Aberami Purushothamar 2009

Module 2 Acidic Environment

1. Indicators were identified with the observation that the colour of some flowers depends on soil composition.
Acidic
Vinegar Lemon juice Aspirin Vitamin C

Classify common substances as acidic, basic or neutral. Basic

Cloudy ammonia Washing soda Antacid tablets Oven cleaners

Neutral
Water Salt Sugar

Identify that indicators such as litmus, phenolphthalein, methyl orange and bromothymol blue can be used to determine the acidic or basic nature of a material over a range, and that the range is identified by change in indicator colour.

An indicator is a substance that changes colour in presence of an acid or a base. Indicator Litmus Phenolphthalein Bromothymol blue Methyl orange Colour in acid Red (below pH = 5) Colourless (below pH = 8) Yellow (below pH = 6) Red (below pH = 3) Colour in base Blue (above pH = 7.5) Red (above pH = 10) Blue (above pH = 7.5) Yellow (above pH = 4.5)

Identify and describe some everyday uses of indicators including the testing of soil acidity/basicity.

Testing Soil Neutral white powder (e.g. Barium sulfate) to see colour change Then universal indicator is added Others Checking the water in swimming pools using litmus paper. Testing aquarium water.

Identify data and choose resources to gather information about the colour changes of a range of indicators.
Colour change Red yellow Pink yellow Yellow blue Red blue Yellow red Colourless red

Indicator pH Range Colour Range Indicator pH range Methyl orange 3.1 4.4 Methyl red 4.4 6.0 Bromothymol blue 6.2 7.6 Litmus 6.2 7.4 Phenol red 6.8 8.4 Phenolphthalein 8.3 10.0

Aberami Purushothamar 2009

2. While we usually think of the air around us as neutral, the atmosphere naturally contains acidic oxides of carbon, nitrogen and sulfur. The concentrations of these acidic oxides have been increasing since the Industrial Revolution.
Identify oxides of non-metals which act as acids and describe the conditions under which they act as acids. React with water to form an acid. React with bases to form a salt. They are oxides of non-metals i.e. NO2, CO2.

Analyse the position of these non-metals in the Periodic Table and outline the relationship between position of elements in the Periodic Table and acidity/basicity of oxides. Metals (left side of Table) form basic oxides. Non-metals (right side of Table) form acidic oxides.

Define Le Chateliers principal. If a system at equilibrium is disturbed, then the system adjusts itself to minimise the disturbance. The forward or reverse reaction will occur at a faster rate until equilibrium is re-established.

Identify factors which can affect the equilibrium in a reversible reaction. Temperature. Concentration. Pressure (with gases)

Describe the solubility of carbon dioxide in water under various conditions as an equilibrium process and explain in terms of Le Chateliers principal.

CO2 dissolves in water producing carbonic acid (exothermic) CO2 (g) + H2O (l) H2CO3 Increase in pressure moves right. Adding excess CO2 without changing volume moves right. Adding excess CO2 without changing pressure no change to equilibrium. Adding NaOH neutralise moves right. Adding H+ - moves left. Increasing temperature favours reactants - moves left. Identify natural and industrial sources of sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen.

Aberami Purushothamar 2009 Sulfur Dioxide Natural sources geothermal hot springs/volcanoes ( of it). Industrial process processing and burning fossil fuels. Nitrogen Oxide Natural sources lightening and certain bacteria. Industrial process combustion (both power plants and cars). Describe, using equations, examples of chemical reactions which release sulfur dioxide and chemical reactions which release oxides of nitrogen.

Sulfur Dioxide Smelting metals. 4FeS2

(s)

+ 11O2

(g)

2Fe2O3

(s)

+ 8SO2 (g)

Oxides of Nitrogen Lightening and in combustion of car engines. N2 (g) + O2 (g) 2NO (g) then 2NO (g) + O2 (g) 2NO2 (g) Assess the evidence which indicates increases in atmospheric concentration of oxides of sulfur and nitrogen. SO2 and NO2 are water-soluble and therefore washed out of the atmosphere by rain there is little significant build-up of their concentrations over the last 100 years However, it is difficult to be sure because there is a lack of data for periods before the 1950s It has only been in the last few decades that we can measure concentrations of these gases below 0.1 ppm with sufficient accuracy.

Calculate volumes f gases given masses of some substances in reactions, and calculate masses of substances given gaseous volumes, in reactions involving gases at 0oC and 100kPa or 25oC and 100kPa.

The Mole Method Step One. Write a balanced equation Mg (s) + 2HCl (aq) MgCl (aq) + H2 (g) Step Two. Moles of known substance n=m/M n= 6.5/24.3 = 0.267 mol Step Three. Determine the moles ration of unknown to known 1:1 Step Four. Find the number of moles of the unknown by multiplying with the known by mole ratio 1x1=1 Step Five. Times the number of moles by the constant needed. = 0.267 x 24.82

Aberami Purushothamar 2009 = 6.63 L Explain the formation and effects if acid rain.

Acid rain has a higher hydrogen ion concentration. Acidic oxides dissolve in the water droplets. How acid rain is formed: SO2 (g) + H2O (l) H2SO3 H2SO3 + O2 H2SO4 (sulfuric acid) If the quantity of acid rain is greater than the capacity of an environment to neutralise it, then the following can occur: Soil pH can drop, making it difficult to for plants to absorb sufficient mineral cations Soil chemistry can change, leading to death of important micro-organisms, and release of normally insoluble aluminium and mercury into soil water Protective waxes can be lost from leaves, causing extensive leaf damage Buildings constructed from carbonates, such as concrete, mortar, limestone and marble, can be gradually dissolved away Aquatic animals can die as water pH drops below 5 Smog and acid rain can combine to form killer fog

Stop acid rain The only way to stop it is stop emitting SO2 and NO2. Now legal limits on the amount factories can emit. Analyse information from secondary sources to summarise the industrial origins of sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen and evaluate reasons for concern about their release into the environment.

Sulfur Dioxides After the industrial revolution in the 1800s, there was a great increase in emissions of SO2 to the atmosphere surrounding industrial cities, mainly from burning coal and extracting metals. Air quality significantly deteriorated significantly until the 1950s, Smelters convert minerals into metals i.e. zinc: 2ZnS (s) + 3O2 (g) 2ZnO (s) + 2SO2 (g) Oxides of Nitrogen Serious pollution from NOx did not appear until the 20th century as electricity generation and motorcar usage expanded dramatically. With the high temperatures of coal-fired power stations led to the reaction between nitrogen and oxygen. N2 (g) + O2 (g) 2NO (g) Reacts slowly with more oxygen. 2NO (g) + O (g) 2NO2 (g) Concern NOx is a potent greenhouse gas.

Aberami Purushothamar 2009 SO2 irritates respiratory system. 2SO2 (g) + 4H2O

(l)

2H2SO4 (aq)

3. Acids occur in many foods drinks and even within our stomachs.
Define acids as proton donors and describe the ionisation of acids in water.

Proton Donor An acid is a proton donor. Ionise when it contacts water to release hydrogen ions. Each hydrogen ion (H+) consists of one proton. HCl (aq) H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) Ionisation of Acids H+ released do not exist alone. They attach themselves to a water molecule forming a hydronium ion. HCl + H2O H3O+ + Cl-

Identify acids including acetic (ethanoic), citric (2-hydroxypropane-1,2,3tricarboxylic), hydrochloric and sulfuric acid.

Acetic (ethanoic) Acid CH3COOH Found in vinegar and wine. Citric Acid (2-hydroxypropane-1,2,3-tricarboxylic) CH2COOHCOHCOOHCH2COOH Found in citric fruits i.e. oranges. Hydrochloric Acid HCl Found in stomach acid. Sulfuric Acid H2SO4 Acid rain. Describe the use of the pH scale in comparing acids and bases.

The pH scale is used to compare the concentration of hydrogen ions [H+] in solutions of acids and bases.

A pH of 7 is neutral, where the concentration of H+ and OH- is equal pH < 7; acidic

pH = -log[H+] pOH = -log[OH-] pH + pOH = 14

Aberami Purushothamar 2009 pH > 7; basic Describe acids and their solutions with the appropriate use of the terms strong, weak, concentrated and dilute.

A strong acid fully ionises into H+ ions and its conjugate base in solution and is a good
conductor. e.g. HCl H+ + Cl A weak acid does not fully ionise in solution and is a poor conductor. e.g. CH3COOH H+ + CH3COOA concentrated acid has a relatively high number of acid molecules per volume of solution. e.g. 4M HCl A dilute acid has a relatively low number of acid molecules per volume of solution e.g. 0.01M HCl

Identify pH as log10 [H+] and explain that a change in pH of 1 means a ten-fold change in [H+].

p means -log10 pH = -log10[H+]

If a substance has a molarity of 1M, it has a pH of 1 If a substance has a molarity of 0.1M, it has a pH of 2 a change in pH of 1, is a ten-fold change in concentration of hydrogen ions

Compare the relative strengths of equal concentrations of citric, acetic and hydrochloric acids and explain in terms of the degree of ionisation of their molecules. HCl is a strong acid, fully ionises in water. Acetic acid (ethanoic) is weak, partially ionises in water. Citric acid partially (least).

Describe the difference between a strong and a weak acid in terms of and an equilibrium between the intact molecule and its ions. In a strong acid, such as hydrochloric acid, an equilibrium is formed during ionisation: HCl(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + Cl(aq) In the equilibrium of the strong acid, the equation completely lies on the right side (near 100% ionisation). The molecule of the strong acid completely ionises. In a weak acid, such as acetic acid, an equilibrium is formed during ionisation: CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + CH3COO(aq) In the equilibrium of the weak acid, the equation lies mostly on the left (partial ionisation). The molecule of the weak acid is in solution with few of its ions. Use available evidence to model the molecular nature of acids and simulate the ionisation of strong and weak acids.

Aberami Purushothamar 2009

Jams

Gather and process information from secondary sources to explain the use if acids as food additives. Citric acid often added to jams to give sharp taste. The acidity helps prevent the growth of microbes so they dont decompose food The lowing of pH makes enzyme reactions slow down, slowing the spoiling of food.

Identify data, gather and process information from secondary sources to identify examples of naturally occurring acids and bases and their chemical composition. Citric acid naturally occurs in citrus fruit. Hydrochloric acid is found in stomachs where it aids digestion.

Process information from secondary sources to calculate pH of strong acids given appropriate hydrogen ion concentrations.

4. Because of the prevalence and importance of acids, they have been used and studied for hundreds of years. Over time, the definitions of acid and base have been refined.
Outline the historical development of ideas about acids including those of:

Lavoiser - 1780 Found that oxides of non-metals produced acidic solutions. Defined acids as a substance containing oxygen. Davy - 1815 Showed HCl contained no oxygen, thus disapproved Lavoisiers theory. Proposed that acids contained replaceable hydrogen atoms. Proposed that bases reacted with acid to form salt and water Arrhenius - 1884

Aberami Purushothamar 2009 Acids ionise in aqueous solutions to produce hydrogen ions. Strong acids ionise 100%, weak acids only partially. A base is a substance that in solution produced hydrogen ions

Outline the Brnsted-lowry theory of acids and bases.

Acid-base Reaction acid is a proton donor while base is a proton acceptor HCl(g) + NH3(g) NH4Cl(s) A proton is transferred from the hydrogen chloride to the ammonia. Describe the relationship between an acid and its conjugate base and a base and its conjugate acid.

Conjugate Pairs An acid donates a proton to form what is called its conjugate base e.g. HCl + H2O H3O+ + Cl Similarly, a base accepts a proton to form what is called its conjugate acid e.g. NH3 + H2O NH4+ + OH Identify a range of salts which form acidic, basic or neutral solutions and explain their acidic, neutral or basic nature. Are formed when a strong acid and a strong base react. NaCl(aq) Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) H2O(l) H+(aq) + OH-(aq) The ions form a strong base and a strong acid. The concentration of hydrogen ions equals the concentration of hydroxide ions, neutral.

Neutral Salts

Acidic Salts Are formed by a strong acid reacting with a weak base. NH4Cl(aq) NH4+(aq) + Cl-(aq) H2O(l) H+(aq) + OH-(aq) The ions form a weak base and a strong acid. This leaves an unbalance supply of hydrogen ions, thus the acidic solution. Basic Salts Are formed by a weak acid reacting with a strong base. When sodium acetate dissolves in water Na +, CH3COO-, H+ and OHThe ions form a weak acid and a strong base. This leaves an unbalanced supply of hydroxide ions.

Identify conjugate acid/base pairs.

Whenever an acid and a base react, they form their conjugates. HCl + H2O H3O+ + Cl-

Aberami Purushothamar 2009 HCl acid1 H2O base1 H3O+ - conjugate acid of base1 Cl- - conjugate base of acid 1 Identify amphiprotic substances and construct equations to describe their behaviour in acidic and basic solutions. Can act as a base or an acid (accept or donate protons). Water is acting as an acid, giving up a proton. H2O(l) + NH3(g) NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq) Water is acting as a base, accepting a proton. H2O(l) + HCl(g) H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

Identify neutralisation as a proton transfer reaction which is exothermic. Is a proton transfer reaction that consists of an acid reacting with a base. Is exothermic. Ionic equation: H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l) + Na+(aq) + Cl(aq) Net ionic equation: H+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l) Is the reaction between hydrogen and hydroxide ions

Describe the correct technique for conducting titrations and preparation of standard solutions.

Methods of Calculation 1. Write the equation 2. Find the molar relationship. 3. Calculate the number of moles of the known substance. 4. Use the relationship to determine the moles of the unknown. 5. Calculate the molarity(c) of the unknown. 6. Write down answer including units. Standard solution Accurately known concentration. To be suitable must be water soluble, accurately known formula, high purity and be stable in air i.e. lose water. Preparation Accurately weigh a calculated amount of solid. Dissolve it in water, transferring the entire dissolved solid to a volumetric flask, adding water to prepare a fixed volume of solution. Concentration calculated in mol L-1 Other A standard solution can be reacted with a solution of unknown concentration using titration technique.

Aberami Purushothamar 2009 One reactant in solution is slowly added to another reactant in solution until an end point is reached. The end point of the titration is usually indicated by a change in colour of a small amount of indicator solution added to the mixture of reactants. For an acid-base titration an indicator is selected that changes colour at the pH of the salt solution formed at the point of neutralisation. This is known as the equivalence point. Calculations are carried out to three significant figures.

Qualitatively describe the effect of buffers with reference to a specific example in a natural system.

Buffer Control Controls the level of acidity or basicity in a solution. If an acid or base is added to a buffer solution there is barely a change in pH. Contain equal concentrations of a weak acid and its conjugate base. Blood is a buffer solution, containing carbonic acid. H2CO3(aq) H+(aq) + HCO-(aq) If more CO2 is dissolved more H ions will form decreasing pH, equilibrium moves left minimising change. Gather and process information from secondary sources to trace developments in understanding and describing acid/base reactions Originally an acid was perceived to be a substance which had a sour taste, and which reacted with certain metals (Zn and Fe). Around 1780, Antoine Lavoisier proposed that acids were substances which contained oxygen. He justified this by citing non-metal oxides such as sulfur dioxide (SO2) were acidic. However, his theory was disproved by the existence of acids such as hydrochloric acid which do not contain oxygen. In 1815, Humphry Davy suggested that acids contained replaceable hydrogen. That is, hydrogen that could easily be displaced by reaction with metals. For example, HCl reacts with zinc to produce zinc chloride and hydrogen gas. This theory was accepted for most of the 19th century, In 1884, Svante Arrhenius proposed that an acid was a substance that produced hydrogen ion in water. He also defined bases as substances which produced hydroxide ions in water. However there are some flaws in Arrhenius definition. The ionisation of an acid is something that happens in a solution, not in isolation. He does appropriately address the role of the solvent in ionisation. In 1923, two scientists Bronsted and Lowry independently devised a new definition. They defined acids as proton donors and bases as proton acceptors. This is the current definition. Analyse information from secondary sources to assess the use of neutralisation as a safety measure or to minimise damage in accidents or chemical spills.

Aberami Purushothamar 2009 Neutralisation reactions are used for safety purposes in laboratories and industry since many acids and alkalis are very corrosive. It is important to neutralise spills of these substances quickly. Sewage authorities put strict limits on the pH of factory and laboratory effluent discharge. Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) is widely used to neutralise acid spills since it is a stable solid, which is easily stored, cheaply available, and if too much is used, it is less danger than other bases.

5. Esterification is a naturally occurring process which can be performed in the laboratory.

Describe the differences between the alkanol and alkanoic acid functional groups in carbon compounds. Alkanols Are alcohols derived from alkanes. Contain the function group OH. Alkanoic Acids Are carboxylic acids derived from alkanes. Contain the carboxylic acid functional group COOH. Identify the IUPAC nomenclature for describing the esters produced by reactions of straight-chained alkanoic acids from C1 to C8 and straight-chained primary alkanols from C1 to C8 The alkanol loses its ending -anol, and thyl is added. The alkanoic acid becomes an -oate e.g. methanol + ethanoic acid becomes methyl ethanoate Alkanol Alkanoic acid Methyl Methanoate Ethyl Ethanoate Propyl Propanoate Butyl Butanoate Pentyl Pentanoate Hexyl Hexanoate Hepyl Heptanoate Octyl Octanoate Explain the difference in melting point and boiling point caused by straight-chained alkanoic acid and straight-chained primary alkanol structures. The acids have three polar bonds compared to the two in the alcohols. Thus the molecules are held together more strongly in the acid and the boiling point of the acid is greater. Alcohols have a higher melting and boiling points than their parent alkanes (due to dipole-dipole attractions and hydrogen bonds).

C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8

Aberami Purushothamar 2009 Identify esterification as the reaction between an acid and an alkanol and describe, using equations, examples if esterification.

Esterification Is the reaction between an alkanoic acid and an alkanol. Esters are prepared by the condensation of an alkanol and an alkanoic acid. They are equilibrium reactions. Alkanol + alkanoic acid ester + water. OH from acid and H from the alkanol functional group combine. Describe the purpose of using acid in esterification for catalysis. Esterification catalysed by adding a small amount of concentrated sulfuric acid (dehydrates so produces more water). This condensation reaction moves the equilibrium to the right increasing the yield of ester by removing water molecules. Acts as a catalyst too (it has two roles!).

Explain the need for refluxing during esterification Endothermic reaction requires heat to shift eq m to left and produce more yield. When reaction is heated, volatile chemicals could escape and cause problems i.e. an explosion. Refluxing makes the procedure safer. A condenser which is cooled by water is placed on the top of the reaction vessel. Any volatile components pass into the condenser, causing the gas to form a liquid (not highly flammable).

Outline some examples of the occurrence, production and uses of esters. Esters occur naturally in the form of flavourings and scents. The odours and flavours of fruits cause by the esters. Some esters are used in the industry as solvents as they are able to dissolve many polar and non-polar substances. Manufactured esters are used for flavouring food, perfume and colouring cosmetics. Ethyl acetate is nail polish remover.