

n
+
1 f

l
_
. (3)
The liquid dynamic viscosity was then calculated as [23]

n
=
l
1
(1 f )
2.5
. (4)
The heat capacity was then calculated using a differential scanning calorimetry method
using a DSC822e (Cp-DIN 51007; Mettler Toledo, Columbus, OH, USA). Five work-
ing uids were investigated: water, water-based silver nanouid with silver concentration
0.5 w/v%, and the nanouid mixed with 0.5, 1, and 1.5 w/v% of oleic acid, used with
DSC822e. In this research, silver nanouid was prepared as a type of chemical mixture
where one substance is dispersed evenly throughout another. The particles of the dis-
persed substance were only suspended in the mixture, unlike a solution, in which they are
completely dissolved. This occurs because the particles in a colloid are larger than those
in a solution and are small enough to be dispersed evenly and maintain a homogenous
appearance but large enough to scatter light and not dissolve. Because of this dispersal,
some colloids have the appearance of solutions. A colloidal system consists of two sep-
arate phases: a dispersed phase (or internal phase) and a continuous phase (or dispersion
medium). A colloidal system may be solid, liquid, or gaseous.
Experimental Setup
Figure 2 shows a schematic diagram of the experimental apparatus, which consisted
of a TPCT. Section A is the evaporator with a heat source (hot bath), section B is the
adiabatic, and section C is the condenser with a heat sink. The TPCT was made from
copper tubing. Water was selected for the heating and cooling and temperatures were con-
trolled so that the temperature measurement at the adiabatic section was at a constant
operating temperature, 4

C. The three aspect ratios (L

e
/d
i
) were 5, 10, and 20. The
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222 T. PARAMETTHANUWAT AND S. RITTIDECH
y
x
Working fluid filling set
Vacuum pump
Hot bath
Cold bath
Out put
Out put
In put
In put
T
P
C
T
C
A
B
Datalogger
T
out
T
in
Di
Le
Di
A
Aspectratio=
=
Flow meter
Figure 2 Schematic diagram of experimental apparatus (color gure available online).
evaporator, adiabatic, and condenser sections represent the three sections of the TPCT. Ten
thermocouples were installed to collect data (Yokogawa DX200 [Taiwan] with 0.1

C
accuracy, 20-channel input, and 200 to 1100

C temperature measurement range) and

were used with type K thermocouples (Omega with 0.1

C accuracy, Taiwan), which

were attached to the inlet and outlet of the heating and cooling jackets. Thermocouples
were attached to the TPCT and data were recorded using a data logger. There were three
points on the condenser, evaporator, and adiabatic sections. A hot bath (TECHNE TE-10D
[Staffordshire, UK] with an operating range of 40 to 120

C and 0.1

C accuracy) system
was used to pump hot water into the heating jacket in the evaporator section, and the cold
bath (EYELA CA-1111 [Bohemia, NY, USA] volume 6.0 L with an operating temperature
range of 20 to 30

C and 2

C accuracy) system was used to pump the cooling water into

the cooling jacket in the condenser section. The inlet temperature of the cooling water was
maintained at 20

C. A oating rotameter (PLATON PTF2 ASS-C [Domont Cedex, France]

with a volumetric ow rate of 0.21.5 L/min) was used to measure the ow rate of water.
During the experiment, the volumetric ow rate was set at 0.25 L/min in order to calcu-
late the heat transfer characteristics of the TPCT using the caloric method. The following
equations were used to calculate the heat transfer rates and for error analysis:
Q = mC
p
(T
out
T
in
) . (5)
Thus, the
Q = f ( m, T
out
, T
in
)
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EFFECT OF SURFACTANT ON HEAT TRANSFER 223
Error analysis of the heat transfer can be obtained from
Q =
_
_
Q
m
m
_
2
+
_
Q
T
out
T
out
_
2
+
_
Q
T
in
T
in
_
2
_
0.5
. (6)
In order to experiment with a wide range of aspect ratios, the parameters shown in Table 1
were used to formulate the heat transfer characteristics of the TPCT. Then the following
parameters were set with a corresponding inclination angle of 90

. In this section create

the correlation; the properties of working uid were controlled at the same operating tem-
perature and the viscosity was in range of Newtonian behavior. To formulate a correlation
to predict the heat transfer characteristics of the TPCT, the Kutateladze number (Ku) is
applied to analyze a correlation from the dimensionless parameters group. The dimension-
less parameters of interest, which may have an effect on the heat ux of the TPCT,
L
e
d
, Pr,
Bo, Ja, Pe, Co, Cd, Ar, and Z, are shown in Table 2. Thus, the thermal performance of the
TPCT is expressed as follows:
q = f
_
L
e
d
i
, Pr, Bo, Ja, Pe, Co, Cd, Ar, Z
_
= Ku
_

v
h
fg
_

2
v
__
0.25
(7)
Table 1 Experiment conditions for thermal performance
Conditions Working uid
Internal
diameter (mm)
Aspect
ratio
Filling
ratios (%)
Operating
temperature (

C)
Angle of
inclination (

)
Independent
variable
1. DI 1. 7.5 1. 5 1. 30 1. 40 1. 90
2. NP 2. 11.1 2. 10 2. 50 2. 50 2. 80
3. NP + OA 0.5 3. 25.4 3. 20 3. 80 3. 60 3. 60
4. NP + OA 1 4. 40
5. NP + OA 1.5 5. 20
6. 0
Dependent
variable
1. Heat transfer rate (Q)
2. Heat transfer coefcient (h)
Control
variable
1. The temperature of cooling water is xed at 20

C
2. The volumetric ow rate of condenser section is xed at 0.25 L/min.
3. The volumetric ow rate of evaporator section is xed at 1.5 L/min.
4. The ambient temperature is xed at 25

C.
Table 2 Controlled and variable parameters
Conditions
Physical
analysis
Behavior of
boiling
Behavior of
condensation
Behavior of
buoyancy
Independent variable Body dimension Bond number Drang number Archimedes number
Diameter Kutateladze
number
Condensation
number
Ohensorge number
Aspect ratio Jacob number Peclet number
Prandtl number
Dependent variable Create a correlation equation
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224 T. PARAMETTHANUWAT AND S. RITTIDECH
The dimensionless parameters in Eq. (7) can be grouped by correlating the effect they
appear to have on critical heat ux [6]. This section is intended to provide a background for
a discussion of the results.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A dimensionless quantity is a quantity without an associated physical dimension.
It can be obtained from the relationship between a variable and a focused property for a
particular phenomenon that occurs inside a TPCT. A dimensionless term in a TPCT system,
in practice, is dened by a uids behavior; for example, liquid ow, vapor ow, boiling
point, condensation, exertion of buoyancy force, etc. [1, 6]. A dimensionless quantities
study were investigated as follows in four groups:
r
Body dimension characteristic
r
Boiling phenomenon
r
Condensation phenomenon
r
Buoyancy phenomenon
Therefore, the thermal performance of dimensionless in experimental results has been pre-
sented by the TPCT applying silver nanouid to a vertical position in order to ascertain the
effect of each dimensionless group.
Body Dimension Characteristic
Effect of Aspect Ratio (L
e
/d
i
) Values on Heat Flux L
e
/d
i
is the evaporator
section length per internal diameter of a TPCT. It is the body for the heat transfer in a
TPCT tube and can be explained as the distance of physical motion for working uid (liquid
and vapor). Accordingly, Figure 3 shows the relationship between the aspect ratios and the
heat ux. It can be seen that as the aspect ratio increased from 5 to 20, the heat ux slightly
decreased. The larger (big and long) L
e
/d
i
approached pool boiling [1, 24]. The pool boiling
occurred at a lower heat ux. Alternatively, (smaller and short) the boiling phenomenon
approaches when inside a conned channel a high heat ux then occurred.
Boiling Phenomenon Group
Effect of Bond Number (Bo) Values on Heat Flux Bo is the ratio of buoyancy
force to the surface tension force. Bo values can be used to explain boiling phenomena
inside an evaporator section and the state of the vapor bubbles in nucleate boiling. When
the evaporator receives heat, the surface tension of the working uid inside is reduced,
causing the buoyancy force to dominate the surface tension. If the Bo value is high, the
working uid boils vigorously. The change in Bo value depends on two main factors: the
density and the diameter of the TPCT cross section. The Bo changes both diameter and
lling ratios of 0.5 wt% Ag containing all concentrations and produces an increase in the
transformer action volume fraction (f ) followed by the dimension of the diameter and length
of the section. Figure 4 shows the relationship between the Bond number and heat ux of
the TPCT. When the diameter increases, heat ux decreases.
Effect of Jacob Number (Ja) Values on Heat Flux Ja is the ratio of latent heat
to the sensible heat of the working uid. It represents the phase change of a working uid
inside. If the value of Ja is high, the latent heat value will be higher than the sensible heat
D
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a
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a
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EFFECT OF SURFACTANT ON HEAT TRANSFER 225
5 10
10
5
10
6
Diameter 7.5 mm
Diameter 11.1 mm
Diameter 25.4 mm
H
e
a
t

f
l
u
x
,

W
/
m
2
Aspect ratio
20
Figure 3 Relationship between aspect ratios and heat ux.
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
Diameter 7.5 mm
Diameter 11.1 mm
Diameter 25.4 mm
H
e
a
t

f
l
u
x
,

W
/
m
2
Bond number
Figure 4 Relationship between Bond number and heat ux.
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a
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d

b
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[
N
a
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a
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a
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a
b
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a
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]

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226 T. PARAMETTHANUWAT AND S. RITTIDECH
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
4
10
5
10
6
Diameter 7.5 mm
Diameter 11.1 mm
Diameter 25.4 mm
H
e
a
t

f
l
u
x
,

W
/
m
2
Jacob number
Figure 5 Relationship between Jacob number and heat ux.
value. Results of Ja from this experiment are plotted in Figure 5 and show the relation-
ship between the Jacob number and heat ux. It can be seen that the heat ux was clearly
correlated to Ja values. Moreover, the working uid condensed more than when changing
temperature. When the Ja values increased with heat ux decreasing linearly, 0.5 wt% Ag
containing all concentrations of a higher heat capacity than those of the base uid. This
led to an increase in the latent heat of evaporation. Subsequently, this resulted in a higher
convective heat ux and thus a reduction in the heat lm thickness.
Conduction and Convective Phenomenon Group
Effect of Prandlt Number (Pr) Values on Heat Flux Figure 6 shows the rela-
tionship between Prandtl number (Pr) and heat ux. The result shows that maximum heat
ux used was at diameter 7.5 mm. It can be seen that although the data were arranged in
a cluster and an orderly manner, they became somewhat scattered. Considering the vari-
ables the internal diameter and type of workthis found that all were affected by the heat
transfer rate of the TPCT. Pr is the ratio of momentum diffusivity to the thermal diffusivity
of liquid. It represents convection heat transfer in a tube. It may occur the vapor bubbles
move from the evaporator section to the condenser section. If the value of Pr is very low, the
heat transfer of the vapor bubbles will be much higher than during its momentum transfer.
This is due to the vapor bubbles being able to efciently transfer the thermal energy to the
condenser section.
Effect of Peclet Number (Pe) Values on Heat Flux Figure 7 shows the rela-
tionship between Peclet number (Pe) and heat ux. Pe is the ratio of the bulk heat transfer
rate to the conductive heat transfer rate for predicting convection heat transfer of the work-
ing uid. Pe is an important dimensionless parameter in two-phase ow, which occurs in
D
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a
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y

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a
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a
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]

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EFFECT OF SURFACTANT ON HEAT TRANSFER 227
2 4 6 8 10
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
Diameter 7.5 mm
Diameter 11.1 mm
Diameter 25.4 mm
H
e
a
t

f
l
u
x
,

W
/
m
2
Prandtl number
Figure 6 Relationship between Prandtl number and heat ux.
10
5
10
4
10
3
10
2
10
1
10
0
10
1
10
4
10
5
10
6
Diameter 7.5 mm
Diameter 11.1 mm
Diameter 25.4 mm
H
e
a
t

f
l
u
x
,

W
/
m
2
Peclet number
Figure 7 Relationship between Peclet number and heat ux.
D
o
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o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
N
a
t
i
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a
l

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a
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a
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]

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228 T. PARAMETTHANUWAT AND S. RITTIDECH
both conduction and convection transfer of TPCT where the length of the TPCT distance
is an important factor when moving the working uid. In general, this is the condition for
the free area in the evaporator and condenser sections. It is used in the momentum transfer
in the behavior of calculation when the liquid phase changes to vapor then condensate. The
result shows that the maximum heat ux was a diameter of 7.5 mm. Due to the small diam-
eter and short aspect ratio, the short distance for moving the working uid in a TPCT was
found to be enough for boiling and condensation. Moreover, silver nanouid containing
oleic acid surfactant was hastened the boiling and facilitated the phase change of liquid to
vapor.
Effect of Condensation Number (Co) Values on Heat Flux Figure 8 shows
the relationship between condensation number (Co) and heat ux. Co is the density ratio
and hence gravitational component and homogeneous theory for the momentum component
(heat ux divided by product of mass ux and latent heat of vaporization). The higher the
value of Co, the easier it is for the condensate to return to the evaporator section. It can
be seen that when the Co increased, heat ux increased slightly. Thus, ensuring that the
condensation of the working uid at the condenser section is sufciently high, it can be
predicted that the amount of condensate being so high, it could return to the evaporator
section. This ensures that the working uid is boiling for phase transition in the TPCT.
Effect of Drag Coefcient (Cd) Values on Heat Flux Figure 9 shows the
relationship between the drag coefcient (Cd) and heat ux. Cd is proportional to the grav-
itational internal forces that predict the momentum transfer rate dependent on the physical
motion. The neutral stability value of Cd is dependent on the TPCT length and volumet-
ric ow. Cd in a TPCT with a 7.5 mm i.d. is slightly higher than Cd in a TPCT with
11.1 and 25.4 mm i.d. at a controlled aspect ratio and volumetric ow rate. The higher drag
10
2
10
1
10
0
10
1
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
Diameter 7.5 mm
Diameter 11.1 mm
Diameter 25.4 mm
H
e
a
t

f
l
u
x
,

W
/
m
2
Condensation number
Figure 8 Relationship between condensation number and heat ux.
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o
a
d
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d

b
y

[
N
a
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a
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EFFECT OF SURFACTANT ON HEAT TRANSFER 229
10
5
10
6
10
7
10
8
10
9
10
10
10
11
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
Diameter 7.5 mm
Diameter 11.1 mm
Diameter 25.4 mm
H
e
a
t

f
l
u
x
,

W
/
m
2
Drag number
Figure 9 Relationship between drag coefcient and heat ux.
coefcient in the TPCT body of a larger diameter is due to the longer traveling distance
of the nanouid complex. Cd parameterizes the neutral stability value of the heat transfer
coefcient, which increases to sensible heat, the aspect ratio nondimensional quantity is
dened by L
e
/d
i
, where d
i
is the internal diameter and L
e
is the evaporator section length.
Cd reaches its maximum value at a small TPCT body dimension but decreases rapidly with
increasing diameter d
i
. However, the total surface area of the nanoparticles still increases
when nanoparticles ow upward to receive the thermal heat. It is compelling that the bulk
Cd transfer coefcient for latent heat is different from nanouids. Using the approach
of nanouids with oleic acid surfactant at a longer chain length highlights keep in the
homogeneity contained may not be as severe a constraint for evaluating scalar Cd transfer
coefcient, as opposed to the application of the ux gradient relation.
Buoyancy Phenomenon Group
Effect of Archimedes Number (Ar) Values on Heat Flux Ar determines
the motion of uid and solids due to the density difference. The relationship between
Archimedes number and heat ux is shown in Figure 10. It can be seen that the diam-
eter increased as the heat ux decreased. This is due to the boiling phenomenon; as it
approached pool boiling, the pool boiling high heat transfer rate occurs. Alternatively, when
a larger diameter was used, the boiling phenomenon approached boiling inside a conned
channel at which low heat transfer rate occurs. The smaller diameter caused silver nanouid
containing oleic acid surfactant to be less buoyant.
Effect of Ohnesorge Number (Z) Values on Heat Flux Z is generally used for
momentum transfer rate and atomization. Figure 11 shows the relationship between Z and
heat ux. When the Z value of 7.5 mm i.d. is slightly higher than those of 11.1 and 25.4 mm
D
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a
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b
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230 T. PARAMETTHANUWAT AND S. RITTIDECH
10
9
10
10
10
11
10
12
10
13
10
14
10
15
10
16
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
Diameter 7.5 mm
Diameter 11.1 mm
Diameter 25.4 mm
H
e
a
t

f
l
u
x
,

W
/
m
2
Archimedes number
Figure 10 Relationship between Archimedes number and heat ux.
10
4
10
5
10
2
10
1
10
0
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
Diameter 7.5 mm
Diameter 11.1 mm
Diameter 25.4 mm
H
e
a
t

f
l
u
x
,

W
/
m
2
Ohnesorge number
Figure 11 Relationship between Ohnesorge number and heat ux.
D
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a
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d

b
y

[
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a
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EFFECT OF SURFACTANT ON HEAT TRANSFER 231
i.d. at a controlled aspect ratio and volumetric ow rate. It represents the countercurrent
ow interaction between the free surface of vapor and liquid lm inside the TPCT. Z is an
important dimensionless parameter in two-phase ow, which occurs in both the evaporator
and condenser section of TPCT. In uid dynamics, the viscosity and inertia surface ten-
sion are an important factor for phase transition and occurrence of free surface (vaporized
phase). However, the oleic acid surfactant is helpful in decreasing viscosity and the surface
tension before silver particles with a base uid become homogeneous. Nanoparticles help
to speed up boiling and facilitate the phase change of liquid to vapor. The hydrophobic
group of oleic surfactants is helpful in stabilizing and carrying the silver particles up from
the evaporator section with their hydrophilic-attached water component. After the particles
in the vapor phase have been moved to the condenser section and changed back to a liquid
phase, they are immediately returned to the evaporator section.
Effect of Kutateladze Number (Ku) Value on Heat Flux The value of Ku
is the ratio of TPCT to output heat ux per critical heat ux of a working uid and it
represents the pool boiling phenomenon of the working uid in the evaporator section.
Figure 12 shows the relationship between Ku values and heat ux from the experiment.
It can be seen that the relationship between the Ku values and the heat ux of all of the
diameters are similar. Firstly, they were linear. Secondly, when the value of Ku increased,
heat ux increased as well.
Correlation Equation
The dimensionless parameters on heat transfer characteristics of the TPCT; thus,
L
e
/d
i
, Pr, Bo, Ja, Pe, Co, Cd, Ar, and Z values can be used to formulate a correlation to
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
Diameter 7.5 mm
Diameter 11.1 mm
Diameter 25.4 mm
H
e
a
t

f
l
u
x
,

W
/
m
2
Kutateladze number
Figure 12 Relationship between Kutateladze number and heat ux.
D
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a
d
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d

b
y

[
N
a
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a
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a
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232 T. PARAMETTHANUWAT AND S. RITTIDECH
10
0
10
10
10
20
10
30
10
40
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
Diameter 7.5 mm
Diameter 11.1 mm
Diameter 25.4 mm
Nanofluid [6]
K
u
t
a
t
e
l
a
d
z
e

n
u
m
b
e
r
Bo
Ar Z
Ja Pe
Figure 13 Relationship between ([Le]
4.8
/d ([Pr]
4.8
[Bo]
5.6
[Ja]
4.2
[Pe]
4.4
[Co]
5.6
[Cd]
3
)/([Ar]
0.8
Z
1.2
))
0.13
and
Kutateladze number.
predict heat transfer rates of the TPCT. The standard least square curve tting technique
was adopted. The power function was found to be the best representation to formulate a
correlation. A correlation of Ku to predict the heat transferred from the TPCT was
Ku = 0.04
_
Le
4.8
d
Pr
4.8
Bo
5.6
Ja
4.2
Pe
4.4
Co
5.6
Cd
3
Ar
0.8
Z
1.2
_
0.13
. (8)
The results are shown in Figure 13. Furthermore, when the dimensionless groups were
compared with the results of Parametthanuwat et al. [6], it was found that the dimension-
less groups of a TPCT were higher than determined by Parametthanuwat et al. [6]. Oleic
acid can reduce the surface tension of the working uid, which improves the colloidal abil-
ity and increases the lead time period for uniform dispersion of nanoparticles. Therefore,
it could be predicted that the amount of condensate was so high that it could return to the
evaporator section, thereby ensuring an ample amount of working uid for the boiling and
phase transition. Furthermore, it was helpful to the homogeneous dispersion of nanoparticle
in nanouids and was found to be highly unagglomerated with the hydrodynamic diameter.
Brownian motion is a signicant contributory factor in increasing the thermal conductiv-
ity. It would have to have a more efcient heat transfer rate mechanism than the thermal
diffusion in the uid.
The coefcient of determination (R
2
) of this equation was 0.8. Figure 13 shows a
comparison between experimental and predicted heat ux using Equation (8). Furthermore,
the correlation of TPCT using nanouid containing oleic acid surfactant and TPCT using
D
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a
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a
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EFFECT OF SURFACTANT ON HEAT TRANSFER 233
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
10
7
10
8
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
10
7
10
8
5 %
Diameter 7.5 mm
Diameter 11.1 mm
Diameter 25.4 mm
Diameter 7.5 mm [6]
Diameter 11.1 mm [6]
Diameter 25.4 mm [6]
q
e
x
p
e
r
i
m
e
n
t
,

W
/
m
2
q
predict
, W/m
2
+5 %
A B
Figure 14 Comparison between q
predict
and q
experiment
(color gure available online).
nanouid [6] were compared. It was found that the TPCT using nanouid containing oleic
acid surfactant resulted in higher Ku values than those reported by Parametthanuwat et al.
[6]. As found in Parametthanuwat et al. [6], there was no mechanism of bulk heat transfer
rates (Pe), internal force (Cd), and inertial force with surface tension (Z). As can be seen in
Figure 14, point A had a higher heat ux without surfactant; however, when adding oleic
acid surfactant the higher heat ux was at point B. Therefore, the oleic acid surfactant was
found to be helpful to upper heat transport. From the results obtained, the heat ux of the
TPCT positioned vertically can be evaluated using Eq. (9):
q = 0.04
_
Le
4.8
d
Pr
4.8
Bo
5.6
Ja
4.2
Pe
4.4
Co
5.6
Cd
3
Ar
0.8
Z
1.2
_
0.13

v
h
fg
_

2
v
__
0.25
. (9)
The standard deviation of the experimental heat ux and the predicted heat ux using
Eq. (9) was 5%. Therefore, this equation can be used to predict heat ux of the TPCT
as shown in Figure 14.
CONCLUSIONS
In the dimensionless analysis, it was found that the lling ratio did not affect the
heat transfer rate; however, the properties of the working uid did. Therefore, these prop-
erties dominated the dimensionless parameters and the Ku correlation and showed that the
standard deviation for predicting heat ux was 5%.
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234 T. PARAMETTHANUWAT AND S. RITTIDECH
REFERENCES
1. T. Payakaruk, P. Terdtoon, and S. Ritthidech, Correlations to Predict Heat Transfer
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