Modern Optics
Alexander Quandt
Institut fr Physik, Uni Greifswald
Literature
A somewhat personal selection :
L. Novotny and B. Hecht, Principles of Nano-Optics, Cambridge University Press (2006). H. C. Van de Hulst, Light Scattering by Small Particles, Dover (1982). B. E. A. Saleh and M. C. Teich, Fundamentals of Photonics, Wiley (2007).
J. D. Joannopoulos, S. G. Johnson, J. N. Winn and R. D. Meade, Photonic crystals (2nd ed.), Princeton University Press (2008).
M. Born and E. Wolf, Principles of Optics (7th ed.), Cambridge University Press (1999).
Introduction
polarization!
once as a wave.
(A. Einstein)
Description of experiment: Produce diffraction pattern of a needle using light from a gas
flame, and record results on a photographic plate.
Gradually dim the gas light by inserting a series of opaque plates, until one single photon at a time should hit the photographic plate, only.
Extreme case corresponds to standard candle more than one mile away, and an exposure time of roughly three months.
Detects a left going photon 1, and thus signals the emission of a right going photon 2. S1
1.
Semiclassical theory (quantized atoms and classical electromagnetic fields): R2 and T2 should occasionally detect in coincidence, because detection probability is proportional to square of field amplitudes. Quantum mechanical theory (quantized atoms and photons): R2 or T2 measure position of photon 2. Thus they should never detected in coincidence. This was actually seen by Grangier, Roger and Aspect.
2.
De Broglie Waves
Electrons as matter waves:
Photonic analogues:
Microdisk whispering gallery modes: Tamboli et al., Nature Photonics 1, 61 (2007).
The model:
p/N
d a
Reflecting mirror
Level spacing:
Many reflections:
Similar to bouncing acoustic waves in churches or art galleries (whispering gallery modes).
Whispering gallery mode in dielectric microsphere
E2
hn
nav
E1
N1(t) N2(t)
Spontaneous emission:
Absorption:
Stimulated emission:
The model:
Two atoms act like small dipole oscillators, and energy is radiatively transferred between them.
Starting configuration:
Atom I initially in state 2, but slightly perturbed:
Hellman-Feynman theorem:
Solutions:
Observations:
Preconditions: At the beginning, some perturbation puts both atoms in a mixed state with exactly the same difference of energies and exactly the right phase. Self reinforced: transferred energy increases minority state, thus increasing the dipole moment, thus reinforcing the coupling ... Continuous exchange of a photon ! (see below)
Comment:
There are no quantum jumps, nor are there particles ! (Manifesto of H. D. Zeh)
Semiclassical Model (see: Scully & Sargant, Physics Today March 1972)
General scheme:
This is the original scan
Accounts for:
atom-field interactions
stimulated emission
resonance fluorescence photoelectric effect (!!!) .
Shortcomings:
Spontaneous emission:
No dipole associated with pure quantum state, thus no decay of excited states.
We need to add vacuum fluctuations (i.e. noise !!!).
For Heretics
Professors
Problem:
Solution (Nano-Optics):
Introduce matter, such that unphysical solutions are sorted out, and replaced by physical solutions, due to suitable boundary conditions. Problematic vacuum case becomes irrelevant.
See:
N. Ribe and F. Steinle, Physics Today July 2002, p. 43.
As to what I have done as a poet I take no pride in it but that in my century I am the only person who knows the truth in the difficult science of colours of that, I say, I am not a little proud, and here I have a consciousness of a superiority to many.
Newtons color circle with seven sections proportial to diatonic musical scale. Mixed color z obtained through azimuthal center of gravity calculation. Radial position determines saturation.
red
Wavelength: 400-700 nm
blue
400
450
500
550
yellow
green
violet
Visible ranges:
Observations:
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Primary bow (violet inside, red outside). A faint and inverted secondary bow. Darkened area between bows (Alexanders band) Interference patterns. Polarization (use polarization filters).
??? Why is the sky blue, and why are the sunsets red ???
Exploratory experimentation
Experiment 1 (Prism, dispersive refraction):
Red light Blue light White light
Experiment 3 (Milk):
Take milk fresh from the cow, and dilute it with water inside a large glass container.
Liquid appears blueish. And reddish on direct transmission.
The rainbow and the blue sky must be caused by the dispersive scattering of daylight on water droplets, dust, molecules .
Impact parameter
Water droplet
Class 4 (secondary r.)
Class 1
Examine diffusion angle a as a function of impact parameter for rays of class 3 and class 4 (explains origin of darkened area between bows):
- With increasing impact parameter, the diffusion angle of class 3 decreases from 180, goes through a minimum around 138, and increases again. - Similarly, class 4 increases from 0 and goes through a maximum at 130.
Dispersive refraction:
Rainbow angle 13758 for red light.
Rainbow angle 13943 for violet light.
Interference (Young):
Parallel rays Rainbow ray
Rays of class 3 with impact parameters slightly higher and lower than the rainbow ray may re-appear under the same diffuse angle.
Polarization of rainbow
Mechanisms of complete polarization (see Silverman):
Incident ray
Incident ray
Reflected ray
Brewster angle:
n1 n2
QB
Reflection at Brewsters angle QB. Reflections within water droplets are close to QB !
Refracted ray
Rayleigh scattering:
Small sphere immersed in light, no standing waves:
Scattered intensities mainly from shorter wavelengths (blue sky); red sunsets due to longer path through atmosphere.
Brocken spectre
Ice crystals:
Essential preconditions:
Myriads of simple crystals like colums and plates in a cloud, some degree of order.
Complex crystals have too many facets. They diffuse light and produce weak halos. Cloud can neither be too thin nor too thick.
Desert view watch tower (Grand Canyon): D. M. Black, The Brocken spectre of the Desert View Watch Tower, Grand Canyon, Arizona, Science 119, 164 (1954).
Glory
Rainbow
Back scattering (180) of sunlight from small (< 35 mm) droplets of water.
Gallery II:
(a)
(b)
(c)
-Photon may be absorbed, if it has just the right energy to lift electron into an upper level, see (a),(b).
-Electron decays back to original level, emitting a photon with energy equal to electronic level spacing, see (c).
Unfortunately, most atoms and molecules interact with light in the ultraviolet range!
Absorption in semiconductors:
Photon energies. Electron energies
Conductance band (empty)
3.1 eV 1.77 eV
Absorption in metals:
Color depends on gap location
no color
Electron energies
visible
Gap
0 eV
Empty
High reflectance:
photons of all visible energies are absorbed and re-emitted immediately.
black
Fermi level
Full
-c(n)
n0
n0
Interpretation:
n << n0: response small and independent of n. n >> n0: response small and 180 phase shift. n = n0: maximum response, and 90 phase shift.
Attenuation of monochromatic light:
damped and driven harmonic oscillator
A showcase:
Wing of butterfly
Peacock
Koi fish
Corresponding microstructures:
For a systematic reverse engineering of Mother Nature read: A. R. Parker and H. E. Townley, Biomimetics of photonic nanostructures, Nature Nanotechology 2, 348 (2007).
Opal: hydrated silica. Mineraloid gel. Gems: fcc closed packed microspheres.
Refraction at interfaces:
Components of wavefunctions at interface :
aR
aI
kR
kT
aT aT
Most general matching conditions : Arguments of wavefunctions have to be equal at all times t and at every point r0 of the interface.
kI
nl nr
kT
Asymmetry in materials properties ? Refraction along black path corresponds to an interface between two materials with positive index of refraction. The red path proceeds through a material with negative index of refraction (metamaterial). Spectacular properties of metamaterials: near field amplification, optical antimatter ... Realization of metamaterials: microwave arrays, photonic crystals
Braggs law:
X-rays shine on (atomic) Bragg planes with mutual distance d and angle of incidence Q.
Bragg condition: Rays from parallel planes are able to interfere constructively, if the difference in optical path length (red) is an integer multiple of the wavelength l:
Planes of atoms within a crystal are able to act like mirrors and reflect X-rays.
As indicated, Braggs law usually holds over a whole range of angles 2df, depending on the details of the atomic scattering process (Bubble model). There are many possible Bragg planes for a given crystal. Once that crystal is rotated, those planes will glint, as soon as the Bragg condition is met. However, crystals reject X-rays only for a limited range of angles of incidence (see illustration on the left).
Making colors:
In the visible range, the essential precondition for Bragg scattering is that the crystal has to be made of components on the scale of the wavelength of light. Photonic insulator (photonic crystal): scattering is so strong, that the ranges of rejection angles for different Bragg planes will overlap completely (see illustration on the left). Photons within a forbidden band of energies will be rejected in whatever direction they will enter the photonic crystal.
- Sub-wavelenth arrays of microspheres act as 3D diffraction gratings. Light will be Bragg reflected at layers of microspheres.
- But first, light crosses air with index of refraction n = 1. Then it enters a refractive media, made of microspheres with ns= 1.56, and an exoskeleton matrix with nm= 1.33. - Spectrum (d) measured for angle of incidence f = 20 normal to surface. Wavelength of maximum reflectance lmax= 530 nm. Metallic appearance due to embedded 3D photonic structures. - Theoretical task: Explain these results, and predict lmax at different angles of incidence f.
Pachyrhynchus argus
d
Braggs law including refraction
neff
Yablonovite: (Yablonovitch et. al., PRL 67, 2295-2298 and 3380-3383 (1991))
- A slab of material with refractive index 3.6 or higher is covered by a mask consisting of a triangular array of holes.
- Each hole is drilled through three times, at an angle 35.26 away from normal, and spread out 120 on the azimuth. -The resulting criss-cross of holes below the surface of the slab produces a 3D periodic fcc structure.
Microwave band gap
- System size of a few millimeters, photonic band gap between 13-16 GHz.
Concluding remarks
Concluding remarks