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3. Potential Pollution Sources of Energy Production and Emission Measurement

Pollution sources from the different energy production plants are identified in this section.

3.1

Steam Generating Plants

Pollution sources in steam generating plants can occur in the fuel cycle or the water cycle.

3.1.1

The Fuel Cycle Fig (3.1) shows a block flow diagram for the fuel cycle from supply to combustion and exhaust, and the potential pollution sources for the different steps involved. a) Fuel Transportation, Handling and Storage Pollution sources related to transportation, handling and storage of fuel, depend on the type of fuel. Liquid Fuels Fuel is delivered to the plant by tankers (heavy trucks). The fuel is purchased either in tons (heavy fuel, Mazout) or in thousands of liters (light fuel oil, Solar). The liquid fuel is stored either in underground or aboveground tanks. These tanks are referred to as main tanks. Underground tanks are built either of concrete, and lined to be perfectly impermeable, or of steel. Aboveground tanks are usually built of steel. Either type is provided with the proper venting system. Mazot storage tanks are equipped with the necessary fuel heating system to facilitate fuel handling and overcome the high viscosity of the fuel, especially in winter. A pumping system is used to deliver the fuel to the burner through a piping system. When pumping mazout from the main tank to the daily tank in the plant, the fuel line must be provided with a heating source to maintain the fluidity of the fuel. The heating source is mostly steam. Supplementary electric heaters are also appended to the fuel pipe to supply heat when steam is not generated. In the boiler house, the fuel is stored in an overhead daily tank, which has enough capacity for one working day operation at least. The daily tank should also be equipped with a side glass, or other means, to indicate the level of the fuel inside the tank, and in the case of mazout, there should be a fuel preheating element. There is always a feedback signal (through a float system) between the daily tank and the main tank. This signal is designed to stop the pumping of the fuel into the daily tank when the level has reached the highest position, and start pumping when the level drops below a specified height. Figure (3.2) displays the storage and handling of fuel oil in the plant.

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Fig 3.1

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Fig 3.1

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Fig (3.2) Storage and Handling of Fuel Oil

Natural Gas Natural gas is distributed via the public gas network. The gas is delivered to the community at about 10 bar. This pressure is reduced to 2 bar in a primary reducing station before being admitted to the industrial plant. The primary reducing station belongs to the plant and is situated in a safe location inside the enclosure of the plant. The reducing station is equipped with necessary safety and measuring components, such as: Gas detecting devices. Gas meter, measuring the consumption in cubic meters. Pressure gauges. Gas flow regulator with a high-pressure and low-pressure cut-off valve.

The fuel gas is fed into the equipment via the local network at 2-bar pressure. In the gas firing system (burner), gas pressure is reduced to between 300 and 500 mbar, according to the operating conditions of the burner.

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The fuel gas burner itself contains a built-in gas train. The gas train constitutes the same safety and measuring components. b) Fuel Combustion Combustion is an exothermic (heat releasing) process. The heat released represents approximately 32,800 kJ/kg of carbon burned, and apporoximately 142,000 kJ/kg of hydrogen burned. The objective of good combustion is to release all of this heat while minimizing loss from the combustion imperfections and superfluous air. For the combustible elements in fuel to burn with air, the burner (combustion system) must be designed to insure the following: Turbulence level that is sufficient to ensure that all of the fuel components mix sufficiently with the air; Time sufficient for the combustion to complete; and Temperature high enough to sustain the ignition of all of the combustible constituents in the fuel.

These three points, referred to as three Ts, are the physical aspects of the combustion process. In addition to the three Ts, the air-fuel ratio is of primary interest in the evaluation of combustion efficiency. To explain the term Air-Fuel Ratio, the chemistry of combustion must be discussed. The chemistry of combustion is presented in Annex (D-1), and heat release rates are given in Annex (D-3). In addition, table (2.2), previously given in sec (2), presents the emission rate of pollutants per kg of fuel for the main types of fuel. c) Stack Emissions As seen from the chemistry of combustion of hydrocarbon fuels (Annex D-1), the flue gases contain mainly CO2, H2O, N2, and SO2. Due to the inevitable use of excess air, excess O2 also appears in the products. In practice traces of nitrogen oxides such as NO2, NO, and N2O are also emitted from the combustion process. Some minor traces of organic gases such as aldehydes might also released with products due the existence of organic matter especially with heavy fuels. The main pollutants from the stack are; Sulphur dioxide (SO2) Nitrogen oxides (NOx) Carbon dioxide (CO2) Particulate matter Heavy metals Other toxic substances adherent to particulate matter

Measurement of different species of combustion products varies according to the objective of measurement. While pollutants such as CO, SO2, NOx, and particulate matter (carbon particles) are measured for the purpose of environmental compliance; other species such as O2, CO2,

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and CO are measured for the purpose of boiler evaluation and tune up procedure. The calculation of excess oxygen is presented in Annex (D-2). The following measurement equipment is used for boiler evaluation and for measuring gaseous emissions from the stack: Bacharach combustion tester Bacharach Combustion Tester (Fyrite indicators) is used to measure the concentration of either O2 or CO2, depending on the chemical compound filling the tester. The O2 tester is filled with pyrogallol C6H3(OH)3, and CO2 tester is filled with caustic soda solution (NaOH). The testers have proven to be reliable, need practically no maintenance, and are relatively inexpensive. In addition, their operation is so simple that any one can learn to operate them in a short time. On the other hand, their accuracy is not adequate ( 0.5%), in addition they can serve in continuous measurement of the two gases. Electronic electro-chemical gas analyzer Electronic gas analyzers contain electro-chemical cells that can measure different gases (a particular cell for a particular gas). The theory of an electro-chemical cell is that the potential generated across its poles, upon exposing to the gas, is proportional to the concentration of that gas. The generated potential is interpreted as digital display on the screen (LCD display). Such electronic instrument may cost several thousands of Egyptian pounds and requires frequent checking, calibration, and maintenance. On the other hand, they are reliable, portable, and accurate (the accuracy of measuring O2 is 0.1%. They are also suitable for continuous monitoring. Electronic gas analyzers can measure up to 7 gases instantaneously and simultaneously. They are designed to display some calculated figures such as estimated CO2, excess air per cent, and combustion efficiency. Electronic gas analyzers are equipped to measure the temperature of the exhaust gases. Zirconia Probe Other instruments for oxygen measurement are based on zirconium oxide (zirconia), which conducts oxygen ions at temperatures above 650 C. The sensor is maintained at a high temperature, ideally about 800C, and consists of a heated cell with two electrodes. One electrode is surrounded by a reference gas (usually air) and the other electrode has the sample gas passed over it. Any difference in oxygen content at the electrodes is translated into a potential difference, and hence an electronic signal. Because a zirconia cell must have a heater and controls to ensure operation at a fixed high temperature, instruments based on zirconia tend to be bulky and heavy. Portable analyzers are available, but the zirconia system is normally restricted to fixed gas analyzers mounted in the stack of medium to large boilers and furnaces, and more recently, package boilers. The life of a zirconia probe in a typical boiler stack should be five years or more.
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Infrared Gas Analyzers Another highly specific measuring technique that can be used in very many applications (CO2 measurement is one of them) exploits the effect that all hetroatomic gases (gases consisting of different types of atoms) absorb infrared radiation in distinctive bands specific to each gas. An infrared radiator heated in a defined manner serves as the radiation source. The radiation emitted is modulated in phase by a motor driven aperture disk (chopper). On the measurement side, the modulated radiation reaches the detector compartment via the sample cell; on the reference side, the radiation is routed to an identical detector compartment via a reference cell filled with N2. All parts are sealed with windows transparent to infrared radiation. The detector compartments, which are separated from one another by a diaphragm capacitor, are each filled with a gas, the concentration of which must be determined. In this way, they can only absorb IR radiation in the bands specific to the component being measured. If sample gas flows through the sample cell, part of the IR radiation is already absorbed there, by the component being measured. The detector compartment is thus heated less than the compartment in the reference branch, which is exposed to the full-intensity radiation. A temperature difference, which depends on the concentration of the component being measured and fluctuates at the frequency of modulation, is produced between the detector compartments. The resulting flexing of the capacitors diaphragm produces a modulated change in capacitance, and thus a change in an alternating voltage across a resistor. 3.1.2 The Water Cycle The water cycle starts from a water supply with related pumping system, and goes through the clarification and softening system to steam generation and distribution. Fig (3.1) presents a block flow diagram for the cycle with potential pollution sources.

3.2

Diesel Generators
Water-cooled diesel engines will have a fuel cycle and a water cycle to be inspected.

3.2.1

The Fuel Cycle The fuel cycle is similar to that of boilers. It starts with fuel storage, fuel supply line to the combustor, then fuel combustion to exhaust gases. Diesel fuel has less sulfur content than fuel oil. The flue gases discharged from the stack should be analyzed for CO, NOx, SOx, VOCs and particulate matter. Noise should also be monitored. Lube oil used for lubrication, is considered hazardous. Its handling is regulated by Law 4/1994, as well as the disposal of spent lube oil. Fig (3.1) presents a block flow diagram for the fuel cycle with potential pollution sources.

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3.2.2

The Water Cycle Some diesel engines are water cooled either by once-through water, or by water recycled through a cooling tower. The spent cooling water in oncethrough cooling could be contaminated with oil, and its temperature should be checked. In cooling towers, the waste effluent is the blowdown which is high in TDS. The make-up water to the cooling towers is usually treated for hardness. Waste effluents from water treatment plants have been identified in relation to steam boilers.

3.3

Gas Turbines
Gas turbines do not require cooling and their fuel line is similar to that of steam boilers, presenting the same pollution problems. Noise should be checked periodically.

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