This article was published in ASHRAE Journal, July 2013. Copyright 2013 ASHRAE. Posted at www.ashrae.org.

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Sound Advice
By Randy Zimmerman, Member ASHRAE

Acoustical Specifications for Air Terminals & Air Outlets

ood acoustical design plays a major role in creating comfortable and productive indoor environments. HVAC systems must strike a
amount of sound energy is always absorbed (or attenuated) by the surrounding environment. Sound Pressure (Lp) = Sound Power (Lw) Room Effect or Attenuation Any sound level that is measured di-

balance between comfort and energy efficiency while also providing

acceptable sound levels in occupied spaces. Air terminal units and air rectly is known as sound pressure. All

outlets are located in proximity to occupants, so they tend to have the measurements and microphones are greatest impact on room sound levels. The proper sizing and selection of these products is critical to achieving the desired acoustical environment. Manufacturers publish sound performance ratings, but they are

sound meters use microphones to make simply high speed pressure transducers. Therefore, sound pressure is the resulting room sound level after sound power has been subjected to a room effect or sound path attenuation.

of little value without a proper understanding of what they mean and The Octave Bands where they come from. To properly specify system components, a basic knowledge of acoustical terminology, ratings and criteria is required.
Sound Power vs. Sound Pressure
The first thing to understand is the difference between sound power (Lw) and sound pressure (Lp). Both are measured in decibels, referenced to a power
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12 watts and a pressure of 0.0002 of 10 microbars respectively. Sound power is the total sound energy created by a product or system. Its not possible to measure sound power directly because some

The entire audible sound spectrum can be divided into eight equal slices, each defined by its center frequency. These are known as octave bands. The first band is centered on 63 Hz, the second band on 125 Hz and the center frequency doubles About the Author
Randy Zimmerman is chief engineer for TITUS, Plano, Texas.

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Figure 1: NC curves (1997 ASHRAE HandbookFundamentals). each time until it reaches 8000 Hz in the eighth band. Although manufacturers typically take readings across the full spectrum, by industry convention only bands 27 are reported. Certain octave bands are critical to the performance of certain products. For instance, fan-powered products produce their highest sound levels in band 2 (125 Hz), although they may shift into band 3 (250 Hz) at higher speeds. This low frequency noise can be difficult to attenuate because the wavelengths are longer. Air outlets produce their highest sound levels in bands 46 (5002000 Hz). These bands are referred to as the speech interference bands because these are the same frequencies used for verbal communication. Although these frequencies are more easily attenuated, quiet selections are necessary to provide good speaking environments.

Figure 2: RC curves (1997 ASHRAE HandbookFundamentals). to collect test data at sound levels in the test chamber that are at least 10 dB higher than the background level in each octave band to prevent background interference. This condition is easy to achieve with fan-powered products, but often requires test runs at elevated airflows for quieter products such as air outlets. Reverberant chambers are qualified and all sound measurements made in accordance with AHRI Standard 220-2012, Reverberation Room Qualification and Testing Procedures for Determining Sound Power of HVAC Equipment. This standard is referenced in both ASHRAE Standard 70-2006, Method of Testing the Performance of Air Outlets and Air Inlets, and ASHRAE Standard 130-2008, Methods of Testing Air Terminal Units. After terminal units have been tested, their performance is rated in accordance with AHRI Standard 880-2011, Performance Rating of Air Terminals. To determine the sound power performance of a product, tests must be conducted using a device known as a reference sound source (RSS). This device is certified each year by its manufacturer in accordance with AHRI Standard 250-2008, Performance and Calibration of Reference Sound Sources. It creates a relatively flat sound spectrum and is used to determine the room attenuation in each octave band. This is done by measuring the sound pressure in each octave band and subtracting it from the certified sound power. This octave band attenuation will remain constant regardless of the magnitude of the sound levels produced in the test chamber. Because all sound power determinations are made in comparison to the RSS, this is known as the substitution method of testing.
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Sound Power Determination

To determine acoustical performance, manufacturers test their products in the controlled environment of a test chamber. Two types of rooms are used for measuring equipment sound levels: anechoic and reverberant chambers. Anechoic chambers are used for testing loud products while reverberant chambers are used for testing relatively quiet products like diffusers, terminal units and room fan coils. The reverberant chamber provides an ideal acoustical test environment of high isolation and low absorption. It is important to conduct tests in a chamber that provides high isolation from background noise to eliminate complications due to background interference. The typical procedure is
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Once the attenuation of the reverberant chamber is known, sound pressure levels can be measured for the product under test. The sound pressure levels can then be corrected to sound power levels by adding the room attenuation by octave band. An additional correction for end reflection loss (ERL) must also be added to discharge sound levels for air terminals. This correction is applied to 1/3 octave band sound levels and is determined using an equation from ASHRAE Research Project RP-1314, Reflection of Airborne Noise at Duct Terminations. First the equivalent diameter of the duct, De, must be calculated: De = SQRT [(4 A) / (144 )] Where: De = Equivalent diameter of the duct, ft (m) A = cross sectional area of duct, in.2 (m2) Then: ERL = 10 log [1 + (0.7 Co/ f De)2] Where: Co = Speed of sound in air (use 1,128 fps [344 m/s]) f = 1/3 octave band center frequency, Hz To summarize, the sound power ratings found in manufacturers catalogs are determined from sound pressure readings taken in a reverberant chamber that have been corrected by adding room attenuation and end reflection losses.

H indicating rumble or hiss respectively. A neutral spectrum exists when sound levels in all octave bands are no more than 2 dB greater than the RC curve. Rumble is likely whenever sound pressure levels in octave bands 2 3 exceed the RC curve by more than 5 dB. Hiss is likely whenever sound pressure levels in octave bands 57 exceed the RC curve by more than 3 dB. In the years since its introduction, RC has been revised, and ASHRAE now recommends RC Mark II. While RC Mark II has its distinct advantages, its added complications make it unnecessary for the topic at hand.

Determining NC Ratings for Catalog Data

To help the designer choose appropriate products, most manufacturers provide NC levels in their catalogs and selection software. To provide consistency, AHRI Standard 885-2008, Procedure for Estimating Occupied Space Sound Levels in the Application of Air Terminals and Air Outlets, includes Appendix E. This appendix provides standard attenuation assumptions that all manufacturers are required to use when publishing NC levels. These assumptions are also required to be the default conditions found in manufacturers product selection software. The standard assumptions in Appendix E for air terminals include a combined ceiling/space effect, duct sizes, duct lining, end reflection, flex duct, space effect and division of flow. Its important to remember that these standard assumptions may not apply to every project. For instance, rooms without ceilings and/or unlined ductwork will result in higher sound levels. As more and more projects are designed without ceilings and exposed internal duct liners are eliminated, the current standard assumptions are becoming less typical. For air inlets and outlets, Appendix E requires a 10 dB deduction from each octave band prior to determining the NC level. Since these devices typically create their highest sound levels in octave bands 46 (5002000 Hz), this deduction is taken to approximate the attenuation in these critical octave bands for a typical office with a lay-in ceiling, sheetrock walls, commercial carpeting and some furniture. Air outlets applied to any spaces other than typical offices cannot therefore be expected to perform at the same NC level published in a manufacturers catalog. In these situations, sound power levels must be used to calculate an estimated room sound level.

Sound Criteria
To create an appropriate acoustical environment, sound criteria must be used to describe the design goal. The most popular sound criteria are noise criteria (NC) and room criterion (RC). NC is the favored design criterion used by HVAC designers and it provides a single number rating based on loudness and speech interference. NC levels are determined by plotting room sound pressure levels on an NC chart or using a spreadsheet or software tool (Figure 1, Page 17). NC is referred to as a tangency method because the resulting sound level is determined by tangency to criteria curves in each octave band without regard to the shape of the sound spectrum. By this methodology, spectrums of equal loudness can create very different sound quality experiences for the occupant. RC provides a single number rating for speech interference but adds a descriptor for sound quality. RC is often employed as a diagnostic tool to explain how tonal imbalances can result in an unacceptable sound spectrum even though the NC goal was achieved. Low frequency imbalances can result in annoying rumble and high frequency imbalances can result in hiss. RC levels are expressed in terms of a number followed by a letter (Figure 2, Page 17). The RC number is the average of the sound pressure levels in octave bands 46 and represents the preferred speech interference level (PSIL). The letter is a sound quality descriptor, with N indicating a balanced or neutral spectrum and R and
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Specifying in Terms of NC
When specifying in terms of NC, there are several pitfalls that must be avoided. Many equipment schedules list maximum acceptable NC levels without describing the radiated or discharge sound paths. This is known as an open spec because it may be possible to meet the NC requirements under some unspecified conditions, but there is no certainty that the NC will be achieved under actual project conditions. A much better way to ensure compliance with acoustical goals is to specify maximum allowable sound power levels.
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Its not unusual to see equipment schedules where individual rooms are shown with various maximum allowable sound levels like NC22, NC23, NC25, NC28, etc. This typically occurs when the designer takes room sound levels from a manufacturers product selection program rather than provide the actual desired maximum room sound level. When scheduling NC levels, its standard practice to specify various rooms in increments of 5 NC points. Theres an audible difference between NC35 and NC40, whereas its impossible to distinguish between NC35 and NC36. Sound levels for rooms in a building should always be selected to be appropriate for the purpose of the room. Here are some typical NC levels for office building spaces: NC30: Maximum sound level for a conference rooms; NC35: Maximum sound level for private offices; NC40: Ideal sound level for open office areas with cubicles; and NC45: Maximum sound level for hallways, restrooms, utility spaces, etc. Conference rooms are typically the quietest rooms because they should provide an ideal environment for communication and speech clarity. Private offices should provide supervisors with a quiet place for writing, talking on the phone or meeting with employees. Employees in cubicles can work more effectively when a slightly higher background level blocks distractions from nearby coworkers and provides speech privacy. Hallways and utility rooms are transitory spaces and, therefore, are not typically sound sensitive. Its helpful to remember that equipment need not be located over the space being served. For instance, if a fan-powered terminal is needed to supply a large conference room, but the radiated sound level is likely to be an issue, it may be advisable to locate the air terminal over a non-critical space such as a hallway or utility room.

the maximum sound pressure levels to determine the maximum allowable radiated and discharge sound power levels. The RC method was developed to rate the sound performance of a system as whole. When using RC as described previously to achieve room sound levels, other possible sources of noise such as air handlers and other equipment are not taken into account.

Sound Paths
Radiated sound paths typically involve a ceiling/space effect for sounds originating in a ceiling plenum or a space effect for sound sources located within a room. Ceiling/space effects are estimated based on ceiling materials in accordance with ASHRAE Research Project RP-755, Transmission of Sound from Air Terminal Devices through Ceiling Systems. Ceiling/ space effects can be found in AHRI Standard 885, Table D14. The results assume that the plenum is at least 3 ft (0.9 m) deep, at least 30 ft (9 m) wide or lined with insulation and that there are no significant openings directly below the sound source. Space effects are estimated based on room volume and the distance from the sound source to the listener using the Schultz equation: Space Effect = (25) 10 log (r) 5 log (V) 3 log (f) Where: r = Shortest distance from sound source to listener, ft (m) V = Room volume, ft3 (m3) f = Octave band center frequency, Hz Discharge sound paths are more complicated and often include attenuation due to ductwork, end reflection, flex duct, air outlet devices and space effect. The attenuation effects of ductwork are largely dependent upon whether internal lining is present or absent. Great care must be exercised when designing unlined ductwork to prevent noise issues related to air velocity. End reflection loss (ERL) occurs when air suddenly expands as it exits an air outlet, causing an impedance mismatch. This results in some amount of sound energy traveling back towards the source rather than reaching the occupied space. Air outlets are the final elements in a discharge sound path. These outlets could be grilles, registers or diffusers serving occupied spaces. Larger spaces may be served by multiple outlets, but so long as the outlets are spaced far enough apart, theres no need to calculate an additive effect. As a general rule, if outlets are selected for a sound level of NC30 or less and at least 10 ft (3 m) apart, the sound levels should not be additive. As stated previously, outlets produce their highest sound levels in the speech interference bands. Therefore, outlets should be selected for sound levels low enough so as not to create a poor speaking environment. For an outlet to be inaudible and not contribute, it should be selected at least 10 dB (or roughly 10 NC points) lower than the desired room sound level. All of these sound path attenuations and additional information regarding sound path estimation can be found in AHRI Standard 885. Like all AHRI publications, it is available for free download at their website www.ahrinet.org. AHRI also has a
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Specifying Maximum Allowable Sound Power Levels

Perhaps the best way of ensuring that project sound levels will be achieved is to specify the maximum allowable sound power levels for each device on the schedule. A good way to start this process is to select a desired sound level in terms of RC. Since RC takes into account not only the loudness of a sound spectrum but also looks at tonal imbalances, an RC with a neutral spectrum can be specified. Table 15 in AHRI 885 provides recommended RC levels for various types of rooms. Once a suitable RC level has been selected, refer to Table 14 in AHRI 885 to get the sound pressure levels by octave band that match the appropriate RC level. By limiting tonal imbalances in low and high frequencies, rumble and hiss can be prevented. Establish the maximum allowable sound pressure levels required to maintain a neutral spectrum by adding 5 dB to octave bands 23 and adding 3 dB to octave bands 57. These are now the maximum sound pressure levels that must be maintained. Sound path attenuations must be determined for both radiated and discharge sound in order to calculate the maximum allowable sound power levels. Add the total attenuation of each path by octave band to
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spreadsheet for calculating discharge sound paths available. In addition, software tools for calculating sound path attenuations are available from many equipment manufacturers.

Conclusion
To create optimal acoustical environments, it is essential that specifications are clear and exacting. While maximum NC levels are often scheduled, sound path information is sometimes not provided. The best ways to ensure that air terminals and air outlets will perform as required is to either specify maximum sound power levels based on RC levels or conduct mock-up room tests in order to approve specific products.

Mock-Up Room Testing

Another way to ensure that design goals are going to be achieved involves conducting mock-up room tests. In this type of testing, parameters chosen by the design engineer or acoustical consultant attempt to simulate typical or worst-case jobsite conditions. Manufacturers wishing to bid the project must submit products for these tests. The most common mock-up room configuration consists of a conference room and an adjoining private office. For the mock-up to accurately model the actual building, the ceilings, light fixtures and furnishings should closely match the specifications. The plenum space above any suspended ceiling in the mock-up room should be similar in height to actual conditions and a solid deck is generally employed to simulate the floor slab above. Removable side panels can be left open or closed to simulate more confined plenum spaces. Air supplied to the mock-up room must come from a quiet source so as not to adversely impact the test and it must have adequate controllability to provide a sufficient pressure range to match actual project conditions. It may be necessary to provide a means of bypassing excess air to achieve the required range of operating conditions from a single supply system. Instrumentation must be provided to adjust, monitor and verify supply and discharge air volumes, system static pressure and other operating conditions. Portable sound meters with octave band filtering are typically used to measure room sound pressure levels. While AHRI Standard 885 provides methods for estimating many common sound path conditions to reasonable accuracy, mock-up tests allow all interested parties the opportunity to not only hear the equipment in operation, but also experience the resulting acoustical environment. While most projects cannot justify the expense of mock-up testing, it is standard procedure for some developers handling large projects or standardizing their mechanical designs.
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