ARNIS Basic skills in arnis come in variations.

Arnisador must come to learn and execute these different basic skills: 1. Doce Tero or twelve striking techniques 2. Single Sinawali 3. Doble Sinawali 4. Reverse Sinawali 5. Redonda 6. Rompida 7. Ocho or figure of eight 8. Reverse figure of eight 9. up and down 10. banda y banda or the slash There are also six basic blocking and disarming techniques and Anyo isa hanggang Apat that must be mastered in order for an arnisador to advance in a higher level. The six cardinal rules in arnis must be part of an arnisador's principle once he/she deals with arnis execution... Generally, the basic skills in arnis are the stepping stones for an arnisador to perform/execute Higher level of stick fighting (arnis). Self-defense, self-discipline, balance, stamina, speed, power, flexibility 1. Right strike to the head 2. Left strike to the head 3. Right strike to the shoulder 4. Left strike to the shoulder 5. Spear or jab to the stomach 6. Right jab to chest/pectoral 7. Left jab to chest/pectoral 8. Left strike to knee (backend) 9. Right strike to knee 10. Right Jab to the eye 11. Left Jab to the eye 12. Overhead strike downwards

Please take note that the 12 Basic Strikes do vary. You will see them documented differently everywhere but they usually include the same movements in different orders or on different targets.

12 Basic strikes
1. 2. 3. 4. Right strike to the head Left strike to the head Right strike to the shoulder Left strike to the shoulder

5. Spear or jab to the stomach 6. Right jab to chest/pectoral 7. Left jab to chest/pectoral 8. Left strike to knee (backend) 9. Right strike to knee 10. Right Jab to the eye 11. Left Jab to the eye 12. Overhead strike downwards Please take note that the 12 Basic Strikes do vary. You will see them documented differently everywhere but they usually include the same movements in different orders or on different targets. For example, one popular "Basic 12" set is:

Alternate 12 Basic strikes

1. Right strike to the shoulder 2. Left strike to the shoulder 3. Right strike to the pelvis 4. Left strike to the pelvis 5. Spear or jab to the stomach 6. Right strike to the head 7. Left strike to the head 8. Right strike to the knee 9. Left strike to the knee 10. Left strike to the eye 11. Right strike to the eye 12. Overhead strike downwards
EMILIO AGUINALDO

Emilio Aguinaldo y Famy[d] (22 March 1869[c] 6 February 1964) was a Filipino general, politician, and independence leader. He had an instrumental role during the Philippines' revolution against Spain, and the subsequent PhilippineAmerican War or War of Philippine Independence that resisted American occupation.[e] Aguinaldo became the Philippines' first president. He was also the youngest (at age 28) to have become the country's president, the longest-lived former president (having survived to age 94) and the president to have outlived the most number of successors.

Early life and career

Emilio Aguinaldo was born on 23 March 1869[c] in Cavite Viejo (present-day Kawit), Cavite, to Carlos Aguinaldo and Trinidad Famy,[d] a Chinese mestizo couple who had eight children, the seventh of whom was Emilio. The Aguinaldo family was quite well-to-do, as Carlos Aguinaldo was the community's appointed gobernadorcillo (municipal governor)

Emilio became the Cabeza de Barangay of Binakayan, a chief barrio of Cavite del Viejo, when he was only 17 years old. In 1895 a law that called for the reorganization of local governments was enacted. At the age of 26 Aguinaldo became Cavite Viejo's first capitan municipal.

First marriage
On 1 January 1896 he married Hilaria del Rosario (18771921), and the couple had five children: Carmen Aguinaldo Melencio, Emilio Aguinaldo, Jr, Maria Aguinaldo Poblete, Cristina Aguinaldo and Suntay Miguel Aguinaldo. Hilaria died of leprosy on 6 March 1921 at the age of 45. After his wife's death Aguinaldo married Maria Agoncillo on 14 July 1930 at Barasoain Church.

Revolutionary and political career

Philippine Revolution
In 1894, Aguinaldo joined the Katipunan or the K.K.K., a secret organization led by Andrs Bonifacio, dedicated to the expulsion of the Spanish and independence of the Philippines through armed force.[11](p77) Aguinaldo used the nom de guerre Magdalo, in honor of Mary Magdalene.[12] (p179) His local chapter of the Katipunan, headed by his cousin Baldomero Aguinaldo, was also called Magdalo.[13] The Katipunan revolt against the Spanish began in the last week of August 1896 in San Juan del Monte (now part of Metro Manila).[12](p176) However, Aguinaldo and other Cavite rebels initially refused to join in the offensive alleging lack of arms. Their absence contributed to Bonifacio's defeat.[13] While Bonifacio and other rebels were forced to resort to guerrilla warfare, Aguinaldo and the Cavite rebels won major victories in set-piece battles, temporarily driving the Spanish out of their area.[13] On 17 February 1897 Aguinaldo and a group of katipuneros defeated Spanish forces led by General Camilo de Polavieja at the Battle of Zapote Bridge in Cavite. General Edilberto Evangelista, civil engineer, revolutionary and trench builder, was killed in the battle. The province of Cavite gradually emerged as the Revolution's hotbed, and the Aguinaldo-led katipuneros had a string of victories there.

Presidency at Tejeros
Main article: Tejeros Convention

Conflict between the Magdalo and Magdiwang Katipunan factions led to Bonifacio's intervention in the province of Cavite.[12](pp178182) The Cavite rebels then made overtures about establishing a revolutionary government in place of the Katipunan.[12](p182) Though Bonifacio already considered the Katipunan to be a government, he acquiesced and presided over a convention held on 22 March 1897 in Tejeros, Cavite. There, the republic of the Philippines was

proclaimed, with Aguinaldo being elected president. Bonifacio was elected Director of the Interior but, after Daniel Tirona questioned his qualifications for that position, became angered and declared "I, as chairman of this assembly, and as President of the Supreme Council of the Katipunan, as all of you do not deny, declare this assembly dissolved, and I annul all that has been approved and resolved."[12](p178)
Execution of Bonifacio

Bonifacio refused to recognize the revolutionary government headed by Aguinaldo and attempted to reassert his authority, accusing the Aguinaldo faction of treason and by issuing orders contravening orders issued by the Aguinaldo faction.[12](p188) At Aguinaldo's orders, Bonifacio and his brothers were arrested and, in a mock trial lasting one day, convicted of treason, and sentenced to death.[12](pp189190) After some vacillation, Aguinaldo initially commuted the death sentence, but cancelled his commutation order after being convinced by General Manuel Noriel, president of the Council of War, and others prominent in his government that the death sentence must stand. Andrs and Procopio were executed by firing squad on 10 May 1897 at Mount Hulog, Maragondon, Cavite.[14](p249)

Biak-na-Bato Presidency
On the same day (10 May) as the execution of the Bonifacio brothers, the Spanish army launched an attack which forced insurgent forces under Aguinaldo into a general retreat.[14](pp249250) On 24 June 1897 Aguinaldo arrived at Biak-na-Bato in San Miguel, Bulacan, and established a permanent headquarters there, located in Biak-na-Bato National Park in what is now known as Aguinaldo Cave. In late October 1897, Aguinaldo convened an assembly of generals at Biak-na Bato, where it was decided to establish a constitutional republic. A constitution patterned closely after the Cuban Constitution was drawn up by Isabelo Artacho and Felix Ferrer. The constitution provided for the creation of a Supreme Council composed of a president, a vice president, a Secretary of War, and a Secretary of the Treasury. Aguinaldo was named president.[12](p183-184)

Pact of Biak-na-Bato and exile in Hong Kong

From as early as March 1897, Fernando Primo de Rivera, as Spanish Governor-General of the Philippines had been encouraging prominent Filipinos to contact Aguinaldo for a peaceful settlement of the conflict. On 9 August, Manila lawyer Pedro Paterno met with Aguinaldo at Biak-na-Bato with a proposal for peace based on reforms and amnesty. In succeeding months, Paterno conducted shuttle diplomacy, acting as an intermediary between de Rivera and Aguinaldo. On 14 December and 15 December 1897 Aguinaldo signed the Pact of Biak-na-Bato, under which Aguinaldo effectively agreed to end hostilities and dissolve his government in exchange for amnesty and "$800,000 (Mexican)" (Aguinaldo's description of the amount) as an indemnity.[14](p252)[15][f] The documents were signed on 14 December and 15 December 1897. On 23 December, Aguinaldo and other insurgent officials departed for Hong Kong to enter voluntary

exile. $400,000, representing the first installment of the indemnity, was deposited into Hong Kong banks. While in exile, Aguinaldo reorganized his revolutionary government into the so-called "Hong Kong Junta" and enlarging it into the "Supreme Council of the Nation".[14](p253)

Return to the Philippines and resumption of hostilities against Spain

In April 1898 the SpanishAmerican War broke out. In the Battle of Manila Bay on 1 May 1898, the American Asiatic Squadron under Commodore George Dewey engaged and destroyed the Spanish Pacific Squadron, and blockaded Manila.[14](pp255256) Dewey provided transport to return Aguinaldo to the Philippines. Aguinaldo promptly resumed command of revolutionary forces and besieged Manila.[14](pp256257)

Dictatorial government and declaration of independence from Spain

On 24 May 1898 in Cavite, Aguinaldo issued a proclamation in which he assumed command of all Philippine forces and established a dictatorial government with himself as dictator.[17] On 18 June, after declaring independence from Spain on 12 June, Aguinaldo issued a decree formally establishing his dictatorial government.[3](p10)

Revolutionary President
On 23 June, Aguinaldo issued a decree replacing his dictatorial government with a revolutionary government, with himself as President.[3](p35)[11]:Appendix C

Presidency at Malolos
The insurgent First Philippine Republic was formally established with the proclamation of the Malolos Constitution on 21 January 1899 in Malolos, Bulacan and endured until the capture of Emilio Aguinaldo by the American forces on 23 March 1901 in Palanan, Isabela, which effectively dissolved the First Republic.

Aguinaldo appointed two premiers in his tenur, Apolinario Mabini and Pedro Paterno. He had two cabinets in the year 1899. Thereafter, the military situation growing out conflict with the Americans resulted in his ruling by decree.

War with America

American forces had established a military government in the Philippines on 14 August 1898, with Major General Wesley Merritt acting as the first American Military Governor.[16](pp110-112) On the night of 4 February 1899, a Filipino was shot by an American sentry. This incident is

considered the beginning of the PhilippineAmerican War, and precipitated the 1899 Battle of Manila between American and Filipino forces. Superior American firepower drove Filipino troops away from the city, and Aguinaldo's government had to move from one place to another as the military situation developed.[14](pp268270, 273274) Aguinaldo led resistance to the Americans, then retreated to northern Luzon with the Americans on his trail.

On 23 March 1901, Aguinaldo was captured at his headquarters in Palanan, Isabela. On 19 April 1901, Aguinaldo took an oath of allegiance to the United States, formally ending the First Republic and recognizing the sovereignty of the United States over the Philippines.[14](pp274275) After Aguinaldo's surrender, some Filipino commanders continued the revolution. On 30 July 1901 General Miguel Malvar issued a manifesto saying, "Forward, without ever turning back... All wars of independence have been obliged to suffer terrible tests!"[14](p275) General Malvar surrendered to U.S forces in Lipa, Batangas on 16 April 1902. The war was formally ended by a unilateral proclamation of general amnesty by U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt on 4 July 1902.[18]

Post-presidency life

U.S. territorial period

Main article: History of the Philippines (18981946)

During the American occupation, Aguinaldo supported groups that advocated immediate independence, and helped veterans of the struggle. He organized the Asociacin de los Veteranos de la Revolucin (Association of Veterans of the Revolution), which worked to secure pensions for its members and made arrangements for them to buy land on installment from the government. The display of the Philippine flag was declared illegal by the Sedition Act of 1907. This law was repealed on 30 October 1919.[19] Following this, Aguinaldo transformed his home in Kawit into a monument to the flag, the revolution and the declaration of Independence. As of 2011, his home still stands and is known as the Aguinaldo Shrine. Aguinaldo retired from public life for many years. In 1935, when the Commonwealth of the Philippines was established in preparation for Philippine independence, he ran for president in the Philippine presidential election, 1935, but lost by a landslide to Manuel L. Quezon.[g] The two men formally reconciled in 1941, when President Quezon moved Flag Day to 12 June, to commemorate the proclamation of Philippine independence.[19] During the Japanese occupation, Aguinaldo cooperated with the Japanese, making speeches, issuing articles and radio addresses in support of the Japanese including a radio appeal to Gen. Douglas MacArthur on Corregidor to surrender in order to "spare the innocence of the Filipino youth."[20][21](p285)

After the combined American and Filipino troops retook the Philippines, Aguinaldo was arrested along with several others accused of collaboration with the Japanese, and jailed for some months in Bilibid prison.[22] He was released by presidential amnesty.[23](p2) Aguinaldo was 77 when the United States Government fully recognized Philippine independence in the Treaty of Manila, in accordance with the TydingsMcDuffie Act of 1934.[24]

Post-American era
See also: History of the Philippines (19461965), History of the Philippines (19651986), and History of the Philippines (1986present)

In 1950, President Elpidio Quirino appointed Aguinaldo as a member of the Council of State, where he served a full term. He returned to retirement soon after, dedicating his time and attention to veteran soldiers' "interests and welfare." He was made an honorary Doctor of Laws, Honoris Causa, by the University of the Philippines in 1953. In 1962, President Diosdado Macapagal changed the celebration of Independence Day from 4 July to 12 June.[h] Aguinaldo rose from his sickbed to attend the celebration of independence 64 years after he declared it.

Death
Aguinaldo died of coronary thrombosis at age 94 on 6 February 1964 at the Veterans Memorial Medical Center in Quezon City. A year before his death, he had donated his lot and his mansion to the government. This property now serves as a shrine to "perpetuate the spirit of the Revolution of 1896."[5] In 1985, Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas made a new 5-peso bill depicting a portrait of Aguinaldo on the front. The back features the declaration of the Philippine independence on 12 June 1898. Printing was discontinued in 1995, when it was replaced with a 5R coin whose obverse features a portrait of Aguinaldo.

2. MANUEL QUEZON

Early life and career

Quezn, was born in Baler in the district of El Prncipe[1] (which later became Baler, Tayabas, now Baler, Aurora). His Spanish parents were Lucio Quezn and Mara Dolores Molina. His

father was a primary grade school teacher from Paco, Manila, and also a retired Sergeant in the Spanish colonial army, while his mother was a primary grade school teacher in their hometown. Although both his parents must have contributed to his education, he received most of his primary education from the public school established by the Spanish government in his village, as part of the establishment of the system of free public education in the Philippines, as he himself testified during his speech delivered in the House of Representatives of the United States during the discussion of Jones Bill, in 1914. [2] He later boarded at the Colegio de San Juan de Letran where he completed secondary school. In 1898, his father Lucio and his brother Pedro were ambushed and killed by armed men while on their way home to Baler from Nueva Ecija. Some historians believe they were murdered by bandits who also robbed their money, while others believe the killings could have been related to their loyalty to the Spanish government. In 1899, Quezn cut short his law studies at the University of Santo Toms in Manila, to participate in the struggle for independence against the United States, led by Emilio Aguinaldo. During the Philippine-American War he was an ayuda-de-campo to Emilio Aguinaldo.[3] He rose to the rank of Major and fought in the Bataan sector. However, after surrendering in 1900 wherein he made his first break in the American press,[4] Quezn returned to the university and passed the bar examinations in 1903, achieving fourth place. He worked for a time as a clerk and surveyor, entering government service as an appointed fiscal for Mindoro and later Tayabas. He became a councilor and was elected governor of Tayabas in 1906 after a hard-fought election.

Congressional career

House of Representatives
In 1907, he was elected to the first Philippine Assembly later became the House of Representatives where he served as majority floor leader and chairman of the committee on appropriations. From 19091916, he served as one of the Philippines' two resident commissioners to the U.S. House of Representatives, lobbying for the passage of the Philippine Autonomy Act or Jones Law.

Senate
Quezn returned to Manila in 1916 to be elected into the Philippine Senate and later became Senate President, serving continuously until 1935 (19 years). He headed the first Independent Mission to the U.S. Congress in 1919 and securing passage of the Tydings-McDuffie Independence Law in 1934. In 1922, Quezn became the leader of Nacionalista Party.

Personal life
Quezn was married to his first cousin, Aurora Aragn Quezn, on December 17, 1918 the couple had four children: Mara Aurora "Baby" Quezn (19191949), Mara Zeneida "Nini" Quezn-Avancena (born 1921), Luisa Corazn Paz "Nenita" Quezn (19231923) and Manuel L. "Nonong" Quezn, Jr. (19261998). His grandson, Manuel L. "Manolo" Quezn III (born 1970), a prominent writer and current undersecretary of the Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office, was named after him.

Presidency

First Term (19351941)

In 1935 Quezn won the Philippine's first national presidential election under the banner of the Nacionalista Party. He obtained nearly 68% of the vote against his two main rivals, Emilio Aguinaldo and Gregorio Aglipay. Quezn was inaugurated in November 1935. He is recognized as the second President of the Philippines. However, in January 2008, House Representative Rodolfo Valencia of Oriental Mindoro filed a bill seeking instead to declare General Miguel Malvar as the second Philippine President, having directly succeeded Aguinaldo in 1901.[6]

Supreme Court appointments

President Quezn was given the power under the reorganization act, to appoint the first allFilipino Supreme Court of the Philippines in 1935. From 1901 to 1935, although a Filipino was always appointed chief justice, the majority of the members of the Supreme Court were Americans. Complete Filipinization was achieved only with the establishment of the Commonwealth of the Philippines in 1935. Claro M. Recto and Jos P. Laurel were among Quezn's first appointees to replace the American justices. The membership in the Supreme Court increased to 11: a chief justice and ten associate justices, who sat en banc or in two divisions of five members each.

Ramn Avancea 1935 (Chief Justice) 19351941 Jos Abad Santos 1935 Claro M. Recto 19351936 Jos P. Laurel 1935 Jos Abad Santos (Chief Justice) 19411942

Government Reorganization

To meet the demands of the newly established government set-up and in compliance with the provisions of the Tydings-McDuffie law, as well as the requirements of the Constitution, President Quezn, true to his pledge of "More Government and less politics", initiated a reorganization of the government bodies.[7] To this effect, he established the Government Survey Board to study the existing institutions and in the light of the changed circumstances, make the necessary recommendations.[7]

Early results were seen with the revamping of the Executive Department. Offices and bureaus were either merged with one another or outrightly abolished. Some new ones, however, were created.[7] President Quezn ordered the transfer of the Philippines Constabulary for the Department of Interior, were placed under the Department of Finance. Among the innovations in the Executive Departments by the way of modification in functions ore new creations, were those of the National Defense, Agriculture and Commerce, Public Works and Communications, and Health and Public Welfare.[7] In Keeping with other exigencies posed by the Constitution, new offices and boards were created either by Executive Order or by appropriate legislative action.[7] Among these were the Council of National Defense, the Board of National Relief, the Mindanao and Sulu Commission, and the Civil Service Board of Appeals.[7]
Social justice program

Pledged to improve the lot of the Philippine working class and seeking the inspiration from the social doctrines of Leo XIII and Pius XI, aside from the authoritative treatises of the world's leading sociologists, President Quezn started a vigorous program of social justice, which he traduced into reality through appropriate executive measures and legislation obtained from the National Assembly.[7] Thus, a court of Industrial Relations was established by law to take cognizance disputes, under certain conditions, minimizing in this wise the inconveniences of the strikes and lockouts. A minimum wage law was enacted, as well as a law providing for a maximum of eight hours daily work and a Tenancy law for the Filipino farmers. Another effective measure was the creation of the position of Public Defenders to help indigent litigants in their court suits.[7] Commonwealth Act No. 20 authorize President Quezn to institute expropriation proceedings and/or acquire large landed estates to re-sell them at nominal cost and under easy terms to tenants thereon, thus enabling them to possess a lot and a home of their own. It was by virtue of this law that the Buenavista estate was acquired by the Commonwealth Government. President Quezn also launched a cooperative system of agriculture among the owners of the subdivided estates in order to alleviate their situation and provide them grater earnings.[7] In all these, President Quezn showed an earnest desire to follow the constitutional mandate on the promotion of social justice.[7]
Economy

Upon the advent of the Commonwealth fortunately the economic condition of the country was stable and promising.[7] With foreign trade reaching a peak of four hundred million pesos, the upward trend in business was accentuated and assumed the aspect of a boom. Exports crops were generally good and, with the exemption of tobacco, they were all in excellent demand in foreign trade markets. Indeed the value of the Philippine exports reached an all high of 320,896,000 pesos, the highest since 1929.[7]

On the other hand, government revenues amounted to 76,675,000 pesos in 1936, as compared with the 1935 revenue of 65,000,000 pesos. Even the government companies, with the exemption of the Manila Railroad, managed to earn profits. Gold production increased about 37% and iron nearly 100%, while cement production augmented some 14%.[7] Notwithstanding this prosperous situation,[7] the government had to meet certain economic problems besetting the country and which, if attended to, might jeopardize the very prosperity then being enjoyed. For this Purpose the National Economic Council was created by law. This body advised the government in economic and financial questions, including promotion of industries, diversification of crops and enterprises, tariffs, taxation, and formulation of an economic program in the contemplation of the future independent Republic of the Philippines.[7] Again, a law reorganized the National Development Company, the National Rice and Corn Company (NARIC) was created by law. It was given a capital of four million pesos.[7] Upon the recommendation of the National Economic Council, agricultural colonies were established in the country, especially in Korondal, Malig, and other appropriate sites in Mindanao. The government, moreover, offered facilities of every sort to encourage migration and settlement in those places. The Agricultural and Industrial Bank was established to aid small farmers with the convenient loans on easy terms. Attention was also devoted to soil survey, as well as to the proper disposition of lands of t the public domain. These steps and measures held much promise for our economic welfare.[7]
Agrarian reform See also: Land reform in the Philippines

When the Commonwealth Government was established, President Quezn implemented the Rice Share Tenancy Act of 1933.[8] The purpose of this act was to regulate the share-tenancy contracts by establishing minimum standards.[8] Primarily, the Act provided for better tenant-landlord relationship, a 5050 sharing of the crop, regulation of interest to 10% per agricultural year, and a safeguard against arbitrary dismissal by the landlord.[8] But the Act could only be implemented by petition of majority of the municipal councils was overwhelming, no petition for the Rice Share Tenancy Act was ever presented.[8] The major flaw of this law was that it could be used only when the majority of municipal councils in a province petitioned for it.[8] Since landowners usually controlled such councils, no province ever asked that the law be applied. Therefore, Quezn ordered that the act be mandatory in all Central Luzon provinces.[8] However, contracts were good only for one year. By simply refusing the renew their contract, landlords were able to ejects tenants. As a result, peasant organizations agitated in vain for a law that would make the contract automatically renewable for as long as the tenants fulfilled their obligations.[8] In 1936, this Act was amended to get rid of its loophole, but the landlords made its application relative and not absolute. Consequently, it was never carried out in spite of its good intentions. In fact, by 1939, thousands of peasants in Central Luzon were being threatened with wholesale eviction.[8]

The desire of Quezn to placate both landlords and tenants pleased either. By early 1940s, thousands of tenants in Central Luzon were ejected from their farmlands and the rural conflict was more acute than ever.[8] Indeed, during the Commonwealth period, agrarian problems persisted.[8] This motivated the government to incorporate a cardinal principle on social justice in the 1935 Constitution. Dictated by the social justice program of the government, expropriation of landed estates and other landholdings commenced. Likewise, the National Land Settlement Administration (NSLA) began an orderly settlement of public agricultural lands. At the outbreak of the Second World War, major settlement areas containing more than 65,000 hectares were already established.[8]
Educational reforms

Turning his attention to the matter of education in the country, President Quezn by virtue of Executive Order No. 19, dated February 19, 1936, created the National Council of Education, with Rafael Palma, former President of the University of the Philippines, as its first chairman.[7] Funds retained from the early approved Residence Certificate Law were devoted to the maintenance of the public schools all over the nation and the opening of many more to meet the needs of the young people. Indeed, by this time there were already 6,511 primary schools; 1039 intermediate schools; 133 secondary and special schools; and five junior colleges. The total number of pupils enrolled was 1,262,353, who were placed under charge of 28,485 schools teachers This year's appropriation for public education amounted to 14,566,850 pesos.[7] The private institutions of learning, for their part, accommodated more than ninety seven thousand students, thus considerably aiding the government in solving the annual school crisis. To implement the pertinent constitutional provision, the Office of Adult Education was likewise created.[7]
Women's suffrage

President Quezn initiated women's suffrage in the Philippines during the Commonwealth Era.[9] As a result of the prolonged debate between the proponents of women's suffrage and their opponents, the Constitution finally provided that the issue be resolved by the women themselves in a plebiscite. If no less than 300,000 of them were to affirmatively vote in favour of the grant within two years would be deemed granted the country's women. Complying with this mandate, the government ordered a plebiscite to be held for the purpose on April 3, 1937.

Following a rather vigorous campaign, on the day of the plebiscite, the turnout of female voters was impressive. The affirmative votes numbered 447,725, as against 44,307 who opposed the grant.[9]

National language

Another constitutional provision to be implemented by President Quezn's administration dealt with the question of The Philippines' national language. Following a year's study, the Institute of the National Language established on 1936 recommended that Tagalog be adopted as the basis for the national language. The proposal was well received, considering that the Director the first to be appointed at the time Jaime C. de Veyra, was an ethnic Visayan. On December 1937, Quezn issued a proclamation approving the constitution made by the Institute and declaring that the adoption of the national language would take place two years hence. With the presidential approval, the Institute of National Language started to work on a grammar and dictionary of the language.[9]
Council of State

In 1938, President Quezn enlarged the composition of the Council of State through Executive Order No. 44.[9] This highest of advisory bodies to President was henceforth to be composed of the President, Vice-President, Senate President, House Speaker, Senate President pro tempore, House Speaker pro tempore, Majority Floor leader of both chambers of Congress, former Presidents of the Philippines, and some three to five prominent citizens.[9]
1938 midterm election Main article: Philippine legislative election, 1938

The Elections for the Second National Assembly were held on November 8, 1938, under a new law that allowed block voting[10] which favored the governing Nacionalista Party. As expected all the 98 seats of the National Assembly went to the Nacionalistas. Jose Yulo who was Quezn's Secretary of Justice from 1934 to 1938, was elected Speaker. The Second National Assembly embarked on passing legislations strengthening the economy, unfortunately the cloud of the Second World War loomed over the horizon. Certain laws passed by the First National Assembly were modified or repealed to meet existing realities.[11] A controversial immigration law that set an annual limit of 50 immigrants per country which[12] affected mostly Chinese and Japanese nationals escaping the Sino-Japanese War was passed in 1940. Since the law bordered on foreign relations it required the approval of the U.S. President which was nevertheless obtained. When the result of the 1939 census was published, the National Assembly updated the apportionment of legislative districts, which became the basis for the 1941 elections.
1939 plebiscite

On August 7, 1939, the United States Congress enacted a law embodying the recommendations submitted by the Joint Preparatory Commission on Philippine Affairs. Because the new law required an amendment of the Ordinance appended to the Constitution, a plebiscite was held on August 24, 1939. The amendment was carried by 1,339,453 votes against 49,633.[9]

Third official language

On April 1, 1940, President Quezn officially authorized the printing and publication of the grammar and dictionary prepared by the Institute of the National Language. Likewise, the Chief Executive decreed that the national language was to be compulsorily taught in all the schools during the forthcoming academic term. For its part, the National Assembly enacted Law No. 570 raising the national language elaborated by the institute to the status of official language of the Philippines, at par with English and Spanish, effective July 4, 1946, upon the establishment of the Philippine Republic.[9]
1940 plebiscite Main article: Philippine constitutional plebiscite, 1940

Coincident with the local elections for the 1940, another plebiscite was held this time to ratify the proposed amendments to the Constitution regarding the restoration of the bicameral legislature, the presidential term, which was to be fixed at four years with one re-election; and the establishment of an independent Commission on Elections. With the Nacionalista Party, which had proposed said amendment in their convention, working hard under the leadership of its President, Speaker Jose Yulo, the amendments were overwhelmingly ratified by the electorate. Speaker Yulo and Assemblyman Dominador Tan traveled to the United States to obtain President Franklin D. Roosevelt's approval, which was given on December 2, 1940. Two days later President Quezon proclaimed the amendments.
1941 presidential election Main article: Philippine presidential election, 1941

Quezn had originally been barred by the Philippine constitution from seeking re-election. However, in 1940, constitutional amendments were ratified allowing him to seek re-election for a fresh term ending in 1943. In the 1941 presidential elections, Quezn was re-elected over former Senator Juan Sumulong with nearly 82% of the vote.

Second term (19411944)

War Cabinet 19411944

The outbreak of World War II and the Japanese invasion resulted in periodic and drastic changes to the government structure. Executive Order 390, December 22, 1941 abolished the Department of the Interior and established a new line of succession. Executive Order 396, December 24, 1941 further reorganized and grouped the cabinet, with the functions of Secretary of Justice assigned to the Chief Justice of the Philippines.
Jewish refugees

In a notable humanitarian act, Quezn, in cooperation with United States High Commissioner Paul V. McNutt, facilitated the entry into the Philippines of Jewish refugees fleeing fascist

regimes in Europe. Quezn was also instrumental in promoting a project to resettle the refugees in Mindanao.
Government-in-exile

President Quezn, with some of his family members, are welcomed in Washington, D.C. by President Roosevelt.

After the Japanese invasion of the Philippines during World War II[13] he evacuated to Corregidor, where he was formally inaugurated for his second term, then the Visayas and Mindanao, and upon the invitation of the US government,[14] was further evacuated to Australia and then to the United States, where he established the Commonwealth government in exile with headquarters in Washington, D.C.. There, he served as a member of the Pacific War Council, signed the declaration of the United Nations against the Axis Powers, and wrote his autobiography (The Good Fight, 1946).[9] To carry on the government duties in exile, President Quezon hired the entire floor of one of the wing of the Shoreham Hotel to accommodate his family and his office. On the other hand, the offices of the government were established at the quarters of the Philippine Resident Commissioner, Joaquin Elizalde. The latter was made a member of President's wartime Cabinet. Others likewise appointed were Brigadier-General Carlos P. Romulo, as Secretary of the Department of Information and Public Relations, and Jaime Hernandez as Auditor General.[9] On June 2, 1942, President Quezon addressed the United States House of Representatives, impressing upon them the vital necessity of relieving the Philippine front. Before the Senate, later, the Philippine President reiterated the same message and urged the senators to adopt the slogan "Remember Bataan". Despite his precarious state of health, President Quezon roamed the States to deliver timely and rousing speeches calculated to keep the Philippine war uppermost in the minds of the American nation.[9]
Talks of Post-war Philippines Washington, D.C. Representatives of 26 United Nations at Flag day ceremonies in the White House to reaffirm their pact. Seated, left to right: Dr. Francisco Castillo Najera, Ambassador

of Mexico; President Roosevelt; Manuel Quezon, President of the Philippine Islands; and Secretary of State Cordell Hull.

On the occasion of his first birthday celebration in the United States, President Quezon broadcast as radio message to the Philippine residents in Hawaii, who contributed to the celebration by purchasing four million pesos worth of World War II bonds.[9] Further showing the Philippine government's cooperation with the war effort, President Quezon officially offered the U.S Army a Philippine infantry regiment, which was authorized by the U.S. Department of War to train in California. He also had the Philippine government acquire Elizalde's yacht, which, renamed "Bataan" and totally manned by the Philippine officers and crew, was donated to the United States for use in the war.[9] Early in November 1942, President Quezon held conferences with President Roosevelt to work out a plan for the creation of a joint commission to study the economic conditions of post-war Philippines. Eighteen months later, the United States Congress would pass an Act creating the Philippine Rehabilitation Commission as an outcome of such talks between the two Presidents.[9]
Quezon-Osmea Impasse

By 1943, the Philippine Government-in-exile was faced with a serious crisis.[9] According to the 1935 Constitution, the official term of President Quezon was to expire on December 30, 1943 and Vice-President Sergio Osmea would automatically succeed him in the Presidency. This eventuality was brought to the attention of President Quezon by Osmea himself, who wrote the former to this effect. Aside from replying to this letter informing Vice-President Osmea that it would not be wise and prudent to effect any such change under the circumstances, President Quezon issued a press release along the same line. Osmea then requested the opinion of U.S. Attorney General Homer Cummings, who upheld Osmea's view as more in keeping with the law. Quezon, however, remained adamant. He accordingly sought President Roosevelt's decision. The latter choose to remain aloof from the controversy, suggesting instead that the Philippine officials themselves solve the impasse.[9] A cabinet meeting was then convened by President Quezon. Aside from Quezon and Osmea, others present in this momentous meeting were Resident Commissioner Joaquin Elizalde, Brig.Gen.Carlos P. Romulo, and Cabinet Secretaries Andres Soriano and Jaime Hernandez. Following a spirited discussion, the Cabinet adopted Elizalde's opinion favorable the decision and announced his plan to retire in California.[9] After the meeting, however, Vice-President Osmea approached the President and broached his plan to ask the American Congress to suspend the constitutional provisions for presidential succession until after the Philippines should have been liberated. This legal way out was agreeable to President Quezon and the members of his Cabinet. Proper steps were taken to carry out the proposal. Sponsored by Senator Tydings and Congressman Bell, the pertinent Resolution was unanimously approved by the Senate on a voice vote and passed the House of Representatives by the a vote of 181 to 107 on November 10, 1943.[9]

Death

Quezn suffered from tuberculosis and spent his last years in a "cure cottage" in Saranac Lake, New York, where he died on August 1, 1944. He was initially buried in Arlington National Cemetery. His body was later carried by the USS Princeton and re-interred in Manila at the Manila North Cemetery on July 17, 1946 before being moved to Quezon City within the monument at the Quezon Memorial Circle on August 19, 1979.

Quotes
"My loyalty to my party ends where my loyalty to my country begins."[15] "Social Justice is far more beneficial when applied as a matter of sentiment, and not of law."[16] "I would rather have a country run like hell by Filipinos than a country run like heaven by the Americans, because however bad a Filipino government might be, we can always change it."[17] "Pray for me so that I can return to the Philippines. I feel so weak that I'm afraid I cannot make it" "I'd rather be called "Quezn the Letranite" than "Quezn the President"." "The Latin American people believed and feel that we Filipinos form past of that vast family, the children of Spain. Thus, although Spain ceased to govern those countries many years ago and although another nation is sovereign in the Philippines, those Latin-American peoples feel themselves as brothers to the people of the Philippines. It is the Spanish language that still binds us to those peoples, and the Spanish language will bind us to those peoples eternally if we have the wisdom and patriotism of preserving it."

Civics and Ethics Code

As promulgated by the Manuel L. Quezn, the first President of the Philippine Commonwealth {{Citation needed}}.
1. Have faith in Divine Providence that guides the destinies of men and nations. 2. Love your country for it is the home of your people, the seat of your affections, and the sources of your happiness and well-being. Its defense is your primary duty. Be ready at all times to sacrifice and die for it if necessary. 3. Respect the Constitution which is the expression of your sovereign will. The government is your government. It has been established for your safety and welfare. Obey the laws and see that they are observed by all and that public officials comply with their duties. 4. Pay your taxes willingly and promptly. Citizenship implies not only rights but also obligations. 5. Safeguard the purity of suffrage and abide by the decisions of the majority. 6. Love and respect your parents. It is your duty to serve them gratefully and well.

7. Value your honor as you value your life. Poverty with honor is preferable to wealth with dishonor. 8. Be truthful and be honest in thought and in action. Be just and charitable, courteous but dignified in your dealings with your fellowmen. 9. Lead a clean and frugal life. Do not indulge in frivolity or pretense. Be simple in your dress and modest in your behavior. 10. Live up to the noble traditions of our people. Venerate the memory of our heroes. Their lives point the way to duty and honor. 11. Be industrious. Be not afraid or ashamed to do manual labor. Productive toil is conductive to economic security and adds to the wealth of the nation. 12. Rely on your own efforts for your progress and happiness. Be not easily discouraged. Persevere in the pursuit of your legitimate ambitions. 13. Do your work cheerfully, thoroughly, and well. Work badly done is worse than work undone. Do not leave for tomorrow what you can do today. 14. Contribute to the welfare of your community and promote social justice. You do not live for yourselves and family alone. You are part of society to which you owe definite responsibilities. 15. Cultivate the habit of using goods made in the Philippines. Patronize the products and trades of your countrymen. 16. Use and develop our natural resources and conserve them for posterity. They are the inalienable heritage of our people. Do not traffic with your citizenship.

"The vital lesson we must learn from our past is that we can triumph if we only persevere. The Filipino people, by grit, hard work, and faith in God, will march forward to fulfill their destiny." {{Citation needed}}

3. JOSE LAUREL Jos Paciano Laurel y Garca (March 9, 1891 November 6, 1959) was the president of the Republic of the Philippines, a Japanese-sponsored administration during World War II, from 1943 to 1945. Since the administration of President Diosdado Macapagal (19611965), Laurel has been recognized as a legitimate president of the Philippines.

Early life and career

Jos Paciano Laurel y Garca was born on March 9, 1891 in the town of Tanauan, Batangas. His parents were Sotero Laurel, Sr. and Jacoba Garca. His father had been an official in the revolutionary government of Emilio Aguinaldo and a signatory to the 1898 Malolos Constitution. While a teen, Laurel was indicted for attempted murder when he almost killed a rival suitor of his girlfriend with a Batangas fan knife. While studying and finishing law school, he argued for and received an acquittal.[1]

Laurel received his law degree from the University of the Philippines College of Law in 1915, where he studied under Dean George A. Malcolm, whom he would later succeed on the Supreme Court. He then obtained a Master of Laws degree from University of Santo Tomas in 1919. Laurel then attended Yale Law School, where he obtained a Doctorate of Law. Laurel began his life in public service while a student, as a messenger in the Bureau of Forestry then as a clerk in the Code Committee tasked with the codification of Philippine laws. During his work for the Code Committee, he was introduced to its head, Thomas A. Street, a future Supreme Court Justice who would be a mentor to the young Laurel.[2] Upon his return from Yale, Laurel was appointed first as Undersecretary of the Interior Department, then promoted as Secretary of the Interior in 1922. In that post, he would frequently clash with the American Governor-General Leonard Wood, and eventually, in 1923, resign from his position together with other Cabinet members in protest of Wood's administration. His clashes with Wood solidified Laurel's nationalist credentials.

Personal life
He married Paciencia Hidalgo in 1911. The couple had nine children:

Jos Laurel, Jr., (August 27, 1912-March 18, 1998) Member of the Philippine National Assembly from Batangas from 1943 to 1944, Congressman from Batangas' Third District from 1941 to 1957 and from 1961 to 1972, Speaker of the House of Representatives of the Philippines from 1954 to 1957 and from 1967 to 1971, Assemblyman of Regular Batasang Pambansa from 1984 to 1986, Member of the Philippine Constitutional Commission of 1986 from June 2 to October 15, 1986 and a running-mate of Carlos P. Garcia of the Nacionalista Party in Philippine presidential election of 1957, placed second in the vice-presidential race against Diosdado Macapagal of Liberal Party (Philippines) Jos Laurel III (August 27, 1914) Ambassador to Japan Natividad Laurel (December 25, 1916) Sotero Laurel II (September 27, 1918-September 16, 2009) Senator of the Philippines from 1987 to 1992 became Senate President pro tempore from 1990 to 1992 Mariano Antonio Laurel (January 17, 1922) Rosenda Pacencia Laurel (January 9, 1925) Potenciana Laurel Yupangco (May 19, 1926) Salvador Laurel (November 18, 1928-January 27, 2004) Senator of the Philippines from 1967 to 1972, Prime Minister of the Philippines from February 25 to March 25, 1986, Secretary of Foreign Affairs of the Philippines from March 25, 1986 to February 2, 1987, Vice President of the Philippines from February 25, 1986 to June 30, 1992 and a presidential candidate of the Nacionalista Party in Philippine presidential election of 1992 placed seventh in the presidential race against Fidel V. Ramos Arsenio Laurel (December 14, 1931-November 19, 1967) He was the first two-time winner of the Macau Grand Prix, winning it consecutively in 1962 and 1963

Descendants

Franco Laurel, great-grandson, singer/stage actor

Rajo Laurel, great-grandson, fashion designer Cocoy Laurel, grandson, actor/stage actor Iwi Laurel-Asensio, granddaughter, singer/entrepreneurship Cholo Laurel, grandson, movie director Patty Laurel, granddaughter, TV host/former MTV VJ Mark Anthony Laurel, great-grandson, earned fame in wholly different field as a game master Peter Laurel, grandson, President of Lyceum of the Philippines University, Batangas and Lyceum of the Philippines University-Laguna Jos Laurel IV, grandson, representative of the 3rd District of Batangas, son of Jos B. Laurel, Jr. Roberto Laurel, grandson, President of Lyceum of the Philippines University Manila, son of Sotero Laurel(2nd son of Jos P. Laurel) Denise Laurel, great-granddaughter, Filipino actress and singer and a member of ABSCBN's circle of homegrown talents. Nicole Laurel-Asensio, great-granddaughter, A Literature Major and Deans List Awardee in the College of Liberal Arts in De La Salle University, Daughter of Iwi Laurel-Asensio, Lead singer of General Luna (band)

Senator of the Philippines

In 1925 Laurel was elected to the Philippine Senate. He would serve for one term before losing his re-election bid in 1931 to Claro M. Recto.[3] He retired to private practice, but by 1934, he was again elected to public office, this time as a delegate to the 1935 Constitutional Convention. Hailed as one of the "Seven Wise Men of the Convention", he would sponsor the provisions on the Bill of Rights.[3] Following the ratification of the 1935 Constitution and the establishment of the Commonwealth of the Philippines, Laurel was appointed Associate Justice of the Supreme Court on February 29, 1936.

Associate Justice of the Supreme Court

Laurel's Supreme Court tenure may have been overshadowed by his presidency, yet he remains one of the most important Supreme Court justices in Philippine history. He authored several leading cases still analyzed to this day that defined the parameters of the branches of government as well as their powers. Angara v. Electoral Commission, 63 Phil. 139 (1936), which is considered as the Philippine equivalent of Marbury v. Madison, 5 U.S. (1 Cranch) 137 (1803), is Laurel's most important contribution to jurisprudence and even the rule of law in the Philippines. In affirming that the Court had jurisdiction to review the rulings of the Electoral Commission organized under the National Assembly, the Court, through Justice Laurel's opinion, firmly entrenched the power of Philippine courts to engage in judicial review of the acts of the other branches of government, and to interpret the Constitution. Held the Court, through Laurel: "The Constitution is a definition of the powers of government. Who is to determine the nature, scope and extent of such powers? The Constitution itself has provided for the instrumentality of the judiciary as the rational way. And when the judiciary mediates to allocate constitutional

boundaries, it does not assert any superiority over the other departments; it does not in reality nullify or invalidate an act of the legislature, but only asserts the solemn and sacred obligation assigned to it by the Constitution to determine conflicting claims of authority under the Constitution and to establish for the parties in an actual controversy the rights which that instrument secures and guarantees to them."[this quote needs a citation] Another highly influential decision penned by Laurel was Ang Tibay v. CIR, 69 Phil. 635 (1940). The Court acknowledged in that case that the substantive and procedural requirements before proceedings in administrative agencies, such as labor relations courts, were more flexible than those in judicial proceedings. At the same time, the Court still asserted that the right to due process of law must be observed, and enumerated the "cardinal primary rights" that must be respected in administrative proceedings. Since then, these "cardinal primary rights" have stood as the standard in testing due process claims in administrative cases. Calalang v. Williams, 70 Phil. 726 (1940) was a seemingly innocuous case involving a challenge raised by a private citizen to a traffic regulation banning kalesas from Manila streets during certain afternoon hours. The Court, through Laurel, upheld the regulation as within the police power of the government. But in rejecting the claim that the regulation was violative of social justice, Laurel would respond with what would become his most famous aphorism, which is to this day widely quoted by judges and memorized by Filipino law students: "Social justice is neither communism, nor despotism, nor atomism, nor anarchy", but the humanization of laws and the equalization of social and economic forces by the State so that justice in its rational and objectively secular conception may at least be approximated. Social justice means the promotion of the welfare of all the people, the adoption by the Government of measures calculated to insure economic stability of all the competent elements of society, through the maintenance of a proper economic and social equilibrium in the interrelations of the members of the community, constitutionally, through the adoption of measures legally justifiable, or extra-constitutionally, through the exercise of powers underlying the existence of all governments on the time-honored principle of salus populi est suprema lex. Social justice, therefore, must be founded on the recognition of the necessity of interdependence among divers and diverse units of a society and of the protection that should be equally and evenly extended to all groups as a combined force in our social and economic life, consistent with the fundamental and paramount objective of the state of promoting the health, comfort, and quiet of all persons, and of bringing about "the greatest good to the greatest number."[this quote needs a citation]

Presidency
Presidential styles of

Jose P. Laurel Reference style Spoken style Alternative style His Excellency[4] Your Excellency Mr. President

The presidency of Laurel understandably remains one of the most controversial in Philippine history. After the war, he would be denounced in some quarters[who?] as a war collaborator or even a traitor, although his indictment for treason was superseded by President Roxas' Amnesty Proclamation. His subsequent electoral success demonstrates public support for him. Before his death, Laurel came to be considered[who?] as doing his best in interceding, protecting and looking after the best interests of the Filipinos against the harsh wartime Japanese military rule and policies.

Accession
When Japan invaded, President Manuel L. Quezon first fled to Bataan and then to the United States to establish a government-in-exile. Laurel's prewar, close relationship with Japanese officials (a son had been sent to study at the Imperial Military Academy in Tokyo, and Laurel had received an honorary doctorate from Tokyo University), placed him in a good position to interact with the Japanese occupation forces. Laurel was among the Commonwealth officials instructed by the Japanese Imperial Army to form a provisional government when they invaded and occupied the country. He cooperated with the Japanese, in contrast to the decision of Filipino Chief Justice Abad Santos. Because he was well-known to the Japanese as a critic of US rule, as well as having demonstrated a willingness to serve under the Japanese Military Administration, he held a series of high posts in 19421943. In 1943, he was shot by Philippine guerillas while playing golf at Wack Wack Golf and Country Club, but he quickly recovered. Later that year, he was selected, by the National Assembly, under vigorous Japanese influence, to serve as President.
Economy

During Laurel's tenure as President, hunger was the main worry. Prices of essential commodities rose to unprecedented heights. The government exerted every effort to increase production and bring consumers' goods under control. However, Japanese rapacity had the better of it all. On the other hand, guerrilla activities and Japanese retaliatory measures brought the peace and order situation to a difficult point. Resorting to district-zoning and domiciliary searches, coupled with arbitrary asserts, the Japanese made the mission of Laurel's administration incalculably exasperating and perilous.[5]
Food shortage

During his presidency, the Philippines faced a crippling food shortage which demanded much of Laurel's attention.[6] Rice and bread were still of availability but the sugar supply was gone.[7] Laurel also resisted in vain Japanese demands that the Philippines issue a formal declaration of war against the United States. There were also reports during his presidency of the Japanese military carrying out rape and massacre towards the Filipino population.
KALIBAPI File:Oath taking of KALIBAPI leaders.jpg

Oath taking of KALIBAPI leaders, 1943

Telling of Laurel's ambivalent and precarious position is the following anecdote. In 1944, Laurel issued an executive order organizing the Kapisanan sa Paglilingkod sa Bagong Pilipinas (KALIBAPI) as the sole political organization to back the government. An attempt was made to organize a women's section of the KALIBAPI, and Laurel hosted several women leaders in Malacaan Palace to plead his case. After he spoke, a university president, speaking in behalf of the group, responded, "Mr. President, sa kabila po kami". ("Mr. President, we are on the other side.") Laurel joined the others assembled in hearty laughter and the KALIBAPI women's section was never formed.[6]

Foreign policies
Philippine-Japanese Treaty of Alliance

On October 20, 1943 the Philippine-Japanese Treaty of Alliance was signed by Claro M. Recto, who was appointed by Laurel as his Foreign Minister, and Japanese Ambassador to Philippines Sozyo Murata. One redeeming feature was that no conscription was envisioned.[5]
Greater East Asia Conference

Shortly after the inauguration of the Second Philippine Republic, President Laurel, together with cabinet Ministers Recto and Paredes flew to Tokyo to attend the Greater East Asia Conference which was an international summit held in Tokyo, Japan from November 5 6, 1943, in which Japan hosted the heads of state of various component members of the Greater East Asia CoProsperity Sphere. The conference was also referred to as the Tokyo Conference. The Conference addressed few issues of any substance, but was intended from the start as a propaganda show piece, to illustrate the Empire of Japan's commitments to the Pan-Asianism ideal and to emphasize its role as the "liberator" of Asia from Western colonialism.[8] The Joint Declaration of the Greater East Asia Conference was published as follows: It is the basic principle for the establishment of world peace that the nations of the world have each its proper place, and enjoy prosperity in common through mutual aid and assistance. The United States of America and the British Empire have in seeking their own prosperity oppressed other nations and peoples. Especially in East Asia, they indulged in insatiable aggression and exploitation, and sought to satisfy their inordinate ambition of enslaving the entire region, and finally they came to menace seriously the stability of East Asia. Herein lies the cause of the recent war. The countries of Greater East Asia, with a view to contributing to the cause of world peace, undertake to cooperate toward prosecuting the War of Greater East Asia to a successful conclusion, liberating their region from the yoke of British-American domination, and ensuring their self-existence and self-defense, and in constructing a Greater East Asia in accordance with the following principles:

The countries of Greater East Asia through mutual cooperation will ensure the stability of their region and construct an order of common prosperity and well-being based upon justice. The countries of Greater East Asia will ensure the fraternity of nations in their region, by respecting one another's sovereignty and independence and practicing mutual assistance and amity. The countries of Greater East Asia by respecting one another's traditions and developing the creative faculties of each race, will enhance the culture and civilization of Greater East Asia. The countries of Greater East Asia will endeavor to accelerate their economic development through close cooperation upon a basis of reciprocity and to promote thereby the general prosperity of their region. The countries of Greater East Asia will cultivate friendly relations with all the countries of the world, and work for the abolition of racial discrimination, the promotion of cultural intercourse and the opening of resources throughout the world, and contribute thereby to the progress of mankind.[9]

Martial law

Laurel declared the country under martial law in 1944 through Proclamation No. 29, dated September 21. Martial law came into effect on September 22, 1944 at 9 am. Proclamation No. 30 was issued the next day, declaring the existence of a state of war between the Philippines and the United States and the United Kingdom. This took effect on September 23, 1944 at 10:00 am.

Resistance
Due to the nature of Laurel's government, and its connection to Japan, a sizable portion of the population actively resisted his presidency,[10] supporting the exiled Commonwealth government; [11] that is not to say that his government didn't have forces against said resistance.[11]
Assassination attempt

On June 5, 1943, Laurel was playing golf at the Wack Wack Golf Course in Mandaluyong when he was shot around 4 times with a 45 caliber pistol.[12] The bullets barely missed his heart and liver.[12] He was rushed by his golfing companions, among them FEU president Nicanor Reyes, Sr., to the Philippine General Hospital where he was operated by the Chief Military Surgeon of the Japanese Military Administration and Filipino surgeons.[12] Laurel enjoyed a speedy recovery. Two suspects to the shooting were reportedly captured and swiftly executed by the Kempetai.[13] Another suspect, a former boxer named Feliciano Lizardo, was presented for identification by the Japanese to Laurel at the latter's hospital bed, but Laurel then professed unclear memory.[13] However, in his 1953 memoirs, Laurel would admit that Lizardo, by then one of the former President's bodyguards, was indeed the would-be-assassin.[13] Still, the historian Teodoro Agoncillo in his book on the Japanese occupation, identified a captain with a guerilla unit as the shooter.[13]

Laurel is the only Filipino president to have been shot outside of combat.

Dissolution of the regime

On July 26, 1945 the Potsdam Declaration served upon Japan an ultimatum to surrender or face utter annihilation. The Japanese government refused the offer. On August 6, 1945, Hiroshima, with some 300,000 inhabitants, was almost totally destroyed by an atomic bomb dropped from an American plane. Two days later, the Soviet Union declared war against Japan.[14] The next day, August 9, 1945, a second atomic bomb was dropped on Nagasaki. The Allied Forces' message now had a telling effect: Japan unconditionally surrendered to the Allied Powers on August 15, 1945.[5] Since April 1945, President Laurel, together with his family and Cabinet member Camilo Osas, Speaker Benigno Aquino, Sr., Gen. Tomas Capinpin, and Ambassador Jorge B. Vargas, had been in Japan. Evacuated from Baguio shortly after the city fell, they traveled to Aparri and thence, on board Japanese planes, had been taken to Japan. On August 17, 1945, from his refuge in Nara, President Laurel issued an Executive Proclamation which declared the dissolution of his regime.[5]

Post-presidency

1949 presidential election

On August 15, 1945, the Japanese forces surrendered to the United States. Gen. Douglas MacArthur ordered Laurel arrested for collaborating with the Japanese. In 1946 he was charged with 132 counts of treason, but was never brought to trial due to the general amnesty granted by President Manuel Roxas in 1948.[15] Laurel ran for president against Elpidio Quirino in 1949 but lost in what was then considered by Carlos P. Romulo and Marvin M. Gray[according to whom?] as the dirtiest election in Philippine electoral history.

Return to the senate

Laurel was elected to the Senate in 1951, under the Nacionalista Party. He was urged upon to run for President in 1953, but he declined, working instead for the successful election of Ramon Magsaysay. Magsaysay appointed Laurel head of a mission tasked with negotiating trade and other issues with United States officials, the result being known as the LaurelLangley Agreement.

Retirement and death

Laurel considered his election to the Senate as a vindication of his reputation. He declined to run for re-election in 1957. He retired from public life, concentrating on the development of the Lyceum of the Philippines established by his family.

After the sudden death of President Magsaysay in March 1957, Laurel suggested to then Congressman Ferdinand Marcos to propose to Manila Mayor Arsenio Lacson for the latter to run as President and the former as Lacson's Vice President. However, the immensely popular Lacson turned down the offer to run against Carlos P. Garcia despite Laurel's pledged support. Marcos, in turn, ran only for President in 1965. During his retirement, Laurel stayed in a 3-story, 7-bedroom mansion dubbed as "Villa Pacencia", erected in 1957 at Mandaluyong and named after Laurel's wife. The home was one of three residences constructed by the Laurel family, the other two being located in Tanauan and in Paco, Manila (called "Villa Peafrancia). In 2008, the Laurel family sold "Villa Pacencia" to Senate President Manny Villar and his wife Cynthia.[16] On November 6, 1959, Laurel died at the Lourdes Hospital, in Manila,[17] from a massive heart attack and a stroke. He is buried in Tanuan. MANUEL ROXAS
Manuel Acua Roxas (January 1, 1892 April 15, 1948) was the first president of the independent Third Republic of the Philippines and fifth president overall. He served as president from the granting of independence in 1946 until his abrupt death in 1948. His term as president of the Philippines was also the third shortest, lasting 1 year 10 months and 18 days.

His Early life and career

Manuel A. Roxas, third and last President of the Commonwealth and the first of the Republic of the Philippines, was born to Gerardo Roxas, Sr. and Rosario Acua on January 1, 1892 in Capiz (present-day Roxas City). He was a posthumous child, for his father Gerardo had been mortally wounded by Spanish guardias civiles the year before, leaving him and his older brother Mamerto to be raised by their mother and Don Eleuterio, their maternal grandfather. Roxas received his early education in the public schools of Capiz, and at age 12, attended St. Joseph's Academy[disambiguation needed] in Taiwan, but due to homesickness, he went back to Capiz. He eventually transferred to Manila High School (later named the Araullo High School), graduating with highest honors in 1909. Roxas began his law studies at a private law school established by George A. Malcolm, the first dean of the University of the Philippines College of Law. On his second year, he enrolled at University of the Philippines, where he was elected president of both his class and the student council. In 1913, Roxas obtained his law degree, graduated class valedictorian, and subsequently topped the bar examinations with a grade of 75% on the same year.[1]

Personal life

Family

Manuel Roxas was married to in 1921. The couple had two children, Ma. Rosario "Ruby" Roxas who is married to Vicente Roxas (no relation) and Gerardo M. "Gerry" Roxas who married Judy Araneta. Gerry became a member of the Philippine House of Representatives and a leader of Liberal Party of the Philippines. He fathered three children, two of them, Dinggoy Roxas and Mar Roxas, served as representatives from Capiz. Mar became a Senator in 2004, and he was elected president of the Liberal Party in 2004. His daughter-in-law Judy continues to be a prominent and driving force of the Liberal Party. Daughter Ruby has an only son, named Manuel but nicknamed Manolo. His son Gerardo, who died in 1982, had three children: Maria Lourdes Roxas, married to Augusto Ojeda, Manuel, nicknamed Mar, whose spouse is broadcaster Korina Sanchez, and Gerardo "Dinggoy" Roxas, Jr. (19601993). Other descendants:

Margarita Moran-Floirendo, (born Maria Margarita Roxas-Moran), granddaughter of former President and Miss Universe 1973

Other relatives:

Margarita Roxas de Ayala (18261869), considered[by whom?] the first Filipino philanthropist and the greatest businessperson of her time Don Jose Bonifacio Roxas (18341888), younger brother of Margarita Roxas de Ayala and father of Pedro Pablo Roxas. In 1851 he would purchase the former Jesuit estate of Hacienda de San Pedro de Macati, which would become the future basis of the Zobel de Ayala Family wealth. Felix Roxas y Fernandez (18641936), mayor of Manila from 1905 to 1917. Felix Roxas y Arroyo (1820?), father of Felix Roxas y Fernandez, the first Filipino qualified architect Felipe Roxas y Arroyo (18401899), the painter who emigrated to Paris Pedro Pablo Roxas (18471912), one of the richest Filipinos at the turn of 20th century, the first manager of San Miguel Brewery Francisco Roxas (18511897), second cousin of Pedro Pablo Roxas, a musician turned businessman who was falsely accused of complicity with the Katipunan. He was one of the "13 Martyrs of Bagumbayan". Antonio J. Roxas, present chairman of board of Roxas & Company, Inc. and chairman emeritus of Roxas Holdings, and director of Central Azucarero Don Pedro

Political career
This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2012)

Roxas occupied more important positions in the Philippine government than any other Filipino had ever held before him.[citation needed] Starting in 1917 he was a member of the municipal council

of Capiz. He became the youngest governor of his province and served in this capacity from 1919 to 1922. He was elected to the Philippine House of Representatives in 1922, and for twelve consecutive years was Speaker of the House. He was member of the Constitutional Convention 1934 to 1935, Secretary of Finance, Chairman of the National Economic Council, Chairman of the National Development Company and many other government corporations and agencies, Brigadier General in the USAFFE, and Guerilla leader.

Senate

Former diplomatic residence of Manuel Roxas in Washington, D.C.

After the amendments to the 1935 Philippine Constitution were approved in 1941, he was elected (1941) to the Philippine Senate, but was unable to serve until 1945 because of the outbreak of World War II. Having enrolled prior to World War II as an officer in the reserves, he was made liaison officer between the Commonwealth government and the United States Army Forces in the Far East headquarters of General Douglas MacArthur. He accompanied President Quezon to Corregidor where he supervised the destruction of Philippine currency to prevent its capture by the Japanese. When Quezon left Corregidor, Roxas went to Mindanao to direct the resistance there. It was prior to Quezon's departure that he was made Executive Secretary and designated as successor to the presidency in case Quezon or Vice-President Sergio Osmea were captured or killed. Roxas was captured in 1942 by the Japanese invasion forces. When the Congress of the Philippines was convened in 1945, the legislators elected in 1941 chose Roxas as Senate President.

Presidential election of 1946

Presidential styles of

Manuel A. Roxas

Reference style Spoken style Alternative style

His Excellency Your Excellency Mr. President

Prior to the Philippine national elections of 1946, at the height of the last Commonwealth elections, Senate President Roxas and his friends left from the Nacionalista Party and formed the Liberal Party. Roxas became their candidat for president and Elpidio Quirino for vice-president. The Nacionalistas, on the other hand, had Osmea for president and Senator Eulogio Rodriguez for vice-president. Roxas had the staunch support of General MacArthur. Osmea refused to campaign, saying that the Filipino people knew his reputation. On the April 23, 1946, Roxas won 54 percent of the vote, and the Liberal Party won a majority in the legislature.[2]

Last President of the Commonwealth (1946)

President Manuel Roxas was inaugurated as the 5th President of the Philippines and the first president of the Third Republic on July 4, 1946 at the Independence Grandstand (now Quirino Grandstand), Manila.

Roxas served as the President of the Commonwealth of the Philippines in a brief period, from May 28, 1946 to July 4, 1946 during which time Roxas helped prepared the groundwork for an independent Philippines. On May 8, 1946, prior to his inauguration, President-elect Roxas, accompanied by US High Commissioner Paul V. McNutt, left for the United States. On May 28, 1946, Roxas was inaugurated as the last President of the Commonwealth of the Philippines. The inaugural ceremonies were held on the grounds of ruined, shell-blasted Legislative Building, now the National Museum of the Philippines, and were witnessed by huge crowds of around 200,000 people.[citation needed] In his address, he outlined the main policies of his administration, mainly, closer ties with the United States, adherence to the newly-created United Nations Organization, reconstruction of war-devastated country, relief for the masses, social justice to the working class, maintenance of peace and order, preservation of individual rights and liberties of the citizenry and honesty and efficiency of government office.

On June 3, 1946, Roxas appeared for the first time before the joint session of the Congress to deliver his first state of the nation address. Among other things, he told the members of the Congress the grave problems and difficulties the Philippines face and reported on his special trip to the United States to discuss the approval for independence.[3] On June 21, he reappeared in front of another joint session of the Congress and urged the acceptance of two laws passed by the Congress of the United States on April 30, 1946the TydingsMcDuffie Act, of Philippine Rehabilitation Act, and the Bell Trade Act or Philippine Trade Act.[4] Both recommendations were accepted by the Congress.

First president of the Third Republic (19461948)

Short American newsreel of Philippine independence ceremonies on July 4, 1946 with brief footage of Roxas taking oath of office.

Manuel Roxas' term as the President of the Commonwealth of the Philippines ended on the morning of July 4, 1946 when the Third Republic of the Philippines was inaugurated and Philippine Independence from the United States proclaimed, amidts plaudits and prayers of some 300,000 people, 21-gun salute and joyous echoes of church bells. Roxas was then inaugurated as the new and first president of the new Republic. The inaugural ceremonies took place at Luneta Park, Manila. On the grandstand there were around 3,000 guests and notables, consisted of President Roxas and his cabinet; the last US High Commissioner and first American Ambassador of US to the Philippines Paul McNutt; General Douglas MacArthur (coming from Tokyo); United States Postmaster General Robert E. Hannegan; a delegation from US Congress headed by TydingsMcDuffie Act author Maryland Senator Millard Tydings and Missouri Representative C. Jasper Bell, author of Bell Trade Act and former civil governor-general Francis Burton Harrison.

Death

Gravesite of Manuel Roxas

Roxas did not finish his term. On the night of April 15, 1948, Roxas died at Clark Field, Pampanga of a heart attack.[5][6] In the morning, Roxas had delivered a speech before the US Thirteenth Air Force. After the speech, he felt dizzy and was brought to the residence of Major General E.L. Eubank, where he died that same night. On April 17, 1948, two days after Roxas' death, Vice-President Elpidio Quirino took the oath of office as President of the Philippines.

Legacy

Philippine 100 peso bill

In his honor, Roxas District (Project 1) in Quezon City, Roxas, Capiz and Roxas, Isabela were named after him . He is depicted on the 100 Philippine peso bill.

Presidency Economy
Economy of the Philippines under

President Manuel Roxas

19461948

width:26em; padding: 0px;

Population 1948 19.23 million

Gross Domestic Product 1947 Php 85, 269 million

Growth rate, 194748 39.5 % Per capita income 1947 Php 4,434 Total exports 1947 Php 24, 824 million Exchange rates 1 US$ = Php 2.00 1 Php = US$ 0.50 Sources: Philippine Presidency Project Malaya, Jonathan; Eduardo Malaya. So Help Us God... The Inaugurals of the Presidents of the Philippines. Anvil Publishing, Inc.

No sooner had the fanfare of the independence festivities ended that the government and the people quickly put all hands to work in the tasks of rescuing the country from its dire economic straits. Reputed to be the most bombed and destroyed country in the world, the Philippines was in a sorry mess. Only Stalingrad and Warsaw, for instance, could compare with Manila in point of destruction. All over the country more than a million people were unaccounted for. The war casualties as such could very well reach the two million mark. Conservative estimates had it that the Philippines had lost about two thirds of her material wealth.[7] The country was facing near bankruptcy.[7] There was no national economy, no export trade. Indeed, production for exports had not been restored. On the other hand, imports were to reach the amount of three million dollars. There was need of immediate aid from the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration. Something along this line was obtained. Again, loans for the United States, as well as some increase in the national revenues, were to help the new Republic.[7] President Roxas, with bold steps, met the situation with the same confidence he exuded in his inaugural address, when he said: "The system of free but guided enterprise is our system". Among the main remedies proposed was the establishment of the Philippine Rehabilitation

Finance Corporation. This entity would be responsible for the construction of twelve thousand houses and for the grant of easy-term loans in the amount of 177,000,000 pesos. Another proposal was the creation of the Central Bank of the Philippines to help stabilize the Philippine dollar reserves and coordinate and the nations banking activities gearing them to the economic progress. Concentrating on the sugar industry, President Roxas would exert such efforts as to succeed in increasing production from 13,000 tons at the time of the Philippine liberation to an all-high of one million tons.[7]

Reconstruction after the war

The postwar Philippines had burned cities and towns, ruined farms and factories, blasted roads and bridges, shattered industries and commerce, and thousands of massacred victims. The war had paralyzed the educational system, where 80% of the school buildings, their equipment, laboratories and furniture were destroyed.[8] Numberless books, invaluable documents and works of art, irreplaceable historical relics and family heirlooms, hundreds of churches and temples were burned. The reconstruction of the damaged school buildings alone cost more than Php 126,000,000. The new Republic began to function on an annual deficit of over Php 200,000,000 with little prospect of a balanced budget for some years to come.[9] Manila and other cities then were infested with criminal gangs which used techniques of American gangsters in some activities bank holdups, kidnapping and burglaries. In rural regions, especially the provinces of Central Luzon and the Southern Tagalog regions, the Hukbalahaps and brigands terrorized towns and barrios.

Agrarian reform
See also: Land reform in the Philippines

In 1946, shortly after his induction to Presidency, Manuel Roxas proclaimed the Rice Share Tenancy Act of 1933 effective throughout the country.[10] However problems of land tenure continued. In fact these became worse in certain areas.[10] Among the remedial measures enacted was Republic Act No. 1946 likewise known as the Tenant Act which provided for a 7030 sharing arrangements and regulated share-tenancy contracts.[10] It was passed to resolve the ongoing peasant unrest in Central Luzon.[10]

Amnesty proclamation
President Roxas, on January 28, 1948, granted full amnesty to all so-called Philippine collaborators, many of whom were on trial or awaiting to be tried, particularly former President Jos P. Laurel (19431945).[7] The Amnesty Proclamation did not apply to those "collaborators", who were charged with the commission of common crimes, such as murder, rape, and arson. The presidential decision did much[7] to heal a standing wound that somehow threatened to divide the

people's sentiments. It was a much-called for measure to bring about a closer unity in the trying times when such was most needed for the progress of the nation.[7]

Huks outlawed
Disgusted with the crimes being committed by HukBaLaHap (also known as "Hukbo ng Bayan Laban sa Hapon" and Huks) and possessing evidence of their subversion, Roxas, on March 6, 1948, in a dramatic gesture,[according to whom?] issued a proclamation outlawing Huks' movement,.[7] It had become an imperative in view of the resurgence of Huk depredations, following the unseating of the seven Communists, led by Huk Supremo Luis Taruc through acts of terrorism.[7]
Foreign policies

Treaty of General Relations

On August 5, 1946, the Congress of the Philippines ratified the Treaty of General Relations that had been entered into by and between the Republic of the Philippines and the United States on July 4, 1946.[7] Aside from withdrawing her sovereignty from the Philippines and recognizing her independence, the Treaty reserved for the United States some bases for the mutual protection of both countries; consented that the United States represent the Philippines in countries where the latter had not yet established diplomatic representation; made the Philippines assume all debts and obligations of the former government in the Philippines; and provided for the settlement of property rights of the citizens of both countries.[7]

United States military bases

One of the last pictures of President Manuel Roxas.

Although Roxas was successful in getting rehabilitation funds from the United States after independence, he was forced[according to whom?] to concede military bases (23 of which were leased for 99 years), trade restriction for the Philippine citizens, and special privileges for U.S. property owner and investor.[citation needed]

Parity Rights Amendment

On March 11, 1947, Philippine voters, agreeing with Roxas, ratified in a nationwide plebiscite the "parity amendment" to the 1935 Constitution of the Philippines, granting United States citizens the right to dispose of and utilize Philippine natural resources, or parity rights.
Assassination attempt

The night before the plebiscite, Roxas narrowly escaped assassination by Julio Guillen, a disgruntled barber from Tondo, Manila, who hurled a grenade at the platform on Plaza Miranda immediately after Roxas had addressed a rally.[11]
Controversies

His administration was marred by graft and corruption; moreover, the abuses of the provincial military police contributed to the rise of the left-wing (Huk) movement in the countryside. His heavy-handed attempts to crush the Huks led to widespread peasant disaffection. The good record of Roxas administration was marred by two failures: the failure to curb graft and corruption in the government, as evidenced by the Surplus War Property scandal, the Chinese immigration scandal and the School supplies scandal; and the failure to check and stop the communist Hukbalahap movement.
ELPIDIO QUIRINO

Elpidio Rivera Quirino (November 16, 1890 February 29, 1956) was a Filipino politician, and the sixth President of the Philippines. A lawyer by profession, Quirino entered politics when he became a representative of Ilocos Sur from 1919 to 1925. He was then elected as senator from 19251931. In 1934, he became a member of the Philippine independence commission that was sent to Washington, D.C., which secured the passage of TydingsMcDuffie Act to American Congress. In 1935, he was also elected to become member of the convention that will write the draft of then 1935 constitution for the newly established Commonwealth. At the new government, he served as secretary of the interior and finance under Quezon's cabinet. After the war, Quirino was elected vice-president in 1946 election, consequently the second and last for the Commonwealth and first for the third republic. After the death of the incumbent president Manuel Roxas in 1948, he succeeded the presidency. In what was claimed to be a dishonest and fraudulent[1] 1949 presidential election, he won the president's office under Liberal Party ticket, defeating Nacionalista vie and former president Jos P. Laurel as well as fellow Liberalista and former Senate President Jos Avelino. The Quirino administration was generally challenged by the Hukbalahaps, who ransacked towns and barrios.[1] Quirino ran for president again in the 1953 presidential election, but was defeated by Nacionalista Ramon Magsaysay.

After his term, he retired to his new country home in Novaliches, Quezon City, where he died of a heart attack on February 29, 1956.

Early life and career

Elpidio Quirino was a native of Caoayan, Ilocos Sur although born in Vigan, Ilocos Sur to Don Mariano Quirino of Caoayan, Ilocos Sur and Doa Gregoria Mendoza Rivera of Agoo, La Union. Quirino spent his early years in Aringay, La Union. He studied and graduated his elementary education to his native Caoayan, where he became a barrio teacher. He received secondary education at Vigan High School, then went to Manila where he worked as junior computer technician at the Bureau of Lands and as property clerk in the Manila police department. He graduated from Manila High School in 1911 and also passed the civil service examination, first-grade. Quirino attended the University of the Philippines. In 1915, he earned his law degree from the university's College of Law, and was admitted to the bar later that year. He was engaged in the private practice of law.

Personal life
Quirino was married to Alicia Syquia, in 1919 the couple had 4 children namely Tomas Quirino, Armando Quirino, Victoria Quirino-Delgado (19312006) and Fe Angela Quirino. Several of Quirino's relatives became public figures in their own rights:

Antonio Quirino, brother of the former President, owner of Alto Broadcsting System, which later merged with Chronicle Broadcasting Network to form ABS-CBN Broadcasting Corporation. Poncy Quirino, grandson of the former President and a dance instructor. Cory Quirino, granddaughter of the former President and a tri-media health and fitness guru.

Congressional career

House of Representatives
He was engaged in the private practice of law until he was elected as member of the Philippine House of Representatives from 1919 to 1925 succeeding Alberto Reyes. In 1925 he was succeed as Congressman by Vicente Singson Pablo.

Senate
He was later elected as Senator from 1925 to 1931 representing the First Senatorial District. He then served as Secretary of Finance and Secretary of the Interior in the Commonwealth government.

In 1934, Quirino was a member of the Philippine Independence mission to Washington, D.C., headed by Manuel L. Quezon that secured the passage in the United States Congress of the TydingsMcDuffie Act. This legislation set the date for Philippine independence by 1945. Official declaration came on July 4, 1946. Before the Second World War, Quirino was re-elected to the Senate but was not able to serve until 1945. During the Battle of Manila in World War II, his wife, Alicia Syquia, and three of his five children were killed as they were fleeing their home. After the war, the Philippine Commonwealth Government was restored. The Congress was likewise re-organized and in the Senate Quirino was installed was Senate President pro tempore.

Vice-Presidency
Soon after the reconstitution of the Commonwealth Government in 1945 Senators Manuel Roxas, Elpidio Quirino and their allies called for the holding on an early national election to choose the president and vice president of the Philippines and members of the Congress. In December, 1945 the House Insular Affairs of the United States Congress approved the joint resolution setting the election date at not later than April 30, 1946. Prompted by this congressional action, President Sergio Osmea called the Philippine Congress to a three-day special session. Congress enacted Commonwealth Act No. 725, setting the election on April 23, 1946, and was approved by President Osmea on January 5, 1946. Senate President pro tempore Elpidio Quirino was nominated as the running mate by newly formed Liberal Party of presidential candidate and then-Senate President Manuel Roxas. The tandem won the election. Vice-President Quirino was later appointed as Secretary of Foreign Affairs.

Presidency
Presidential styles of

Elpidio R. Quirino Reference style Spoken style Alternative style His Excellency Your Excellency Mr. President

Elpidio Quirino's six years as president were marked by notable postwar reconstruction, general economic gains, and increased economic aid from the United States. Basic social problems, however, particularly in the rural areas, remained unsolved, and his administration was tainted by widespread graft and corruption.

First term (19481949)

Accession

Vice-President Elpidio Quirino was inaugurated as the 6th President of the Philippines on April 17, 1948 at the Council of State Room, Executive Building, Malacaan Palace.

Quirino assumed the presidency on April 17, 1948, taking his oath of office two days after the death of Manuel Roxas. His first official act as the President was the proclamation of a state mourning throughout the country for Roxas' death. Since Quirino was a widower, his surviving daughter Vicky would serve as the official hostess and perform the functions traditionally ascribed to the First Lady.
New capital city

On July 17, 1948, the Congress approved Republic Act No. 333, amending Commonwealth Act No. 502, declaring Quezon City the capital of the Philippines in place of Manila.[2] Nevertheless, pending the official transfer of the government offices to the new capital site, Manila remained to be such for all effective purposes.[2]
HukBaLaHap

With the expiration of the Amnesty deadline on August 15, 1948, the government found out that the Huks had not lived up to the terms of the Quirino-Taruc agreement. Indeed, after having been seated in Congress and collecting his back pay allowance.[2] Luis Taruc surreptitiously fled away from Manila, even as a measly number of his followers had either submitted themselves to the conditions of the Amnesty proclamation or surrendered their arms. In the face of counter charges from the Huk from to the effect that the government had not satisfied the conditions agreed upon, President Quirino ordered a stepped-up campaign against dissidents, restoring once more to the mailed-fist policy in view of the failure of the friendly attitude previously adopted.[2]

Fireside chats

Moreover, to bring the government closer to the people, he revived President Quezon's "fireside chats", in which he enlightened the people on the activities of the Republic by the periodic radio broadcasts from the Malacaan Palace.
Impeachment attempt

Riding on the crest of the growing wave of resentment against the Liberal Party, a move was next hatched to indict President Quirino himself.[2] Led by Representative Agripino Escareal a committee, composed of seven members of the House of Representatives, prepared a five-count accusation ranging from nepotism to gross expenditures. Speaker Eugenio Prez appointed a committee of seven, headed by Representative Lorenzo Sumulong to look into the charges preparatory to their filing with the Senate, acting as an impeachment body. Solicitor General Felix Angelo Bautista entered his appearance as defense counsel for the chief executive.[2] Following several hearings, on April 19, 1949, after a rather turbulent session that lasted all night, the congressional committee reached a verdict completely exonerating the President. Realizing the heavy undertone of politicking behind the move, the exoneration decision was received favorable by the nation at large.[2]
Romulo becomes UN President

Great honor[2] was paid the Philippines when, in September 1949, the Fourth General Assembly of the United Nations elected delegate Carlos P. Romulo as President. The first[2] Oriental to hold the position, Romulo was strongly supported[2] by the Anglo-Saxon bloc, as well as by the group of Spanish-speaking nations,[2] thus underscoring the hybrid nature of the Filipino people's culture and upringing.[2]
1949 Presidential election Main article: Philippine presidential election, 1949

Incumbent President Elpidio Quirino won a full term as President of the Philippines after the untimely death of President Manuel Roxas in 1948. His running mate, Senator Fernando Lpez won as Vice President. Despite factions created in the administration party, Quirino won a satisfactory vote from the public. It was the only time in Philippine history where the duly elected president, vice president and senators all came from the same party, the Liberal Party. Carlos P. Romulo and Marvin M. Gray, publisher of the Manila Evening News, accuse Quirino in their book The Magsaysay Story (The John Day Company, 1956, updated with an additional chapter on Magsaysay's death re-edition by Pocket Books, Special Student Edition, SP-18, December 1957) of widespread fraud and intimidation of the opposition by military action, calling it the "dirty election".

Second term (19491953)

President Elpidio Quirino was inaugurated for his first full term as President of the Philippines on December 30, 1949 at the Independence Grandstand (now Quirino Grandstand), Manila. Baguio Conference

In May 1950, upon the invitation of President Qurino, through the insistent suggestion of United Nations President Carlos P. Romulo, official representatives of India, Pakistan, Ceylon, Thailand, Indonesia, and Australia met in the city of Baguio for a regional conference sponsored by the Philippines.[2] China and Korea did not attend the conference because the latter did not contemplate the formation of a military union of the Southeast Asian nations. On the other hand, Japan, Indonesia, China, and others were not invited because, at the time, they were not free and independent states. Due to the request of India and Indonesia, no political questions were taken up the conference.[2] Instead, the delegates discussed economic and, most of all, cultural, problems confronting their respective countries. Strangely enough however, the Baguio Conference ended with an official communiqu in which the nations attending the same expressed their united agreement in supporting the right to self-determination of all peoples the world over. This initial regional meet held much promise of a future alliance of these neighboring nations for common protection and aid.[2]
HukBaLaHap continued re-insurgence

Quirino's administration faced a serious threat in the form of the communist HukBaLaHap movement. Though the Huks originally had been an anti-Japanese guerrilla army in Luzon, communists steadily gained control over the leadership, and when Quirino's negotiation with Huk commander Luis Taruc broke down in 1948, Taruc openly declared himself a Communist and called for the overthrow of the government.
Peace campaign

With the Communist organization here estimated to still have more than forty thousand duly registered members by March 1951, the government went on with its sustained campaign to cope with the worsening peace and order problem.[2] The 1951 budget included the use of a residue fund for the land resettlement program in favor of the surrendered HUKS. The money helped maintain the Economic Development Corps (EDCOR), with its settlements of six thousand five hundred hectares in Kapatagan (Lanao) and twenty five thousand hectares in Buldon (Cotabato). In each group taken to these places there was a nucleus of former Army personnel and their families, who became a stabilizing factor and ensured the success of the program. Indeed, less

than ten percent of the Huks who settled down gave up this new lease in life offered them by the government.[2] To promote the smooth restructuring of the Armed Forces of the Philippines, the military were made to undergo a reorganization.[2] Battalion combat teams of one thousand men each were established. Each operated independently of the High Command, except for overall coordination in operational plans. A total of twenty six Battalion Combat Teams were put up. New army units were also established, such was the first Airborne Unit, the Scout Rangers, the Canine Unit, and the Cavalry Unit. Their mental showing offered much promise.[2]
1951 midterm election Main article: Philippine general election, 1951

After a sweep by the Liberals in 1949, many Filipinos doubted the election result. This brought a sweep by the Nacionalistas in the 1951 elections. There was a special election for the vacated senate seat of Fernando Lopez, who won as Vice President in 1949. The Liberals won no seats in the senate.
1953 Presidential election Main article: Philippine presidential election, 1953

Quirino ran for re-election for presidency with Jos Yulo as vice president in 1953 despite his ill health. His defense secretary Ramon Magsaysay, unable to bear further iniquities from Quirino, resigned his office and joined the Nacionalista Party. Other prominent Liberalists, like Vice President Fernando Lpez, Ambassador Carlos P. Romulo, Senators Toms Cabili and Juan Sumulong, also bolted Quirino's party. On August 22, 1953, Nacionalista and Democratic Parties formed a coalition to ensure Quirino's full defeat. On the election day, Quirino was defeated by Ramon Magsaysay with a majority vote of 1.5 million.

Domestic policies
Economy of the Philippines under

President Elpidio Quirino

19481953

Population 1948 19.23 million Gross Domestic Product 1948 1953 Php 99,628 million Php 146,070 million

Growth rate, 194853

9.43 % Per capita income

1948 1953

Php 5,180 Php 7,596 Total exports

1948 1953

Php 35,921 million Php 34, 432 million Exchange rates 1 US US$ = Php 2.00 1 Php = US US$ 0.50

Sources: Philippine Presidency Project Malaya, Jonathan; Eduardo Malaya. So Help Us God... The Inaugurals of the Presidents of the Philippines. Anvil Publishing, Inc. Economy

Upon assuming the reins of government, Quirino announced two main objectives of his administration: first, the economic reconstruction of the nation and second, the restoration of the faith and confidence of the people in the government. In connection to the first agenda, he created the President's Action Committee on Social Amelioration or PACSA to mitigate the sufferings of indigent families, the Labor Management Advisory Board to advise him on labor matters, the Agricultural Credit Cooperatives Financing Administration or ACCFA to help the farmers market their crops and save them from loan sharks, and the Rural Banks of the Philippines to facilitate credit utilities in rural areas.
Social program

Enhancing President Manuel Roxas' policy of social justice to alleviate the lot of the common mass, President Quirino, almost immediately after assuming office, started a series of steps calculated to effectively ameliorate the economic condition of the people.[2] After periodic surprise visits to the slums of Manila and other backward regions of the country, President Quirino officially made public a seven-point program for social security, to wit:[2]
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Unemployment insurance Old-age insurance Accident and permanent disability insurance Health insurance Maternity insurance State relief

7. Labor opportunity

President Quirino also created the Social Security Commission, making Social Welfare Commissioner Asuncion Perez chairman of the same.[2] This was followed by the creation of the President's Action Committee on Social Amelioration, charges with extending aid, loans, and relief to the less fortunate citizens. Both the policy and its implementation were hailed by the people as harbingers of great benefits.[2]
Agrarian reform See also: Land reform in the Philippines

As part of his Agrarian Reform agenda, President Quirino issued on October 23, 1950 Executive Order No. 355 which replaced the National Land Settlement Administration with Land Settlement Development Corporation (LASEDECO) which takes over the responsibilities of the Agricultural Machinery Equipment Corporation and the Rice and Corn Production Administration.[3]
Integrity Board

To cope with the insistent clamor for government improvement, President Quirino created the Integrity Board to probe into reports of graft and corruption in high government places. VicePresident Fernando Lopez was most instrumental, through his courageous exposes, in securing such a decision from President Quirino.[2]

Foreign policies

Photograph of President Truman in the Oval Office, evidently receiving a cane as a gift from the President of the Philippines, Elpidio Quirino, as another man (most likely ambassador Joaqun Elizalde) looks on.

Quirino's administration excelled in diplomacy, impressing foreign heads of states and world statesmen by his intelligence and culture. In his official travels to the United States, European countries, and Southeast Asia, he represented the Philippines with flying colors. During his six years of administration, he with his Foreign Secretary Helen Cutaran Bennett was able to negotiate treaties and agreements with other nations of the Free World. Two Asian heads of state

visited PhilippinesPresident Chiang Kai-shek of the Republic of China in July 1949 and President Achmed Sukarno of Indonesia in January 1951. In 1950, at the onset of the Korean War, Quirino authorized the deployment of over 7,450 Filipino soldiers to Korea, under the designation of the Philippine Expeditionary Forces to Korea or PEFTOK.

On June 25, 1950, the world was astonished to hear the North Korean aggression against the independent South Korea. The United Nations immediately took up this challenge to the security of this part of the world. Carlos P. Romulo soon stood out as the most effective spokesman for the South Korean cause.[2] On behalf of our government, Romulo offered to send a Philippine military contingent to [1] Elpidio Quirino be under the overall command of General Douglas MacArthur, who had been named United Nations Supreme Commander for the punitive expedition. The Philippines, thus, became the first country to join the United States in the offer of military assistance to beleaguered South Korea.[2]

While I recognise the United States as a great builder in this country, I have never surrendered the sovereignty, much less the dignity and future of our country.

Korean War

President Quirino took the necessary steps to make the Philippine offer. On a purely voluntary basis, the first contingent the tenth Combat Battalion Team was formed under Col. Azurin, and dispatched to Korea, where its members quickly won much renown for their military skill and bravery. The name of Captain Jose Artiaga, Jr., heroically killed in action, stands out as a symbol of our country's contribution to the cause of freedom outside native shores. Other Philippine Combat Teams successively replaced the first contingent sent, and they all built a name for discipline, tenacity, and courage, until the truce that brought the conflict to a halt.[2]
Quirino-Foster Agreement

By the time of the creation of the integrity board, moreover, the Bell Mission, led by Daniel W. Bell, an American banker, and composed of five members, with a staff of twenty workers, following their period of stay in the Philippines, beginning in July 1950, finally submitted its report on October of the same year.[2] The Report made several proposals, most noteworthy, of which were that the United States should give the Philippines 250,000,000 dollars over a period of five years, but the Philippines, in return, ought to reform its tax structure, enact a minimum wage law for agricultural and industrial labor, initiate social and land reforms, as well as a sound planning for economic development, For all the strong language of the Report, which, in some quarters merited bitter opposition, President Quirino gamely and patriotically,[2] took in the recommendations and sought to implement them. Thus in November 1950, President Quirino and William Foster, representing the United States Government, signed an agreement by virtue of which the former pledged to obtain the necessary Philippine legislation, in keeping with the Bell Mission Report, while envoy Foster promised the necessary by the same Report.[2]

However, much as he tried to become a good president, Quirino failed to win the people's affection. Several factors caused the unpopularity of his administration, namely:[4]

Unabated rampage of graft and corruption in his government, as revealed in the Tambobong-Buenavista scandal, the Import Control Anomalies, the Caledonia Pile Mess and the Textbook Racket; Wasteful spending of the people's money in extravagant junkets abroad; Failure of government to check the Huk menace which made travel in the provinces unsafe, as evidenced by the killing of former First Lady Aurora Quezon and her companions on April 28, 1949 by the Huks on the BongabongBaler road, Baler, Tayabas (now part of Aurora province). Economic distress of the times, aggravated by rising unemployment rate, soaring prices of commodities, and unfavorable balance of trade. Quirino's vaunted "Total Economic Mobilization Policy" failed to give economic relief to the suffering nation. Frauds and terrorism committed by the Liberal Party moguls in the 1947, 1949 and 1951 elections.

Post-presidency and death

Following his failed bid for re-election, Quirino retired from politics to private life in 1953. He offered his dedication to serve the Filipino people, he became the Father of Foreign Service. He died of a heart attack during the leap year day on February 29, 1956. He was buried at Manila South Cemetery in Makati.
While I recognise the United States as a great builder in this country, I have never surrendered the sovereignty, much less the dignity and future of our country. BY QUIRINO RAMON MAGSAYSAY

Ramn del Fierro Magsaysay (August 31, 1907 March 17, 1957) was the seventh President of the Republic of the Philippines, serving from December 30, 1953 until his death in a 1957 aircraft disaster. An automobile mechanic, Magsaysay was appointed military governor of Zambales after his outstanding service as a guerilla leader during the Pacific War. He then served two terms as Liberal Party congressman for Zambales before being appointed as Secretary of National Defense by President Elpidio Quirino. He was elected President under the banner of the Nacionalista Party. He was the first Philippine President born during the 20th century. Ramn del Fierro Magsaysay was born in Iba, Zambales on August 31, 1907 to Exequiel Magsaysay (1874-1968), a blacksmith, and Perfecta del Fierro (1887-1980), a schoolteacher.[3] He spent his high school life at Zambales Academy at San Narciso, Zambales. After high school, Magsaysay entered the University of the Philippines in 1927, where he enrolled in a preengineering course.[3] He worked as a chauffeur to support himself as he studied engineering; and later, he transferred to the Institute of Commerce at Jos Rizal College (19281932), where he received a baccalaureate in commerce. He then worked as an automobile mechanic in a bus company and shop superintendent.[3]

Career during World War II

At the outbreak of World War II, he joined the motor pool of the 31st Infantry Division of the Philippine Army. When Bataan surrendered in 1942, Magsaysay escaped to the hills, narrowly evading Japanese arrest on at least four occasions. There he organised the Western Luzon Guerrilla Forces, and was commissioned captain on 5 April 1942. For three years, Magsaysay operated under Col. Merrill's famed guerrilla outfit & saw action at Sawang, San Marcelino, Zambales, first as a supply officer codenamed Chow and later as commander of a 10,000 strong force.[3] Magsaysay was among those instrumental in clearing the Zambales coast of the Japanese prior to the landing of American forces together with the Philippine Commonwealth troops on January 29, 1945.

Family
He was married to Luz Magsaysay (ne Banzon) in 1932 and they had three children: Teresita Banzon-Magsaysay (b. 1934), Milagros "Mila" Banzon-Magsaysay (b. 1936) and Ramon "Jun" Banzon-Magsaysay, Jr. (b. 1938).
Descendants

Several of Magsaysay's descendants became prominent public figures in their own right:

Ramon Magsaysay, Jr., son; former Congressman and Senator Genaro Magsaysay, brother; former Senator Vicente Magsaysay, uncle; Congressman and former Governor of Zambales JB Magsaysay, grandnephew; politician

House of Representatives
On 22 April 1946, Magsaysay, encouraged by his ex-guerrillas, was elected under the Liberal Party[1] to the Philippine House of Representatives. In 1948, President Manuel Roxas chose Magsaysay to go to Washington as Chairman of the Committee on Guerrilla Affairs, to help to secure passage of the Rogers Veterans Bill, giving benefits to Philippine veterans. In the socalled "dirty election" of 1949, he was re-elected to a second term in the House of Representatives. During both terms he was Chairman of the House National Defense Committee.

Secretary of National Defense

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In early August 1950, he offered President Elpidio Quirino a plan to fight the Communist guerillas, using his own experiences in guerrilla warfare during World War II. After some hesitation, Quirino realized that there was no alternative and appointed Magsaysay Secretary of

National Defence on August 31, 1950. He intensified the campaign against the Hukbalahap guerillas. This success was due in part to the unconventional methods he employed and developed alongside an American adviser, General Edward Lansdale. The counterinsurgency the two deployed utilized soldiers distributing relief goods and other forms of aid to outlying, provincial communities. Prior to Magsaysay's appointment to Defense Secretary, rural citizens perceived the Philippine Army with apathy and distrust. However, Magsaysay's term enhanced the Army's image, earning them respect and admiration. In June 1952, Magsaysay made a goodwill tour to the United States and Mexico. He visited New York, Washington, D.C. (with a medical check-up at Walter Reed Hospital) and Mexico City where he spoke at the Annual Convention of Lions International. By 1953, President Quirino thought the threat of the Huks was under control and Secretary Magsaysay was becoming too weak. Magsaysay met with interference and obstruction from the President and his advisers, in fear they might be unseated at the next presidential election. Although Magsaysay had at that time no intention to run, he was urged from many sides and finally was convinced that the only way to continue his fight against communism, and for a government for the people, was to be elected President, ousting the corrupt administration that, in his opinion, had caused the rise of the communist guerrillas by bad administration. He resigned his post as defense secretary on February 28, 1953, and became the presidential candidate of the Nacionalista Party, disputing the nomination with senator Camilo Osas at the Nacionalista national convention.
1951 Negros Occidental incident

Theatrical poster of the 1961 film The Moises Padilla Story that narrates the 1951 event.

When news reached Magsaysay that Padilla was being tortured, he rushed to Negros Occidental, but was too late. He was then informed that Padilla's body was swimming in blood, pierced by

fourteen bullets, and was positioned on a police bench in the town plaza.[4] Magsaysay himself carried Padilla's corpse with his bare hands and delivered it to the morgue, and the next day, news clips showed pictures of him doing so.[5] Magsaysay even used this event during his presidential campaign in 1953. The trial against Lacson started in January 1952; Magsaysay and his men presented enough evidence to convict Lacson and his 26 men for murder.[4] In August 1954, Judge Eduardo Enriquez ruled the men were guilty and Lacson, his 22 men and three other mayors of Negros Occidental municipalities were condemned to the electric chair.[6]
Presidential election of 1953

Presidential elections were held on November 10, 1953 in the Philippines. Incumbent President Elpidio Quirino lost his opportunity to get a second full term as President of the Philippines to former Defense Secretary Ramn Magsaysay. His running mate, Senator Jos Yulo lost to Senator Carlos P. Garca. Vice President Fernando Lpez did not run for re-election. This was the first time that an elected president did not come from the Senate. Moreover he started the jingles during election, for one of his inclinations and hobbies was dancing. The United States government, including the Central Intelligence Agency, had a strong influence on the 1953 elections, and candidates in the election fiercely competed with each other for U.S. support.[7]

Presidency
Presidential styles of

Ramon F. Magsaysay Reference style Spoken style Alternative style His Excellency Your Excellency Mr. President

In the Election of 1953, Magsaysay was decisively elected president over the incumbent Elpidio Quirino. He was sworn into office wearing the Barong Tagalog, a first by a Philippine president. He was then called "Mambo Magsaysay". As president, he was a close friend and supporter of the United States and a vocal spokesman against communism during the Cold War. He led the foundation of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization also known as the Manila Pact of 1954, that aimed to defeat communist-Marxist movements in South East Asia, South Asia and the Southwestern Pacific. During his term, he made Malacaang literally a "house of the people", opening its gates to the public. One example of his integrity followed a demonstration flight aboard a new plane belonging to the Philippine Air Force (PAF): President Magsaysay asked what the operating costs per hour were for that type of aircraft, then wrote a personal check to the PAF, covering the cost of his flight.In history,

he is the first Philippine president to wear a barong tagalog in his inauguration. He brought back the people's trust in the military and in the government. His administration was considered one of the cleanest and most corruption-free; his presidency was cited as the Philippines' Golden Years. Trade and industry flourished, the Philippine military was at its prime, and the Filipino people were given international recognition in sports, culture and foreign affairs. The Philippines ranked second in Asia's clean and well-governed countries.
Domestic policies
Economy of the Philippines under

President Ramon Magsaysay

19531957

Population 1954 21.40 million Gross Domestic Product 1954 1956 Growth rate, 1954-56 Php 157,054 million Php 179,739 million 7.13 % Per capita income 1954 1956 Php 7,339 Php 8,073 Total exports 1954 1956 Php 36,462 million Php 34,727 million Exchange rates 1 US US$ = Php 2.00 1 Php = US US$ 0.50 Sources: Philippine Presidency Project Malaya, Jonathan; Eduardo Malaya. So Help Us God... The Inaugurals of the Presidents of the Philippines. Anvil Publishing, Inc.

President's Action Body

Ushering, indeed, a new era in Philippine government, President Magsaysay placed emphasis upon service to the people by bringing the government closer to the former.[2] This was symbollically seen when, on inauguration day, President Magsaysay ordered the gates of Malacaan Palace open to all and sundry, who were allowed to freely visit all the dependencies of the presidential mansion. Later, this was regulated to allow weekly visit.[2] True[2] to his electoral promise, President Magsaysay created the Presidential Complaints and Action Committee.[2] This body immediately proceeded to hear grievances and recommend remedial action. Headed by soft-spoken, but active and tireless, Manuel Manahan, this committee would come to hear nearly sixty thousand complaints in a year, of which more than thirty thousand would be settled by direct action and a little more than twenty five thousand, referred to government agencies for appropriate follow-up. This new entity, composed of youthful personnel, all loyal to the President, proved to be a highly successful morale booster restoring the people's confidence in their own government.[2]

Agrarian reform
See also: Land reform in the Philippines

To amplify and stabilize the functions of the Economic Development Corps (EDCOR), President Magsaysay worked[2] for the establishment of the National Resettlement and Rehabilitation Administration (NARRA).[2] This body took over from the EDCOR and helped in the giving some sixty five thousand acres to three thousand indigent families for settlement purposes.[2] Again, it allocated some other twenty five thousand to a little more than one thousand five hundred landless families, who subsequently became farmers.[2] As further aid to the rural people,[2] the President Established the Agricultural Credit and Cooperative Administration (ACCFA). The idea was for this entity to make available rural credits. Records show that it did grant, in this wise, almost ten million dollars. This administration body next devoted its attention to cooperative marketing.[2] Along this line of help to the rural areas, President Magsaysay initiated in all earnestness the artesian wells campaign. A group-movement known as the Liberty Wells Association was formed and in record time managed to raise a considerable sum for the construction of as many artesian wells as possible. The socio-economic value of the same could not be gainsaid and the people were profuse in their gratitude.[2] Finally, vast irrigation projects, as well as enhancement of the Ambuklao Power plant and other similar ones, went along way towards bringing to reality the rural improvement program advocated by President Magsaysay.[2]

President Ramon Magsaysay at the Presidential Study, Malacaan Palace.

President Ramn Magsaysay enacted the following laws as part of his Agrarian Reform Program:

Republic Act No. 1160 of 1954Abolished the LASEDECO and established the National Resettlement and Rehabilitation Administration (NARRA) to resettle dissidents and landless farmers. It was particularly aimed at rebel returnees providing home lots and farmlands in Palawan and Mindanao. Republic Act No. 1199 (Agricultural Tenancy Act of 1954) governed the relationship between landowners and tenant farmers by organizing share-tenancy and leasehold system. The law provided the security of tenure of tenants. It also created the Court of Agrarian Relations. Republic Act No. 1400 (Land Reform Act of 1955) Created the Land Tenure Administration (LTA) which was responsible for the acquisition and distribution of large tenanted rice and corn lands over 200 hectares for individuals and 600 hectares for corporations. Republic Act No. 821 (Creation of Agricultural Credit Cooperative Financing Administration) Provided small farmers and share tenants loans with low interest rates of six to eight percent.[8]

HUKBALAHAP
In early 1954, Benigno Aquino, Jr. was appointed by President Ramn Magsaysay to act as personal emissary to Lus Taruc, leader of the Hukbalahap, a rebel group. Also in 1954, Lt. Col. Laureo Maraa, the former head of Force X of the 16th PC Company, assumed command of the 7th BCT, which had become one of the most mobile striking forces of the Philippine ground forces against the Huks, from Colonel Valeriano. Force X employed psychological warfare through combat intelligence and infiltration that relied on secrecy in planning, training, and

execution of attack. The lessons learned from Force X and Nenita were combined in the 7th BCT. With the all out anti-dissidence campaigns against the Huks, they numbered less than 2,000 by 1954 and without the protection and support of local supporters, active Huk resistance no longer presented a serious threat to Philippine security. From February to mid-September 1954, the largest anti-Huk operation, "Operation Thunder-Lightning" was conducted that resulted to the surrender of Luis Taruc on May 17. Further clean up operations of guerillas remaining lasted throughout 1955, diminishing its number to less than 1,000 by year's end.[9]
Foreign policies

Eleanor Roosevelt with President Ramn Magsaysay and then First Lady Luz Magsaysay of the Philippines in Manila

SEATO
The administration of President Magsaysay was active in the fight against the expansion of communism in the Asian region. He made the Philippines a member of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO), which was established in Manila on Sept. 8, 1954 during the "Manila Conference".[10] Members of SEATO were alarmed at the possible victory of North Vietnam over South Vietnam, which could spread communist ideology to other countries in the region. The possibility that a communist state can influence or cause other countries to adopt the same system of government is called the domino theory.[11] The active coordination of the Magsaysay administration with the Japanese government led to the Reparation Agreement. This was an agreement between the two countries, obligating the Japanese government to pay $800 million as reparation for war damages in the Philippines.[11]

Defense Council
Taking the advantage of the presence of U.S. Secretary John Foster Dulles in Manila to attend the SEATO Conference, the Philippine government took steps to broach with him the establishment of a Joint Defense Council. Vice-President and Secretary of Foreign Affairs Carlos

P. Garcia held the opportune conversations with Secretary Dulles for this purpose. Agreement was reached thereon and the first meeting of the Joint United States-Philippines Defense Council was held in Manila following the end of the Manila Conference. Thus were the terms of the Mutual Defense Pact between the Philippines and the United States duly implemented.[2]

Laurel-Langley Agreement

At Malacaan Palace, 1955. Clockwise, from top left: Senator Edmundo Cea, Former President Jos P. Laurel Sr., Senator Primicias, Senate President Eulogio A. Rodriguez, Sr., President Ramn F. Magsaysay, & House Speaker Jos B. Laurel Jr.

The Magsaysay administration negotiated the Laurel-Langley Agreement which was a trade agreement between the Philippines and the United States which was signed in 1955 and expired in 1974. Although it proved deficient, the final agreement satisfied nearly all of the diverse Filipino economic interests. While some have seen the Laurel-Langley agreement as a continuation of the 1946 trade act, Jose P. Laurel and other Philippine leaders recognized that the agreement substantially gave the country greater freedom to industrialize while continuing to receive privileged access to US markets.[12] The agreement replaced the unpopular Bell Trade Act, which tied the economy of the Philippines to that of United States economy.

Bandung Conference
Billed as an all Oriental meet to promote Afro-Asian economic and cultural cooperation and to oppose colonialism orneocolonialism by either the United States or the Soviet Union in the Cold War, or any other imperialistic nations, the AsianAfrican Conference was held in Bandung (Java) in April 1955, upon invitation extended by the Prime Ministers of India, Pakistan, Burma, Ceylon, and Indonesia. The conference is commonly known as the Bandung Conference. Although, at first, the Magsaysay Government seemed reluctant to send any delegation. Later, however, upon advise of Ambassador Carlos P. Romulo, it was decided to have the Philippines participate in the conference. Ambassador Romulo was asked to head the Philippine delegation.[2] At the very outset indications were to the effect that the conference would promote the cause of

neutralism as a third position in the current cold war between the democratic bloc and the communist group. John Kotelawala, Prime Minister of Ceylon, however, broke the ice against neutralism.[2] He was immediately joined by Philippine envoy Romulo, who categorically stated that his delegation believed that "a puppet is a puppet",[2] no matter whether under a Western Power or an Oriental state.[2] At one time in the course of the conference, Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru acidly spoke against the SEATO. Quick to draw, Ambassador Romulo delivered a stinging, eloquent retort that prompted Prime Minister Nehru to publicly apologize to the Philippine delegation.[2] Records had it that the Philippine delegation ably represented the interests of the Philippines and, in the ultimate analysis, succeeded in turning the Bandung Conference into a democratic victory against the plans of its socialist and neutralist delegates.[2]

Reparation agreement
Following the reservations made by Ambassador Romulo, on the Philippines behalf, upon signing the Japanese Peace Treaty in San Francisco on September 8, 1951, for several years of series of negotiations were conducted by the Philippine government and that of Japan. In the face of adamant claims of the Japanese government that it found impossible to meet the demand for the payment of eight billion dollars by the way of reparations, president Magsaysay, during a socalled "cooling off"[2] period, sent a Philippine Reparations Survey Committee, headed by Finance Secretary Jaime Hernandez, to Japan for an "on the spot" study of that country's possibilities.[2] When the Committee reported that Japan was in a position to pay, Ambassador Felino Neri, appointed chief negotiator, went to Tokyo. On May 31, 1955, Ambassador Neri reached a compromise agreement with Japanese Minister Takazaki, the main terms of which consisted in the following: The Japanese government would pay eight hundred million dollars as reparations. Payment was to be made in this wise: Twenty million dollars would be paid in cash in Philippine currency; thirty million dollars, in services; five million dollars, in capital goods; and two hundred and fifty million dollars, in long-term industrial loans.[2] On August 12, 1955, President Magsaysay informed the Japanese government, through Prime Minister Ichiro Hatoyama, that the Philippines accepted the Neri-Takazaki agreement.[2] In view of political developments in Japan, the Japanese Prime Minister could only inform the Philippine government of the Japanese acceptance of said agreement on March 15, 1956. The official Reparations agreement between the two government was finally signed at Malacaan Palace on May 9, 1956, thus bringing to a rather satisfactory conclusion this long drawn controversy between the two countries.[2]

Death
Main article: 1957 Cebu Douglas C-47 crash

Tomb of President Magsaysay at the Manila North Cemetery.

Monument at the crash site in Manunggal, Balamban, Cebu

Magsaysay's term that was to end on 30 December 1957 was cut short by a plane crash. On 16 March 1957, Magsaysay left Manila for Cebu City where he spoke at three educational institutions. That same night, at about 1 am, he boarded the presidential plane "Mt. Pinatubo", a C-47, heading back to Manila. In the early morning hours of 17 March, the plane was reported missing. By late afternoon, newspapers had reported the airplane had crashed on Mt. Manunggal in Cebu, and that 36 of the 56 aboard were killed (the actual number on board was 25, including Magsaysay). Only newspaperman Nstor Mata survived. Vice-President Carlos Garca, who was on official visit to Australia at the time, assumed the presidency to serve out the last eight months of Magsaysay's term. An estimated 5 million people attended Magsaysay's burial on 31 March 1957.[13][14][15] He was posthumously referred to by the people the "Idol of the Masses". He is the most recent Philippine head of state to die in-office.
CARLOS GARCIA For the municipality named after the president, see President Carlos P. Garcia, Bohol.

Carlos P. Garca

8th President of the Philippines

4th President of the Third Republic

In office March 17, 1957 December 30, 1961 Vice President None (Mar 17 Dec 30, 1957) Diosdado Macapagal (19571961)

Preceded by Ramn Magsaysay Succeeded by Diosdado Macapagal 1st President of the 1971 Philippine Constitutional Convention In office June 1, 1971 June 14, 1971 President Ferdinand Marcos

Succeeded by Diosdado Macapagal 5th Vice President of the Philippines In office December 30, 1953 March 17, 1957 President Ramn Magsaysay

Preceded by Fernando Lpez Succeeded by Diosdado Macapagal Secretary of Foreign Affairs In office December 30, 1953 March 17, 1957 President Ramon Magsaysay

Preceded by Joaquin Miguel Elizalde Succeeded by Vacant

Post later held by Felixberto Serrano

Senator of the Philippines In office May 25, 1946 December 30, 1953 Governor of Bohol In office December 30, 1933 December 30, 1941 Member of the Philippine House of Representatives from Bohol's Third District In office 19251931 Preceded by Teodoro Abueva Succeeded by Filomeno Caseas Orbeta Personal details Born Died Resting place November 4, 1896 Talibon, Bohol, Philippines June 14, 1971 (aged 74) Tagbilaran, Bohol, Philippines Libingan ng mga Bayani, Taguig, Philippines

Political party Nacionalista Party Spouse(s) Leonila Dimataga

Children Alma mater Profession Religion Signature

Linda Garcia-Ocampos Silliman University[1] Philippine Law School Lawyer Roman Catholicism

Carlos Polistico Garca (November 4, 1896 June 14, 1971) was a Filipino teacher, poet, orator, lawyer, public official, political economist and guerrilla leader. He became the eighth President of the Philippines.

Contents Early life

Garca was born in Talibon, Bohol, to Policronio Garca and Ambrosia Polistico (who were both natives of Bangued, Abra). Garca grew up with politics, with his father serving as a municipal mayor for four terms. He acquired his primary education in his native Talibon, then took his secondary education in Cebu Provincial High School. Initially, he pursued his college education at Silliman University in Dumaguete City, Negros Oriental, and later studied at the Philippine Law School (now Philippine College of Criminology) where he earned his law degree in 1923. He was among the top ten in the bar examination.[1] Rather than practice law right away, he worked as a teacher for two years at Bohol Provincial High School. He became famous for his poetry in Bohol, where he earned the nickname "Prince of Visayan Poets" and the "Bard from Bohol".

Marriage
In 1924 he married to Leonila Dimataga they had a daughter namely Linda Garcia-Ocampos.

Descendants

Teodoro P. Garcia Sr Teodoro P. Garcia Jr Dominique Marie L. Garcia (Born 1988) o Mother of Jace Jotham M. Cortez Garcia (Born 2009) Timothy Daniel L. Garcia (Born 1989) Raphael L. Garcia (Born 1992)

Political career
He started his political career in 1925, scoring an impressive victory running for congressman representing the third district of Bohol. He was elected for another term in 1928 and served until 1931. He was elected governor of Bohol in 1933 but served only until 1941 when he successfully ran for the Philippine Senate but his term cut short during World War II. He took the post when Congress convened in 1945 after the Philippines was liberated from the Japanese.

Vice Presidency
See Also: Presidency of Ramon Magsaysay Garca was the running mate of Ramn Magsaysay in the presidential election of 1953. He was appointed Secretary of Foreign Affairs by President Ramn Magsaysay, for four years concurrently serving as vice president. As secretary of foreign affairs, he opened formal reparation negotiations in an effort to end the nine-year technical state of war between Japan and the Philippines, leading to an agreement in April 1954. During the Geneva Conference on Korean unification and other Asian problems, Garca as chairman of the Philippine delegation attacked communist promises in Asia and defended the U.S. policy in the Far East. In a speech on May 7, 1954, the day of the fall of Dien Bien Phu, Garca repeated the Philippine stand for nationalism and opposition of communism. Garca acted as chairman of the eight-nation Southeast Asian Security Conference held in Manila in September 1954, which led to the development of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization, known as SEATO.[2]

Presidency

Accession
At the time of the sudden death of President Ramon Magsaysay, Vice President and Foreign Affairs Secretary Carlos P. Garca was heading the Philippine delegation to the SEATO conference then being held at Canberra, Australia.[3] Having been immediately notified of the tragedy, Vice President Garca enplaned back for Manila. Upon his arrival he directly repaired to Malacaang Palace to assume the duties of President. Chief Justice Ricardo Paras, of the Supreme Court, was at hand to administer the oath of office. President Garca's first actions dealt with the declaration of a period of mourning for the whole nation and the burial ceremonies for the late Chief-Executive Magsaysay.[3]

Outlawing Communism
After much discussion, both official and public, the Congress of the Philippines, finally, approved a bill outlawing the Communist Party of the Philippines. Despite the pressure exerted against the congressional measure, President Carlos P. Garca signed the said bill into law as Republic Act No. 1700 on June 19, 1957.[3][4] Republic Act No. 1700 was superseded by Presidential Decree No. 885, entitled "Outlawing Subversive Organization, Penalizing Membership Therein and For Other Purposes." In turn, Presidential Decree 885 was amended by Presidential Decree No. 1736, and later superseded by Presidential Decree No. 1835, entitled, "Codifying The Various Laws on Anti-Subversion and Increasing the Penalties for Membership in Subversive Organization." This, in turn, was amended by Presidential Decree No. 1975. On May 5, 1987, Executive Order No. 167 repealed Presidential Decrees Nos. 1835 and 1975 as being unduly restrictive of the constitutional right to form associations.[5] On September 22, 1992, Republic Act No. 1700, as amended, was repealed by Republic Act No. 7636.[6]

Filipino First Policy

President Garca exercised the Filipino First Policy, for which he was known. This policy heavily favored Filipino businessmen over foreign investors. He was also responsible for changes in retail trade which greatly affected the Chinese businessmen in the country. In a speech during a joint session of the Senate and the House of Representatives on September 18, 1946, President Garcia said the following:

We are called upon to decide on this momentous debate whether or not this land of ours will remain the cradle and grave, the womb and tomb of our race the only place where we can build our homes, our temples, and our altars and where we erect the castles of our racial hopes, dreams and traditions and where we establish the warehouse of our happiness and prosperity, of our joys and sorrows.[7]

Austerity Program
In the face of the trying conditions of the country, President Garca initiated what has been called "The Austerity Program". Garca's administration was characterized by its austerity program and its insistence on a comprehensive nationalist policy. On March 3, 1960, he affirmed the need for complete economic freedom and added that the government no longer would tolerate the dominance of foreign interests (especially American) in the national economy. He promised to shake off "the yoke of alien domination in business, trade, commerce and industry." Garca was also credited with his role in reviving Filipino cultural arts.[2] The main points of the Austerity Program were:[3]
1. The government would tighten up its controls to prevent abuses in the over shipment of exports under license and in under-pricing as well. 2. There would be a more rigid enforcement of the existing regulations on barter shipments. 3. Government imports themselves were to be restricted to essential items. 4. The government also would reduce rice imports to a minimum. 5. An overhauling of the local transportation system would be attempted so as to reduce the importation of gasoline and spare parts. 6. The tax system would be revised so as to attain more equitable distribution of the payment-burden and achieve more effective collection from those with ability to pay. 7. There would be an intensification of food production.

The program was hailed[3] by the people at large and confidence was expressed that the measures proposed would help solve the standing problems of the Republic.[3]

BohlenSerrano Agreement
During his administration, he acted on the BohlenSerrano Agreement which shortened the lease of the US Bases from 99 years to 25 years and made it renewable after every five years.

1961 Presidential Election

Main article: Philippine presidential election, 1961

At the end of his second term, he ran for reelection in the Presidential elections in November 1961, but was defeated by Diosdado Macapagal, Vice President under him, but belonged to the opposing Liberal Party in the Philippines the President and the Vice President are elected separately.

Post-presidency and death

President Garca's tomb at the Libingan ng mga Bayani.

After his failed reelection bid, Garca retired to Tagbilaran to live as a private citizen. On June 1, 1971, Garca was elected delegate of the 1971 Constitutional Convention. The convention delegates elected him as the President of the Convention. However, just days after his election, on June 14, 1971, Garca died from a fatal heart attack. He was succeeded as president of the Convention by his former Vice President, Diosdado Macapagal. Garca became the first president to have his remains lie in-state at the Manila Cathedral and the first president to be buried at the Libingan ng mga Bayani.
DIOSDADO MACAPADAL

Diosdado Pangan Macapagal (September 28, 1910 April 21, 1997) was the ninth President of the Philippines, serving from 1961 to 1965, and the sixth Vice President, serving from 1957 to 1961. He also served as a member of the House of Representatives, and headed the Constitutional Convention of 1970. He is the father of Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, who served as the 14th President of the Philippines from 2001 to 2010. A native of Lubao, Pampanga, Macapagal graduated from the University of the Philippines and University of Santo Tomas, after which he worked as a lawyer for the government. He first won election in 1949 to the House of Representatives, representing a district in his home province of Pampanga. In 1957 he became vice president in the administration of President Carlos P. Garcia, and in 1961 he defeated Garcia's re-election bid for the presidency. As president, Macapagal worked to suppress graft and corruption and to stimulate the Philippine economy. He introduced the country's first land reform law, placed the peso on the free currency exchange market, and liberalized foreign exchange and import controls. Many of his reforms, however, were crippled by a Congress dominated by the rival Nacionalista Party. He is also known for shifting the country's observance of Independence Day from July 4 to June 12, commemorating the day Filipino patriots declared independence from Spain in 1898. His reelection bid was defeated in 1965 by Ferdinand Marcos, whose subsequent authoritarian rule lasted 20 years.

During the Marcos administration, Macapagal was elected president of the Constitutional Convention which would later draft what became the 1973 constitution, though the manner in which the charter was ratified and modified led him to later question its legitimacy. He died of heart failure, pneumonia and renal complications at the age of 86.

Early life

Early life and education

Diosdado Macapagal was born on September 28, 1910 in Lubao, Pampanga, the second of four children in a poor family.[1] His father, Urbano Macapagal, was a poet who wrote in the local Pampangan language, and his mother, Romana Pangan Macapagal, was a schoolteacher who taught catechism.[2] He is a distant descendant of Don Juan Macapagal, a prince of Tondo, who was a great-grandson of the last reigning Rajah of Selurong, Rajah Lakandula.[3] The family earned extra income by raising pigs and accommodating boarders in their home.[2] Due to his roots in poverty, Macapagal would later become affectionately known as the "Poor boy from Lubao".[4] Macapagal excelled in his studies at local public schools, graduating valedictorian at Lubao Elementary School, and salutatorian at Pampanga High School.[5] He finished his pre-law course at the University of the Philippines, then enrolled at Philippine Law School in 1932, studying on a scholarship and supporting himself with a part-time job as an accountant.[2][5] While in law school, he gained prominence as an orator and debater.[5] However, he was forced to quit schooling after two years due to poor health and a lack of money.[2] Returning to Pampanga, he joined boyhood friend Rogelio de la Rosa in producing and starring in Tagalog operettas patterned after classic Spanish zarzuelas.[2] It was during this period that he married his friend's sister, Purita de la Rosa in 1938.[2] He had two children with de la Rosa, Cielo and Arturo.[4] Macapagal raised enough money to continue his studies at the University of Santo Tomas.[2] He also gained the assistance of philanthropist Honorio Ventura, the Secretary of the Interior at the time, who financed his education.[6] After receiving his Bachelor of Laws degree in 1936, he was admitted to the bar, topping the 1936 bar examination with a score of 89.95%.[5] He later returned to his alma mater to take up graduate studies and earn a Master of Laws degree in 1941, a Doctor of Civil Law degree in 1947, and a PhD in Economics in 1957.[5]

Early career
After passing the bar examination, Macapagal was invited to join an American law firm as a practicing attorney, a particular honor for a Filipino at the time.[7] He was assigned as a legal assistant to President Manuel L. Quezon in Malacaan Palace.[5] During the Japanese occupation of the Philippines in World War II, Macapagal continued working in Malacaan Palace as an assistant to President Jos P. Laurel, while secretly aiding the anti-Japanese resistance.[5]

After the war,Macapagal worked as an assistant attorney with one of the largest law firms in the country, Ross, Lawrence, Selph and Carrascoso.[5] With the establishment of the independent Republic of the Philippines in 1946, he rejoined government service when President Manuel Roxas appointed him to the Department of Foreign Affairs as the head of its legal division.[4] In 1948, President Elpidio Quirino appointed Macapagal as chief negotiator in the successful transfer of the Turtle Islands in the Sulu Sea from the United Kingdom to the Philippines.[5] That same year, he was assigned as second secretary to the Philippine Embassy in Washington, D.C.[4] In 1949, he was elevated to the position of Counselor on Legal Affairs and Treaties, at the time the fourth highest post in the Philippine Foreign Office.:[8])

First marriage
In 1938 he married Purita dela Rosa and they had two children namely Arturo Macapagal and Cielo Macapagal-Salgado until Purita's death in 1943.

Second marriage
In 1946 he married Dr. Evangelina Macaraeg, with whom he had two children, Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo who became President of the Philippines and Diosdado Macapagal, Jr.

House of Representatives
On the urging of local political leaders of Pampanga province, President Quirino recalled Macapagal from his position in Washington to run for a seat in the House of Representatives representing the 1st District of Pampanga.[9] The district's incumbent Representative, Amado Yuzon, was a friend of Macapagal, but was opposed by the administration due to his support by communist groups.[9] After a campaign which Macapagal described as cordial and free of personal attacks, he won a landslide victory in the 1949 election.[9] He also won re-election in the 1953 election, and served as Representative in the 2nd and 3rd Congress. At the start of legislative sessions in 1950, the members of the House of Representatives elected Macapagal as Chairman of the Committee on Foreign Affairs, and he was given several important foreign assignments.[8] He was a Philippine delegate to the United Nations General Assembly multiple times, notably distinguishing himself in debates over Communist aggression with Andrei Vishinsky and Jacob Malik of the Soviet Union.[8] He took part in negotiations for the US-RP Mutual Defense Treaty, the LaurelLangley Agreement, and the Japanese Peace Treaty.[5] He also authored the Foreign Service Act, which reorganized and strengthened the Philippine foreign service.[4] As a Representative, Macapagal authored and sponsored several laws of socio-economic importance, particularly aimed at benefiting the rural areas and the poor. Among the pieces of legislation which Macapagal promoted were the Minimum Wage Law, Rural Health Law, Rural Bank Law, the Law on Barrio Councils, the Barrio Industrialization Law, and a law nationalizing the rice and corn industries.[5] He was consistently selected by the Congressional Press Club as one of the Ten Outstanding Congressmen during his tenure.[5] In his second term, he was named Most Outstanding lawmaker of the 3rd Congress .[5]

Vice presidency
In the 1957 general election, the Liberal Party drafted Representative Macapagal to run for Vice President as the running-mate of Jos Yulo, a former Speaker of the House of Representatives. Macapagal's nomination was particularly boosted by Liberal Party President Eugenio Prez, who insisted that the party's vice presidential nominee have a clean record of integrity and honesty.[9] While Yulo was defeated by Carlos P. Garcia of the Nacionalista Party, Macapagal was elected Vice President in an upset victory, defeating the Nacionalista candidate, Jos B. Laurel, Jr., by over 8 percentage points. A month after the election, he was also chosen as the head of the Liberal Party.[6] As the first ever Philippine vice president to be elected from a rival party of the president, Macapagal served out his four-year vice presidential term as a leader of the opposition. The ruling party refused to give him a Cabinet position in the Garcia administration, which was a break from tradition.[5] He was offered a position in the Cabinet only on the condition that he switch allegiance to the ruling Nationalista Party, but he declined the offer and instead played the role of critic to the administration's policies and performance.[4] This allowed him to capitalize on the increasing unpopularity of the Garcia administration. Assigned to performing only ceremonial duties as vice president, he spent his time making frequent trips to the countryside to acquaint himself with voters and to promote the image of the Liberal Party.[4]

Presidency
Presidential styles of

Diosdado P. Macapagal Reference style Spoken style Alternative style His Excellency Your Excellency Mr. President

In the 1961 presidential election, Macapagal ran against Garcia's re-election bid, promising an end to corruption and appealing to the electorate as a common man from humble beginnings.[2] He defeated the incumbent president with a 55% to 45% margin.[4] His inauguration as the president of the Philippines took place on December 30, 1961.

Major legislation signed

Republic Act No. 3512 An Act Creating A Fisheries Commission Defining Its Powers, Duties and Functions, and Appropriating Funds Therefor. Republic Act No. 3518 An Act Creating The Philippine Veterans' Bank, and For Other Purposes. Republic Act No. 3844 An Act To Ordain The Agricultural Land Reform Code and To Institute Land Reforms In The Philippines, Including The Abolition of Tenancy and The Channeling of Capital Into Industry, Provide For The Necessary Implementing Agencies, Appropriate Funds Therefor and For Other Purposes.

Republic Act No. 4166 An Act Changing The Date Of Philippine Independence Day From July Four To June Twelve, And Declaring July Four As Philippine Republic Day, Further Amending For The Purpose Section Twenty-Nine Of The Revised Administrative Code. Republic Act No. 4180 An Act Amending Republic Act Numbered Six Hundred Two, Otherwise Known As The Minimum Wage Law, By Raising The Minimum Wage For Certain Workers, And For Other Purposes.

Domestic policies
Economy of the Philippines under

President Diosdado Macapagal

19611965

Population 1962 29.20 million Gross Domestic Product 1962 1965 Growth rate, 1962-65 Php 234,828 million Php 273,769 million 5.15 % Per capita income 1962 1965 Php 8,042 Php 8,617 Total exports 1962 1965 Php 46,177 million Php 66,216 million Exchange rates 1 US US$ = Php 3.80 1 Php = US US$ 0.26 Sources: Philippine Presidency Project Malaya, Jonathan; Eduardo Malaya. So Help Us God... The Inaugurals of the Presidents of the Philippines. Anvil Publishing, Inc.

Economy

In his inaugural address, Macapagal promised a socio-economic program anchored on "a return to free and private enterprise", placing economic development in the hands of private entrepreneurs with minimal government interference.[4] Twenty days after the inauguration, exchange controls were lifted and the Philippine peso was allowed to float on the free currency exchange market. The currency controls were initially adopted by the administration of Elpidio Quirino as a temporary measure, but continued to be adopted by succeeding administrations. The peso devalued from P2.64 to the US dollar, and stabilized at P3.80 to the dollar, supported by a $300 million stabilization fund from the International Monetary Fund.[4] To achieve the national goal of economic and social progress with prosperity reaching down to the masses, there existed a choice of methods. First, there was the choice between the democratic and dictatorial systems, the latter prevailing in Communist countries. On this, the choice was easy as Filipinos had long been committed to the democratic method.[10] With the democratic mechanism, however, the next choice was between free enterprise and the controls system. Macapagal stated the essence of free enterprise in layman parlance in declaring before Congress on January 22, 1962 that "the task of economic development belongs principally to private enterprise and not to the government.[10] Before independence there was free enterprise in the Philippines under Presidents Manuel Quezon, Sergio Osmea and Manuel Roxas. In 1950 President Elpidio Quirino deviated from free enterprise launching as a temporary emergency measure the system of exchange and import controls. The controls system was carried on by President Magsaysay and Garcia.[10] The first fundamental decision Macapagal had to make was whether to continue the system of exchange controls of Quirino, Magsaysay and Garcia or to return to the free enterprise of Quezon, Osmena and Roxas.[10] It had been his view since he was a Congressman for eight years that the suitable economic system for Filipinos was free enterprise. So on January 21, 1962 after working for 20 straight hours he signed a Central Bank decree abolishing exchange controls and returning the country to free enterprise.[10] During the 20 days available to make a decision on choice between controls and free enterprise, between his inauguration as President and before the opening of Congress, Macapagal's main adviser was Governor Andres Castillo of the Central Bank. Further reform efforts by Macapagal were blocked by the Nacionalistas, who dominated the House of Representatives and the Senate at that time. Nonetheless, Macapagal was able to achieve steady economic progress, and annual GDP growth averaged at 5.15% for 196265.[4]
Socio-economic program

The removal of controls and the restoration of free enterprise was intended to provide only the fundamental setting in which Macapagal could work out economic and social progress.[10] A

specific and periodic program for the guidance of both the private sector and the government was an essential instrument to attain the economic and social development that constituted the goal of his labors.[10] Such a program for his administration was formulated under his authority and direction by a group of able and reputable economic and business leaders the most active and effective of which was Sixto Roxas III. From an examination of the planned targets and requirements of the Five-Year program formally known as the Five-Year Socio-Economic Integrated Development Program it could be seen that it aimed at the following objectives.[10]

immediate restoration of economic stability; alleviating the plight of the common man; and establishing a dynamic basic for future growth.

Free enterprise was restored with decontrol. The Five-Year Economic Program had been prescribed. Land reform abolishing tenancy had been launched. These were essential foundations for economic and social progress for the greatest number.[10] The essential foundations having been laid, attention must then be turned to the equally difficult task of building the main edifice by implementing the economic program. Although the success of Macapagal's Socio-Economic Program in free enterprise inherently depended on the private sector, it would be helpful and necessary for the government to render active assistance in its implementation by the citizens.[10] Such role of the government in free enterprise, in the view of Macapagal, required it (1) to provide the social overhead like roads, airfields and ports that directly or proximately promote economic growth, (2) to adopt fiscal and monetary policies salutary to investments, and most importantly (3) to serve as an entrepreneur or promote of basic and key private industries, particularly those that require capital too large for businessmen to put up by themselves. Among the enterprises he selected for active government promotion were integrated steel, fertilizer, pulp, meat canning and tourism.[10]
Land reform See also: Land reform in the Philippines

Like Ramon Magsaysay, President Diosdado Macapagal came from the masses. He savored to call himself the "Poor boy from Lubao".[11] Ironically, he had little popularity among the masses. [11] This could be attributed to an absence of charismatic appeal of his stiff personality.[11] But despite this, Macapagal had certain achievements.[11] Foremost of these was the Agricultural Land Reform Code of 1963 (Republic Act No. 3844) which provided for the purchase of private farmlands with the intention of distributing them in small lots to the landless tenants on easy term of payment.[11] It is a major development in history of land reform in the Philippines,

In comparison with the previous agrarian legislation, the law lowered the retention limit to 75 hectares, whether owned by individuals or corporations. It removed the term "contiguous" and established the leasehold system.[11] The share-tenancy or the kasama system was prohibited.[11] It formulated a bill of rights that assured agricultural workers the right to self-organization and to a minimum wage. It also created an office that acquired and distributed farmlands and a financing institution for this purpose.[11] The major flaw of this law was, however, that it had several exemptions, such as ort (big capital plantations established during the Spanish and American periods); fishponds, saltbeds, and lands primarily planted to citrus, coconuts, cacao, coffee, durian, and other similar permanent trees; landholdings converted to residential, commercial, industrial, or other similar non-agricultural purposes.[11] It was viewed that the 75-hectare retention limit was just too high for the growing population density. Moreover, this law merely allowed the transfer of the landlordism from one area to another.[11] This was because landlords were paid in bonds, which he could use to purchase agricultural lands.[11] Likewise, the farmer was free to choose to be excluded from the leasehold arrangements if he volunteered to give up the landholdings to the landlord.[11] Within two years after the law was implemented, no[11] land was being purchased under its term and conditions caused by the peasant's inability to purchase the land.[11] Besides, the government seemed lacking of strong political will, as shown by the Congress' allotment of only one million pesos for the implementation of this code. At least Php200 million was needed within a year from the enactment and implementation of the code, and Php300 million in the next three years for the program to be successful. However, by 1972, the code had benefited only 4,500 peasants covering 68 estates, at the cost of Php57 million to the government. Consequently, by the 1970s, the farmers ended up tilling less land, with their share in the farm also being less.[11] They incurred more debts, depending on the landlord, creditors, and palay buyers. Indeed, during the administration of Macapagal, the productivity of the farmers further declined.[11]
Anti-corruption drive

One of Macapagal's major campaign pledges had been to clean out the government corruption that had proliferated under former President Garcia.[12] The administration also openly feuded with Filipino businessmen Fernando Lopez and Eugenio Lopez, brothers who had controlling interests in several large businesses.[4] The administration alluded to the brothers as "Filipino Stonehills who build and maintain business empires through political power, including the corruption of politicians and other officials".[13] In the 1965 election, the Lopezes threw their support behind Macapagal's rival, Ferdinand Marcos, with Fernando as Marcos' running mate.[13]

Stonehill controversy
The administration's campaign against corruption was tested by Harry Stonehill, an American expatriate with a $50-million business empire in the Philippines.[12] Macapagal's Secretary of Justice, Jose W. Diokno investigated Stonehill on charges of tax evasion, smuggling, misdeclaration of imports, and corruption of public officials.[12] Diokno's investigation revealed

Stonehill's ties to corruption within the government. Macapagal, however, prevented Diokno from prosecuting Stonehill by deporting the American instead, then dismissing Diokno from the cabinet. Diokno questioned Macapagal's actions, saying, "How can the government now prosecute the corrupted when it has allowed the corrupter to go?"[12] Diokno later served as a Senator of the republic.
Independence Day

Macapagal appealed to nationalist sentiments by shifting the commemoration of Philippine independence day. On May 12, 1962, he signed a proclamation which declared Tuesday, June 12, 1962, as a special public holiday in commemoration of the declaration of independence from Spain on that date in 1898.[14][15] The change became permanent in 1964 with the signing of Republic Act No. 4166.[16] For having issued his 1962 proclamation, Macapagal is generally credited with having moved the celebration date of the Independence Day holiday.[17][18] Years later, Macapagal told journalist Stanley Karnow the real reason for the change: "When I was in the diplomatic corps, I noticed that nobody came to our receptions on the Fourth of July, but went to the American Embassy instead. So, to compete, I decided we needed a different holiday."[19]

Foreign policies
Sabah claim

President Diosdado Macapagal on the bridge of the USS Oklahoma City in 1962

On September 12, 1962, during President Diosdado Macapagal's administration, the territory of North Borneo, and the full sovereignty,[20][21] title and dominion over the territory were ceded by the then reigning Sultan of Sulu, HM Sultan Muhammad Esmail E. Kiram I, to the Republic of the Philippines.[22] The cession effectively gave the Philippine government the full authority to pursue their claim in international courts. The Philippines broke diplomatic relations with Malaysia after the federation had included Sabah in 1963.[23][24] It was revoked in 1989 because succeeding Philippine administrations have placed the claim in the back burner in the interest of pursuing cordial economic and security relations with Kuala Lumpur.[25] To date, Malaysia continues to consistently reject Philippine calls to resolve the matter of Sabah's jurisdiction to the

International Court of Justice.[26] Sabah sees the claim made by the Philippines' Moro leader Nur Misuari to take Sabah to International Court of Justice (ICJ) as a non-issue and thus dismissed the claim.[27]
Maphilindo

In July 1963, President Diosdado Macapagal convened a summit meeting in Manila in which a nonpolitical confederation for Malaysia, the Philippines, and Indonesia, Maphilindo, was proposed as a realization of Jos Rizal's dream of bringing together the Malay peoples, seen as artificially divided by colonial frontiers.[28] Maphilindo was described as a regional association that would approach issues of common concern in the spirit of consensus. However, it was also perceived as a tactic on the parts of Jakarta and Manila to delay, or even prevent, the formation of the Federation of Malaysia. Manila had its own claim to Sabah (formerly British North Borneo),[28] and Jakarta protested the formation of Malaysia as a British imperialist plot. The plan failed when Sukarno adopted his plan of konfrontasi with Malaysia. The Konfrontasi, or Confrontation basically aims at preventing Malaysia to attain independence. The idea was inspired onto President Sukarno by the Partai Komunis Indonesia (PKI), or literally the Indonesian Communist Party. The party convinced President Sukarno that the Formation of Malaysia is a form of neo-colonization and will later affect tranquility in Indonesia. The subsequent development of ASEAN almost certainly excludes any possibility of the project ever being revived.[28]
Vietnam War

Before the end of his term in 1965, President Diosdado Macapagal persuaded Congress to send troops to South Vietnam. However this proposal was blocked by the opposition led by Senate President Ferdinand Marcos who deserted Macapagal's Liberal Party and defected to the Nacionalista Party.[29] The U.S. government's active interest in bringing other nations into the war had been part of U.S. policy discussions as early as 1961. President Lyndon Johnson first publicly appealed for other countries to come to the aid of South Vietnam on April 23, 1964in what was called the 'More Flags' program.[29] Chester Cooper, former director of Asian affairs for the White House, explained why the impetus came from the United States instead of from the Republic of South Vietnam: "The 'More Flags' campaignrequired the application of considerable pressure for Washington to elicit any meaningful commitments. One of the more exasperating aspects of the searchwas the lassitudeof the Saigon government. In partthe South Vietnam leaders were preoccupied with political jockeying.In addition, Saigon appeared to believe that the program was a public relations campaign directed at the American people."[29]

1963 midterm election

Main article: Philippine Senate election, 1963

The senatorial election was held on November 12, 1963. Macapagal's Liberal Party (LP) won four out of the eight seats up for grabs during the election thereby increasing the LP's senate seats from eight to ten.

1965 presidential campaign

Main article: Philippine presidential election, 1965

Towards the end of his term, Macapagal decided to seek re-election to continue seeking reforms which he claimed were stifled by a "dominant and uncooperative opposition" in Congress.[4] With Senate President Ferdinand Marcos, a fellow member of the Liberal Party, unable to win his party's nomination due to Macapagal's re-election bid, Marcos switched allegiance to the rival Nacionalista Party to oppose Macapagal.[4] Among the issues raised against the incumbent administration were graft and corruption, rise in consumer goods, and persisting peace and order issues.[4] Macapagal was defeated by Marcos in the November 1965 polls.

Post-presidency and death

Grave of Diosdado Macapagal at the Libingan ng mga Bayani.

Macapagal announced his retirement from politics following his 1965 loss to Marcos. In 1971, he was elected president of the constitutional convention that drafted what became the 1973 constitution. The manner in which the charter was ratified and later modified led him to later question its legitimacy. In 1979, he formed the National Union for Liberation as a political party to oppose the Marcos regime. Following the restoration of democracy in 1986, Macapagal took on the role of elder statesman, and was a member of the Philippine Council of State.[5] He also served as honorary chairman of the National Centennial Commission, and chairman of the board of CAP Life, among others. In his retirement, Macapagal devoted much of his time to reading and writing.[5] He published his presidential memoir, authored several books about government and economics, and wrote a weekly column for the Manila Bulletin newspaper. Diosdado Macapagal died of heart failure, pneumonia and renal complications at the Makati Medical Center on April 21, 1997. He is buried at the Libingan ng mga Bayani.

Legacy
On September 28, 2009, Macapagal's daughter, President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, inaugurated the President Diosdado Macapagal Museum and Library, located at his home town of Lubao, Pampanga.[30][31] President Benigno S. Aquino III declared September 28, 2010 as a special non-working holiday in Macapagal's home province of Pampanga to commemorate the centennial of his birth.[32]