Festschrift Symposium for Professor Ted White, Chemical Engineering University of Queensland, Australia, December 2001

Innovations

in

Materials

and

Surface

Engineering through Simultaneous Multiwavelength and Pulsed Laser Processing

Kuruvilla A. Cherian*1, Pravin Mistry2 and Rustum Roy3
1

Chief Scientist & Vice President of Research, QQC Inc., 12825 Ford Road, Dearborn, MI 48126, USA 2 President, QQC Inc., 12825 Ford Road, Dearborn, MI 48126, USA 3 Evan Pugh Professor Emeritus, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16801, USA ________________________________________________________
Application of simultaneous and pulsed lasers to materials processing offers exciting possibilities. Judicious selection of operating parameters for different types of lasers operating simultaneously facilitates synthesis of new, ultrahard and metastable phases, and helps achieve phase transformations not possible normally through mono laser processing. Novel materials and surface engineering technologies are being developed based on this innovative approach, to process various types of commercial components with distinct advantages. ____________________________________________________________________

Introduction
Laser technology has made rapid strides in the past 25 years. This has led to laser processing becoming an effective manufacturing tool in the production lines of several industries. The increasing demands of economy, performance and reliability on components have made industries such as automotive and domestic goods _____________________________________________________________________ * Author for correspondence. Email: kuruvilla.cherian@usa.net

manufacturing already recognize the role laser processing can play in meeting these, and have adopted it in their manufacturing processes. Others such as aerospace, shipbuilding, etc. are engaged in various stages of investigation and adoption of the technology. Benefits of the technology, in comparison with conventional manufacturing processes, include increased productivity, improved product quality, increased design and production flexibility and reduced manufacturing costs. With the availability of lasers of different wavelengths and energy output, various laser-manufacturing processes have become practical possibilities. Each of these usually employs a specific type of laser most suited for a specific process. The energy/power and wavelength limits of a single laser could limit the types and range of laser-material interaction possible; however, the recent development of novel multiplexed laser processing technologies have widened the scope of laser processing, offering practical results that are extremely difficult or virtually impossible to obtain with single laser approaches. This paper deals with some aspects of successes achieved with innovative approaches involving simultaneous multi-wavelength and pulsed laser processing.

Laser processing technology

Many different types of lasers are available now, and their output characteristics such as energy/power and wavelength usually determine their use. Energy/power of the laser beam, together with its wavelength, govern the material / surface modification process likely to occur during laser processing. The term energy is usually applicable to lasers operating in a pulsed mode, defining quantity of energy in the time unit of pulse length. The term power is usually applicable to lasers operating in a continuous mode (CW). The laser wavelength is very important in materials processing. For example, longer wavelength infrared lasers usually modify a surface by heating it locally, and by thermal degradation break the bonds; shorter wavelength ultraviolet lasers, on the other hand, usually modify surface with the UV wavelength interacting with the actual bonds of the material itself. The important factors for laser materials surface processing therefore are: 1. Laser wavelength and operation mode (CW or Pulsed).

2.

Laser energy/power density amount of power/energy over a given area at the surface. Laser interaction time laser speed over the surface including pulse length/time and repetition rate for pulsed lasers.

3.

Types of Lasers for Surface Engineering

Though there are several types of lasers offering various energy/power and wavelength characteristics, in practice there are three main types offering sufficient output for effective materials surface processing on the industrial scale. Carbon Dioxide Laser The CO2 laser has output in the region of 10,600nm towards the far IR, and may be pulsed or CW with power ranges typically up to 6kW (CW) and higher. The lasing action involves rotation-vibration energy levels and this type of laser is used for laser induced chemical reactions, and materials processing. Surface modification generally occurs by heating effects, with energy density, interaction time and the specific wavelength absorption characteristics of the material governing the outcome. Neodymium YAG Laser The Nd:YAG laser has output in the region of 1064nm in the near IR, and can be pulsed or CW with energy/power up to around 50J (pulsed) or 3kW (CW). This falls in the category of solid state lasers based on optical transitions in transition metal ions embedded in a transparent host ionic crystal or glass. In this case too, surface modification generally occurs by heating effects, with energy density, interaction time and the specific wavelength absorption characteristics of the material governing the outcome. The shorter wavelength enables it to be focussed down to a smaller spot, compared to CO2 laser radiation, allowing more precision in processing; it is also better absorbed by metal surfaces. Unlike CO2 laser radiation, the Nd:YAG laser radiation can travel through glass, thus enabling the use of optical fibers to guide the beam through long distances to any precise location. Excimer Laser There are different types of excimer lasers, depending on the type of gas used in the system to achieve the laser action. Output wavelength is in the 200-400nm region in

the UV, and is pulsed with energy up to around 670mJ. In this case laser action is achieved via excimers combination of two atoms that survive only in the excited state, and hence the name. This is useful for breaking chemical bonds and photoablation. A combination of photon interaction and heating effects cause surface modification effects. The specific wavelength absorption characteristics of the material and the laser-material interaction time govern the outcome. In addition to wavelength, energy density and interaction time, another important factor influencing the outcome of laser processing is the interaction environment. This influences the laser propagation, its coupling with the material and also the chemical and physical changes which take place. Depending on the laser operating parameters, pyrolytic or photolytic processes could occur near the surface; this could bringing in additional atomic species to be involved in the surface modification process. For the pyrolytic process to occur, the wavelength of the laser is chosen so that it is transmitted by the gaseous environment and absorbed by the substrate; the substrate surface heats up locally and reactant gases impinging on this could be thermally decomposed, yielding resultant species to partake in the surface modification process. For photolytic process to occur the laser wavelength is chosen such that it is absorbed by the gaseous molecules in the environment; this could lead to non-thermal dissociation of the molecules, yielding resultant species to be involved in the surface modification process. Lasers operating in pulsed mode can also be used to selectively induce compressive residual stresses in metal surfaces. This does not involve the direct heating of the metal surface, but rather, involves directing a laser beam pulse onto an opaque overlay applied to the area being treated. When the laser beam pulse hits, a portion of the overlay is vaporized creating an expanding gas release, which is further heated by the laser pulse. A pressure-induced shock, or stress, wave can thus be created at the surface and transmitted through the metal. When the maximum stress of the shock wave exceeds the dynamic yield strength of the metal a compressive residual stress is produced. The magnitude of the stress wave can be amplified by constraining the gas release with a laser transparent cover. These factors have been used to develop a host of innovative materials processing and surface engineering technologies; in some cases, existing technology has been

improved upon significantly while in other cases, entirely new technologies have been developed. These include laser cutting, laser drilling, laser free-form fabrication, laser heat treatment melting and transformation hardening, laser micro machining, laser shock hardening, laser surface alloying, laser surface cladding, laser surface coating, laser surface coating removal, laser surface enhancement, laser surface sensitization, laser surface smoothing, laser surface texturing, laser welding, etc. an excellent exhaustive handbook on laser materials processing has recently been with published by the Laser Institute of America..

Innovative Approaches
Numerous surface modification processes involving many material phases with great technological potential have been sought to be developed by various groups worldwide. However, only limited successes had been obtained in several cases, such as those for metastable superhard phases. For example, though diamond and diamond like coatings were found possible on a limited scale with single lasers, the growth rates achieved had been too small to develop it into a successful practical technology. It is in this connection, that the advantages of multi-wavelength laser processing became first evident. It was outlined above how the nature of chemical species present, temperature or pressure at localized regions of the surface being treated may be controlled by operating the laser under specific parameters and conditions. The situation changes drastically, however, when there are several lasers operating simultaneously, the operating parameters for each chosen judiciously so that one controls the type of chemical species available, another the temperature and another the pressure, etc. Mini high pressurehigh temperature cells may thus become operative under specific operating conditions of the lasers, which open up a plethora of possibilities. Various degrees of successes have been achieved for various materials and commercial components, and further developmental efforts are in progress. Some of the very spectacular results will be dealt with below.

The QQC Diamond Breakthrough

In 1995 QQC Inc (Dearborn, Michigan) announced at the Applied Diamond Conference in Gaithersburg, MD organized by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), a radically new process for diamond deposition utilizing a combination of various pulsed lasers, performed at atmospheric pressure and with CO2 and N2 as shrouding gases [1]. There were several unique advantages of the QQC process: neither vacuum nor H2 gas was needed, growth rates up to about 1/sec had been achieved on WC cutting tools, and the coating formed a strong metallurgical bond with the substrate leading to excellent adhesion characteristics [24]. Thus several constraints, of single laser diamond processes, conventional diamond CVD and other novel diamond crystallization processes [5-7], to large scale and commercially significant applications of diamond and diamond-like carbon coatings (DLC) were overcome. Three types of multi wavelength and pulsed lasers Excimer, Nd:YAG and CO2 with specific operating characteristics and suitably configured for simultaneous operation with the required computer controlled robotics and processing environment are necessary for the QQC process. A complex sequence of physico-chemical effects come into play as the result of the simultaneous application of multi-wavelength and pulsed laser energies. Under such conditions, the reaction milieu could consist of a combination of photolytic, pyrolytic, resonant and quantum interference phenomena. Intense local surface energy could activate exchange reactions between dissociated source reaction gases and mobilized substrate constituents; intense shock effects resulting from the pulsed lasers, together with thermal spike effects, could enable the formation and stabilization of unique metastable and ultra-hard phases such as DLC and diamond. Specific combination of laser energies, when directed simultaneously at a substrate under suitable conditions, help mobilize, vaporize and react a constituent (primary) element, such as carbon, contained in the substrate so as to modify its composition or crystalline structure, and to diffuse the modified component back into the substrate. This leads to the formation of a coating of diamond or DLC on the substrate with a functionally gradient conversion zone immediately beneath, which transitions metallurgically from the coating composition to the original bulk

composition of the materials being processed. This results in excellent bonding and characteristics between the bulk and the coating. An example of QQC diamond film on WC is shown in fig. 1.

Figure 1. An example of QQC diamond film on WC.

The lasers create flat plasma near the substrate surface. Constituent and secondary elements on the surface of the substrate and the flat plasma optionally extend around the edges of the substrate to form the coating. Pre-treatment and coating can be performed in conjunction with one another (in-situ). Certain advantageous metallurgical changes are induced in the substrate due to the pretreatment, such as Co removal from a WC/Co phase. The processes (pre-treatment and coating) are suitably performed in ambient, without preheating the substrate and without a vacuum. Key advantages of the QQC diamond process over existing technology have been listed as follows: The process is carried out in atmosphere, without the restrictions of a vacuum chamber. Controlling movements of the lasers or work piece can coat virtually

any size or configuration. Operations such as coating continuous wire, fiber or coiled stock are possible. Pretreatment and / or preheating of the substrate is not required, permitting coating of the substrate of as-manufactured components and elimination of wet chemistry pretreatment. Only carbon dioxide is used as a primary / secondary source for carbon with nitrogen acting as a shield and possible stoichiometric process ingredient. This supplants the use of dangerous gases such as hydrogen and methane, critical ingredients in the CVD process. Deposition rates are dramatically increased, with linear growth rates upto 1 micron per second as opposed to 1 - 5 microns per hour via CVD and other processes. This is a key economic factor in commercialization of the process. The process is viable for various substrate chemistries. Cobalt content limitations for CVD require special striated substrates for tungsten carbide cutting tools, which can compromise the inserts toughness. The multiplexed laser process can accommodate any percentage of cobalt without poisoning the diamon d synthesis. In some cases post deposition polishing of the diamond surface is desirable to improve the finish. This reduces the friction of cutting inserts, bearings and wear surfaces. The QQC system accomplishes non-contact polishing, in-situ, eliminating the very expensive post deposition mechanical polishing that might otherwise be required. Selective deposition is an added dimension of the multiplexed laser diamond synthesis process. Coatings can be applied to discrete areas or in a pattern on the work piece. For example, automotive intake and exhaust valves may have different properties requirements on either end of the stem. Each can be coated as required in one coating cycle. Unlike CVD, process parameters can be changed automatically to control crystal size, orientation and morphology. The system can produce tetrahedrally bonded non-crystalline carbon, diamond like carbon, other super-hard coatings, diamond composites and a host of other coatings to achieve desired properties.

Perhaps most importantly, the system is production engineered to facilitate economical coating of production components with 24 hour unmanned operation. Coupled with its high rate deposition, the computer controlled system is capable of in-line integration with existing industrial processing such as, coating cylinder walls on an aluminum cylinder block machining system, or in a computer chip fabricating system (chip fab). Considering the configuration of the lasers used, the QQC process is also referred

technically as Simultaneous Multiple-wavelength and Pulsed Laser (SMPL) process. The simultaneous lasers used in the original process were Excimer, Nd:YAG and CO2. The SMPL process has been recognized as one of the biggest developments in materials synthesis in a generationand the amazing thing is that it was done entirely as part of a production, not a research, process[1]. While single laser materials processing has been in practice at numerous laboratories worldwide for 25 years, simultaneous multiple-wavelength pulsed laser processing (SMPL) is a relatively recent and original US-QQC innovation whose potential is now beginning to be realized and investigated by German and Japanese groups. (8,9). QQC Inc., have subsequently developed simultaneous multi-wavelength and pulsed laser processing (SMPL) technologies for modifying and enhancing a range of engineering materials and components. The process is unique in that it involves simultaneous multiplexed lasers, and the results obtained are fascinating. Numerous commercial applications have been and are being established for this technology, and there is tremendous potential for its use in defense-related applications as well. Recognizing the tremendous potential of the QQC-SMPL process, the Office of Naval Research has been funding the Penn State Materials Research Laboratory (MRL) to develop a scientific understanding of the process and mechanism(s) involved.

Innovative Advanced Materials Processing Technologies

The significance of the QQC-SMPL process goes far beyond diamond and DLC coatings. The physical and chemical mechanisms operating during SMPL processing depend on the properties of the laser(s) and parameters used, the material being processed and the processing environment. The laser characteristics such as

Figure 2. Schematic of the QQC process.

wavelength, pulse energy, pulse duration, etc., and composition of the processing environment can be chosen to suit a particular application involving specific material phases and systems. Laser energy from a combination of up to three types of lasers, viz. Excimer, Nd:YAG and CO2, are used in the process, as illustrated in Fig. 2. The output beams are directed through a nozzle, which also delivers an inert shielding gas to shield the reaction zone. Additional similar or dissimilar secondary elements may also be introduced into the reaction zone through the nozzle, if necessary, to augment the fabrication, change the coating composition or modify the process for other specific applications. A specialized cell with automated robotic arm and enclosure for treatment of specific parts and components are depicted in fig. 3. Currently, the QQC-SMPL process is being successfully developed further into novel advanced manufacturing technologies capable of: i) Non-contact machining, such as shaping, forming, drilling, polishing and texturing, of components.

ii) Joining parts by welding or brazing. iii) Treating or enhancing surfaces and features of components by cladding, sintering, carburizing and nitriding. iv) Surface modification / engineering of a range of materials metallic, ceramic and polymers.

Figure 3. A specialized QQC processing cell.

The QQC-SMPL technologies have been found to yield results that were not possible earlier, or improve by several factors results that were doable through single laser processing. While several exciting results are undergoing detailed investigation, the following have been published, in addition to the diamond results mentioned earlier: Deep surface transformation and cladding of net shape commercial steel parts by simultaneous multiple pulsed radiation has been investigated. Preformed commercial parts are hardened and/or toughened, and/or clad with TiC improving performance by at least one order of magnitude. Two examples have been detailed: punches for aluminum can production and a ferrosilicon alloy fuel injector nozzle [10-12]. In the latter case, it was found that the QQC-SMPL process resulted in a

50m layer of a noncrystalline phase, in the middle of the work piece. Another successful example of simultaneous multiple laser process induced phase transformation has been reported in ZrO2 ceramics: structural transformation induced from tetragonal to cubic phase.

Figure 4. Aluminum to Aluminum Nitride Conversion Treatment for: enhanced wear resistance erosion resistance and corrosion resistance

Figure 5. QQC Treated Ophthalmologic Blades Composite metal/nanodiamond with antiglare treatment for: low friction, low penetration forces and enhanced durability Treatment thickness 200 Angstroms

Figure 6. Composite TiB2 cladding of Hot Forging Tooling: used and worn (left), remanufactured (right), for working temperature in excess of 1400 oC. Advantages: Reduction in use of Hot Forging lubricants Elimination of steam erosion Elimination of thermal fatigue and cracking Reduced hot metal diffusion and erosion Enhanced material flow 10x life improvement Figs. 4-7 show examples of real commercial products processed with QQC technology. These are but some of the various materials and surface engineering results achieved with QQC technology. An important aspect of the technology was realized through characterization of QQCs treatment of golf club heads. Testing confirmed that clubs coated with the QQC process produce longer and straighter drives. With the optimization of the process, QQC analyzed treated clubface material and confirmed that significant changes to the substrate material were as important as the chemistry at the surface. The QQC process was in fact achieving a solid-state phase transformation of the stainless steel, which produced an extremely dense, nano-scale martensitic structure with similarly sized spinels. This results in extremely tough and elevated material properties allowing less face deformation and its attendant influence on ball spin. Extrapolating the increased strengthening of materials as a by-product of QQCs coating processes could have broad implications for many components. Strengthening of the substrate material has proven benefits. QQC treatment of high-speed steel (H.S.S.) cutting tools reportedly delivers performance comparable to carbide while retaining the greater shock abuse resistance of H.S.S.

As received

QQC treated

Figure 7. QQC treatment of Boeing drills: Grinding marks, burrs, heat treatment defects, removed with QQC process Results in enhanced edge-strength, enhanced lubrication, enhanced chip removal, 15x performance enhancement QQC has licensed or is entering into strategic partnerships to exploit its technology with major global firms for applications to extremely high volume manufacturing of electronics components, surgical instruments, golf clubs, other sporting goods and powertrain components.

Innovative R&D through Industry-University (QQC-Penn State MRL) Collaboration

After the initial announcement of the discovery of the QQC-SMPL process for diamond coatings on WC at the 1995 Applied Diamond Conference in Gaithersburg, QQC linked up with the Diamond-related Materials Research group at the Penn State Materials Research laboratory led by Professor Rustum Roy to develop a scientific understanding and thorough characterization of the process and its products. QQC provided the initial funding and diamond coated WC tool samples. On realizing the potential of the new technology, the Office of Naval Research (ONR) stepped in subsequently and extended research-funding support to Penn State MRL to understand the science involved in the QQC process. This has resulted in the confirmation of the QQC discovery and several research papers dealing with aspects of the process and resulting product characteristics (3, 4, 10-15)). With the development of QQC-SMPL technologies for other metallic, ceramic and polymer systems, several samples of various material types and compositions have been provided to Penn State MRL by QQC, in support of the research effort to understand the mechanism(s) involved in simultaneous multi-wavelength and pulsed laser processing. The Penn State Materials Research Laboratory group led by Prof. Rustum Roy, with ONR support, continues to be involved in efforts to understanding the science involved in the various SMPL technologies developed at QQC. Three major clusters of goals have been proposed for understanding the novel effects of simultaneous multi-wavelength and pulsed lasers in materials processing. These may be summarized as: SMPL process for diamond and diamond composites This includes extension of QQC findings, with a possible goal of fabrication of free standing diamond films and control of particle size to nano size and eventually to noncrystalline sp3 phase. Use of other metal carbides and nitrides for metal-diamond composites is also being studied. SMPL process for metal transformation and hardening This includes studying the effect of simultaneous lasers on the coupled pressure wave and thermal transport, induced rapid diffusion of small atoms, microstructure

development

and

micro-scale

deformation

in

various

metallic

systems.

Amorphization of Fe-Si alloys and martensite creation at mm depths in conventional steels, achieved at the QQC facility, are also being studied. SMPL process for rapid phase transformations in solids including ceramics and polymers This includes possibility of synthesis of new and high-pressure phases, and crystalline to glass transitions of materials by the combined shock and thermal effects induced by simultaneous multi-wavelength pulsed lasers. Ceramic and polymer modifications achieved at the QQC facility are intended to be replicated and studied. In all these cases, detailed characterization of the plasma and the material in various stages of the processing is also intended, to understand and explain the possible mechanisms involved.

Conclusions
A key innovation in materials and surface engineering has been achieved by the QQC-SMPL process, which enables materials processing and surface engineering of pre-formed parts. This process involves the judicious selection of operating parameters for three types of lasers (Excimer, Nd-YAG and CO2). A revolutionary diamond deposition technique was developed which does not require a vacuum, H 2, or special chemical or physical pretreatment of the WC substrate, and uses CO 2 and N2 as shrouding gases in the open. Crystalline diamond films, Diamond-like carbon and nano-diamond-metal composites have been formed on various substrates. When coating WC substarates, the entire surface pre-treatment and material synthesis process is performed in one step. The process has been extended to various other materials systems and processes for industrial components as well. Preformed commercial steel parts are hardened and/or toughened, and/or clad with TiC or other material, improving performance by at least one order of magnitude. Under certain conditions of QQC-SMPL processing, decrystallization effects - transformation from crystalline to a noncrystalline phase have been observed in metals. Application of simultaneous multiple wavelength and pulsed laser process thus opens up several

new and exciting possibilities that are normally not possible through single laser processing.

Acknowledgement
The support of Dr. R. Pohanka, Materials Division, Office of Naval Research, to Penn State MRL is gratefully acknowledged.

References
1. 2. Report: New Technique Boosts Diamond Film Production in: Chemical & Engineering News, January 22, 1996 Mistry, P., Turchan, M.C., Granse, G.O. and Baurmann, T. 1997. NewRapid Diamond Synthesis Technique: Using Multiplexed Pulsed Lasers in Laboratory Ambients. Material Research Innovations, 1, 149-156. Badzian, A., Roy, R., Mistry, P. and Turchan, M.C. 1997. Laser Approaches for Diamond Synthesis: The QQC Process. Proceedings of the International School of Physics Enrico Fermi Course CXXV, 195-208, Paoletti, A. and Tucciarone, A. (eds.) IOS Press, Amsterdam. Badzian, A., Weiss, B.L., Roy, R., Badzian, T., Drawl, W., Mistry, P. , and Turchan, M.C. 1998. Electron field emission from diamond grown by a multiple pulsed laser process. J. Vac. Sci. & Tech. B, 16, 1184-1187 Angus, J.C. and Hayman, C.C. 1988. Low-pressure, metastable growth of diamond and ``diamondlike'' phases. Science, 241, 913-921. Cherian, K.A. 1991. Nickel-assisted metastable diamond formation (surface recrystallization) in a dissolution medium at atmospheric pressure. Surface and Coatings Technology, 47, 127-143. Zhao, X-Z, Roy, R., Cherian, K.A. and Badzian, A. 1997. Hydrothermal growth of diamond in CMetal-H2O systems. Nature, 385, 513-515 Naegeler, S., Wetzig, A., Scholz K., Bonss, S., Brenner, B. and Beyer,E. October 2000. Innovations in Laser Hybrid Technology: The Combination of CO2 and High Power Diode Laser. Presented at: 19th International Congress on Applications of Lasers and Electro-Optics, Dearborn, MI, USA. Matsunawa A., Mizutani, M., and Katayama, S. October 2000. Melting Characteristics of Metal by Combined Laser Beams with Different Wavelengths. Presented at: 19 th International Congress on Applications of Lasers and Electro-Optics, Dearborn, MI, USA. Mistry, P., Turchan, M.C., Roy, R., Gedevanishvili, S. and Breval, S. 1999. Deep surface transformation and cladding of net shape commercial steel parts by simultaneous multiple pulsed laser radiation. Material Research Innovations, 3 (1), 24-29 Badzian, A., Roy, R., Drawl, W., Breval, E., Badzian, T., Mistry, P. and Turchan, M.C. 2000. Phase transformations induced by pulsing multiple laser fluxes. Presented at: International Conference on Metallurgical Coatings and Thin Films, April 9-14, 2000, San Diego, CA, USA Roy, R., Badzian, A., Breval, E., Badzian, T., Mistry, P. and Turchan, M.C. 2000. Simultaneous multiple pulsed laser (SMPL) induced transformations in ZrO2 ceramics. Journal of Materials Chemistry, 10, 2236-2237. Roy, R. 2000. A Successful Revolution in Laser SMPL (Simultaneous Multiple-wavelength Pulsed) Processing and Competition from Penn State Microwave Sintering. Keynote address at: Laser Applications in the Department of Defense Conference, September 2000, The Pennsylvania State University, Roy, R., Badzian, A., Mistry, P., Turchan, M.C. and Cherian, K.A. 2000. Diamond Coatings by a Simultaneous Multiple Pulsed Laser QQC Process. Presented at: 55 th Annual Forum, Pennsylvania Ceramics Association: Meeting Technological Needs Through Industry-University Partnerships, September 2000, The Pennsylvania State University, Roy, R., Badzian, A., Mistry, P., Turchan, M.C. and Cherian, K.A. 2000. Surface Modification and Cladding of Steels, Ceramics and Polymers by the QQC Process. Presented at: 55 th Annual Forum, Pennsylvania Ceramics Association: Meeting Technological Needs Through Industry-University Partnerships, September 2000, The Pennsylvania State University,

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