How Does A Metal Oxide Distribution Arrester Work?

POWER SYSTEMS, INC.

Reprint of a Series of Articles from Ohio Brass

Chapter One

How Does a Metal-Oxide Distribution Arrester Work?

One in a Series

The comments in this series apply to Ohio Brass Type PDV and PVR arresters.

he distribution class surge arrester is the most widely used of all arrester classifications. This high volume has held the cost to a level where, even in areas of relatively low thunderstorm activity, distribution surge arresters can be used to protect every pole top distribution transformer. In some cases of higher isokeraunic levels, distribution class surge arresters are also used for line protection and are installed periodically along the distribution line. Arrester design advances and progress have allowed for continued improvements in reliability and safety. The polymer-housed MOV distribution class

surge arrester is an excellent example of this trend toward higher reliability and safety. The polymer-housed arrester offers a lower failure rate and higher safety because of its leakproof design and its non-fragmenting characteristics.

Arrester Function
The reason for applying an arrester is to provide overvoltage protection for electrical insulation, thereby maintaining high service reliability levels. It is worthwhile to discuss how the distribution class surge arrester performs this function. The principal of the polymer-housed MOV distribution class surge arrester is quite simple. It is a device which is electrically connected in parallel with insulation needing protection. The polymer-housed distribution class metal-

oxide surge arrester is connected line to ground in parallel with this equipment. Therefore, it has a high resistance at the arresters normal 60-cycle operating voltage. As shown in Figure 1, the resistance of the metal-oxide arrester elements is a function of the voltage which is applied to them. At normal operating voltages, the resistance of the metal-oxide blocks is extremely high. The MOV arrester essentially behaves as an insulator at these voltages. Under a surge condition, the resistance of the metal-oxide varistors drops dramatically and the arrester permits the surge to be diverted to the ground while providing equipment protection. The current which flows through the arrester is the discharge current, and the voltage which is developed across the terminals of the metal-oxide arrester is

MOV arresters depend on the nonlinear resistance characteristics of their blocks for suitable discharge and continuous operating capabilities.

Figure 1 3

called the discharge voltage. Since the arrester is in parallel with the insulation, the discharge voltage of the arrester plus the voltage drop in the arrester leads equals the stress level to which the insulation is subjected. The voltage developed in the lead wires will be discussed in a later chapter of this series. After the discharge current has passed through the arrester and the voltage returns to normal system operating voltage, the arrester again has a higher resistance. The arrester then reverts to the mode where it essentially behaves as an insulator.

Arrester Design and Manufacture

The metal-oxide arrester components are housed in an ESP rubber housing. The rubber housing provides an external electrical insulation for the internal components, and it also protects them from the effects of the elements. The ESP rubber housing prevents moisture from entering the arrester, causing an arrester failure. This is accomplished by a seal on each end of the arrester plus a live silicone interface between the internal elements and the rubber housing. The amount of internal air space inside a polymer-housed MOV distribution arrester is quite small compared to a porcelain-housed arrester. Therefore, the possibilities of moisture ingress are reduced or eliminated. Studies have indicated that nearly 90% of all porcelain-housed distribution arrester failures have been a result of moisture ingress. The metal-oxide varistors in the Ohio Brass distribution class arresters are manufactured in our high-volume facility in Wadsworth, Ohio. This facility is dedicated exclusively to the manufacture of metal-oxide varistors. The metal-oxide varistors consist

primarily of zinc-oxide, with approximately 5% of the remaining material consisting of various metal-oxides forming a boundary around zinc-oxide grains. These boundary regions give the metal-oxide varistor its nonlinear characteristics. (For more information on this please contact Ohio Brass.) The metal-oxide ingredients are processed to a powder state and then this powder is pressed to the necessary diameter to match the application. The metal-oxide varistors are fired in controlled-atmosphere kilns at temperatures over 2000F. The sides of the finished metal-oxide varistors are covered with an insulating electrical

collar and the ends are given a metalized surface for electrical contact. This finished arrester component is referred to as a metal-oxide varistor. Ohio Brass manufactures normal duty polymer-housed MOV arresters (PDV65) and heavy duty distribution polymerhoused MOV arresters (PDV-100). The primary differences between these designs are in the energy handling capability and the discharge voltage levels (protective levels) of these designs. The PDV-65 uses a metal-oxide disc 32mm in diameter and the PDV-100 uses a disc 40mm in diameter. These differences will be discussed in more detail in later chapters.

In the remaining chapters in this series, we will discuss other factors which are pertinent to distribution arrester application including ANSI Standard Terms and Tests, lightning phenomenon, testing of metal oxide varistors and assembled metal-oxide distribution arresters both in the factory and in the field, hardware accessories which are available for distribution arresters, protection of underground distribution systems, the effects of lead length, and other factors that should be considered in the evaluation and application of distribution class surge arresters.

Chapter Two

How Does a Metal-Oxide Distribution Arrester Work?

One in a Series

Design distribution arresters for protection against surges

To fully understand how distribution and riser pole arresters perform their functions, it is important to understand something about the nature of surges on the power system. The most common surges on the distribution system are from lightning. Therefore, in this installment, we will examine lightning and its characteristics. Lightning, completely unpredictable in most ways, is the most destructive of all elements associated with thunderstorms. Generated by massive thermal instability of the atmosphere, thunderstorms represent violent examples of convection whereby huge layers of the atmosphere are disrupted and overturned. Isokeraunic maps published by the government indicate the average number of thunderstorm days per year for areas of the United States. One thunderstorm day is defined as "a day on which thunder is heard." One thunderstorm day could be one lightning stroke or it could be hundreds of lightning strokes. On the average, rural transmission lines in areas with an isokeraunic level of 30 thunderstorm days per year can expect to experience approximately one lightning stroke per mile per year. There have been recent advances in the field of lightning detection and measurement. In fact, maps are now being made that are useful in determining the ground flash density. The entire nation is being monitored by The State University of New York Lightning Detection Network. Electric power lines are particularly vulnerable to lightning. Utilities in areas of average or high isokeraunic levels often report lightning as the primary cause of service interruptions and damage to equipment. Conductors,

PDV-100 Arrester, 9 kV Unit.

towers and poletop equipment all have the attributes which make them attractive targets for lightning. Lightning invariably seeks the easiest path between positive and negative charged centers of the storm area, even if such paths add substantial length to the strokes. We know when lightning strikes a power line, there is a zone extending to each side of the actual stroke where the lightning voltage may greatly exceed the insulation level of the line and flashover to ground will occur instantaneously. Simultaneously, traveling waves are generated in the conductors on either side of the stricken point. These traveling

waves have two components: voltage and current. The voltage magnitude is equal to the current magnitude multiplied by the surge impedance of the line and is less than the flashover voltage of the system insulation. These surges travel along the overhead line at about 1,000 feet per microsecond (the speed of light). As much as possible must be known about the wave characteristics of the lightning surge in order to devise effective protection. This is a field in which scientists have made notable progress, and design engineers are able to separate lightning surges into a distinct category in relation to the broad

spectrum of overvoltage surges. A typical lightning surge has an extremely steep wave front, which means that its voltage is rising at the rate of millions of volts per microsecond; in fact, 15 percent of strokes crest in less than one microsecond. The steep wave front is followed by a short wave tail, which means that after crest voltage is reached, surge voltage diminishes to half crest value in less than 200 microseconds and completely dissipates in less than 1000 microseconds. The unpredictability of lightning reasserts itself in attempts to classify stroke dimensions, however, since it is

Isokeraunic map prepared by the National Weather Service with hatched areas indicating thunderstorm days per year.

Rural transmission lines in areas with 30 thunderstorms days per year can expect to experience approximately one lightning stroke per mile per year.

an established fact that many lightning strokes are actually multiple discharges, one stroke following another along the path of the initial stroke. In contrast to the explosive short-duration stroke described as typical, there are occasional, relatively long-duration strokes. The development, testing, and correlation of insulation with lightning protective devices has been facilitated by adoption of a standard 1.2/50 voltage wave as representative of impulse surges. In the 1.2/50 wave, voltage crest is reached in 1.2 microseconds and the wave decays to half crest in 50 microseconds. High-voltage testing laboratories, such as at Ohio Brass, have developed surge generators which can stimulate lightning strokes, producing not only the 1.2/50 waves, but also the steeper-front waves with which arresters are tested for equivalent front-of-wave as specified by standards. While lightning is usually considered synonymous with extremely high voltage, it is the current component in

the lightning stroke which is the measure of its effect on a stricken object. The instant a voltage-sensitive device such as a metal oxide arrester goes into a high level of conduction, it becomes a current-carrying path of relatively low impedance for the duration of the surge discharge. Major components of the arrester's protective characteristics are determined by its performance in discharging the surge current. Extensive and elaborate scientific investigations have been made to measure and record lightning stroke currents. A tremendous range has been reported, varying from lows of 1000 amperes to highs of more than 200,000 amperes, again emphasizing the unpredictability of lightning. Probability patterns of lightning stroke currents have been ably discussed in several of the technical references of the industry; but for the arrester application engineer, the pertinent information can be consolidated into a statistical graph which compares stroke currents to transmission

lines and to towers with discharge currents through distribution and station arresters. This analysis shows that currents through arresters are only about one-tenth the total stroke currents, but it is significant to note that less than five percent of distribution arrester currents exceed 10,000 amperes. Discharge currents through distribution arresters are noticeably greater than those recorded through station arresters because of their normal installation on unshielded overhead lines. The destructive power of lightning is well documented. The use of distribution and riser pole surge arresters provides a higher power quality level to the utility customer. The surge arresters are not only used to protect equipment such as transformers and cables, they are also in use to protect the air around line insulators on unshielded lines reducing lightning caused interruptions. This results in better power quality and this is the primary goal.

Insulation flashover and traveling wave on a power line. Traveling wave voltage is equal to the current magnitude multiplied by the surge impedance of the line.

Statistical data compare tower stroke currents with station and distribution arrester currents.

Chapter Three

How Does a Distribution Class Surge Arrester Work?

One in a Series

ANSI/IEEE Standard C62.11 describes the relevant laboratory tests for distribution class surge arresters.
ANSI/IEEE Standard C62.11, developed by IEEE, with input from users, producers, and those with general interest, is the major industry reference document pertaining to metal-oxide surge arresters. The major objectives accomplished by C62.11 are: 1. The definition of terms unique to the arrester field 2. Establishment of standard and nonstandard service conditions 3. Requirement of uniformity in certain construction aspects, such as nameplate data and terminal sizes 4. Description of electrical test by which conformance to standards can be demonstrated 5. Formulation of a group of design tests which can be duplicated by properly equipped electrical laboratories to serve as a basis for arrester ratings and classifications 6. Assignment of minimum ratings in the design test categories where such ratings are appropriate and reasonable The scope of C62.11 IEEE/ANSI Standard is defined as applicable to surge protective devices, having the capability for repeated limiting of voltage surges on 50/60 Hz power systems by discharging surge current and automatically resealing against system continuous voltage. This standard applies to station, intermediate,

distribution and secondary classes of metal-oxide surge arresters. The portions of the standard that relate to metal-oxide distribution class surge arresters are included in this discussion. Service conditions as described in the standard relate to both physical and electrical aspects of the arrester. Conditions are described as standard where the ambient temperature does not exceed 40C and the altitude is not above 6,000 feet and the power system frequency is limited to 50/60 Hz. Conditions exceeding these limits and including unusual circumstances of contamination or clearances are termed nonstandard and require special consideration in the form of recommendations from the arrester manufacturer. The standard defines MCOV (Maximum Continuous Operating Voltage) ratings of the arresters as well as dutycycle voltage ratings. The standard also defines the relationship between the duty-cycle voltage rating of the arrester and the MCOV assigned to an arrester. Table 1 shows the standard duty-cycle voltage and MCOV voltage ratings of distribution arresters. The tests developed to evaluate relative performance of distribution class surge arresters are: (1) Housing withstand test (2) Power frequency sparkover test (3) Discharge current withstand test (4) Impulse sparkover voltage time characteristics (5) Discharge voltage test (6) Duty-cycle test (7) Radio influence and internal ionization voltage test (8) Disconnector test

(9) Contamination test (10) Fault current withstand test In this issue we will examine in detail the housing withstand and the discharge current withstand tests.

Table 1
Arrester Ratings in (kV) rms
Duty-Cycle Voltage 3 6 9 10 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 36 MCOV 2.55 5.1 7.65 8.4 10.2 12.7 15.3 17.0 19.5 22.0 24.4 29.0

Insulation Withstand Test Requirement

A surge arrester is known as a "selfprotecting" device. During the discharge of a surge the arrester limits the voltage to a level below external flashover level. Therefore, an external flashover of a surge arrester during a discharge is prevented. To ensure that the external insulation

10

of the surge arrester is commensurate with the remaining insulation on the system, IEEE/ANSI Standard C62.11 defines housing insulation withstand test requirements. The test standard specifies requirements for an impulse test and 60 Hz wet and dry tests. The 60 Hz wet and dry tests are especially important since the arrester spends its service life under 60 Hz conditions. Under the test conditions outlined in the standard, the voltage withstand test of the arrester insulation demonstrates that the assembled insulating members of the arrester can withstand the values listed in Table 2.

Discharge Current Withstand Tests

The discharge current withstand tests are performed to demonstrate the arrester's ability to discharge various types of surges and remain physically intact, thermally stable and capable of performing its protective function. The discharge current withstand tests are critical to determining the durability of a surge arrester. The two tests which make-up the discharge current withstand capability portion of the test are the low-current long-duration test and the high-current short-duration test.

The requirements for the discharge current withstand portion of the standard test series vary depending upon the durability designation of the surge arrester. There are two types of distribution class surge arresters. These are the normal duty and the heavy duty surge arresters. The high current short duration test requirements for these types are as follows: The normal duty arrester must withstand two discharges of 65 kA with a 4-6/10-15 wave. The heavy duty distribution class surge arrester must withstand two discharges of 100 kA with a 4-6/1015 wave. The test is performed on complete arresters or on thermally prorated sections of the arrester without 60 Hz voltage applied. The two discharges are spaced such that the arrester section cools to ambient between discharges. Within five minutes of the second discharge the surge arrester must be energized at its maximum continuous operating voltage (or higher if required by the arrester design) and must demonstrate thermal stability. Thermal stability is demonstrated by a decrease in temperature, resistive current or watts loss. The 60 Hz voltage must be maintained on the arrester for at least 30 minutes.

Table 2
Insulation Withstand Test Voltages
rms Duty-Cycle Voltage Rating of Arrester (kV) Impulse Test 1.2/50 Full Wave (kV) Crest* (BIL) 60 Hz rms Test Voltage (kV) 1 min Dry Test 1 min Dry Test 3 6 9 10 12 15 18 21 24* 25 27 30 36* 45 60 75 75 85 95 125 125 150 150 150 15 21 27 27 31 35 42 42 70 70 70 13 20 24 24 27 30 36 36 60 60 60

* Insulation values are not covered in standards.

11

The low current long duration portion of the discharge current withstand tests are also performed on complete arrester

or on thermally prorated sections of the surge arrester. The parameters for the normal duty

The oscillogram below shows the 60 Hz voltage and current wave shape at the end of the thermal stability test. End of Thermal Stability (100 kA)

2.09 kV

5.82 kVp

0.25 mA 5 ms/major division

0.38 kAp (resistive) 0.49 mAp (total)

Test Results The following oscillogram shows the l00kA discharges. The downward deflecting trace represents the current wave form and the upward deflecting trace represents the prorated sample discharge voltage.

28.3 kV

104 kA

distribution class surge arrester are 20 discharges of 75 amps with a duration of 2,000 microseconds and for the heavy duty arrester 250 amps with a duration of 2,000 microseconds. As with the high current short duration test after the conclusion of the low current long duration portion of the test series the surge arrester must demonstrate thermal stability. The discharge current withstand test series allows the arrester to demonstrate that it has the capability to withstand surge currents of both long and short duration and remain intact and functional. In addition to the thermal stability requirements there is also a requirement for stability of protective characteristics. To ensure the arrester protective ability has not been impaired, the protective levels of the arrester at 10 kA may not increase by more than 10 percent at the conclusion of this test. Ohio Brass publishes booklets with design test reports for PDV-65 normal duty and PDV-100 heavy duty distribution class arresters. These design test report booklets include copies of oscillograms which detail the results of the test described in this section. In the next issue we will continue to examine the series of design tests which apply to distribution class surge arresters and will take a look at how these relate to the arresters ability to perform its function.

6/14

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Chapter Four

How Does a Distribution Class Arrester Work?

One in a Series

ANSI/IEEE Standard C62.11-1987 Describes Relevant Laboratory Tests For Distribution Class Surge Arresters

In this segment, we will continue our

look at the design test requirements for distribution class surge arresters as well as how these test requirements relate to the ability of the arrester to perform its primary function. The primary function of the surge arrester is protection of utility equipment against overvoltages. In this issue, we will examine the: (a) The duty cycle test, (b) The discharge voltage test, (c) Impulse sparkover voltage time characteristic test.

Discharge voltage test set up with prorated sample in impulse generator.

Duty Cycle Test

The duty cycle test is performed to ensure the arrester will support its duty cycle rated voltage while discharging lightning surge currents. The duty cycle test voltage is a 60 Hz voltage in excess of the MCOV rating of the surge arrester. The duty cycle test is performed by energizing the surge arrester at its duty cycle rated voltage and subjecting it to a series of 20 discharges. In the case of the normal duty distribution arrester, the magnitude of these discharges is 5 kA with an 8/20 wave. The discharges are spaced one minute apart.

For the heavy duty arrester, the surges are 10 kA with an 8/20 wave followed by an oven preheat to 60C. The arrester then receives two additional discharges of 40 kA, while energized at MCOV. These additional discharges at the higher current level are to ensure the durability which users have come to expect from a heavy duty product. After completion of the duty cycle series, the arrester is energized at the MCOV rating and is monitored to ensure thermal stability. After the completion of the duty cycle test, the protective characteristics of the surge arrester are measured to ensure the arrester will perform its function as designed.

Discharge Voltage Test

A surge arrester protects equipment from lightning surges. Therefore, the measurement of the voltage developed by the arrester when it discharges is critical. This measurement is performed during the discharge voltage portion of the test sequence. The discharge voltage of a prorated arrester section using the appropriate diameter varistors is measured. A prorating factor is then applied to the

13

measured values to determine the discharge voltage of arresters made from this same type of varistor. This test helps to assure the manufacturers cataloged discharge voltages for the arrester will not be exceeded. The test is performed on the prorated section by measuring the 1.5, 3, 5, 10, 20 and 40 kA discharge voltage using an 8/ 20 wave. In addition to the 8/20 wave discharge voltage, the fast front characteristic of the arrester is also measured. This is done by using a current wave that causes the arrester discharge voltage to crest in .5 ,sec. For the heavy duty distribution class arrester, this current wave has a 10 kA magnitude, and for a normal duty distribution class surge arrester, it has a magnitude of 5 kA. The discharge voltage (therefore, the protective level) of the arrester solely determines its protective characteristics if the arrester is a gapless design. If the surge arrester includes an internal gap, then additional tests must be performed. This testing includes determining if the protective level is defined by the gap sparkover or the varistor discharge voltage.

Technician monitors discharge voltage test, analyzing oscilloscope results.

Impulse Sparkover Test

The impulse sparkover test is performed to ensure the gapped distribution class arrester's protective level is adequately defined for the end user. The voltage impressed on the protected equipment is the higher of the metal-oxide varistor element discharge voltage or the gap sparkover.

The impulse sparkover test is performed by taking a prorated sample of arrester elements including the metaloxide varistors and the gap. The test is conducted using various voltage wave shapes and the sparkover of the gap element is measured at these wave shapes. The protective level which then must be used for insulation coordination is the higher of the metal-oxide varistor discharge voltage or the gap sparkover. The end user is able to compare the arrester protective characteristics with the insulation to determine if the arrester selected is suitable for the application. If the protective level of the arrester is too high to protect the equipment, then the user has the option of selecting a different class of arrester. This includes

the option of using a riser-pole type arrester, intermediate or station class arrester. In the next installment, we will complete our examination of the design tests which are appropriate for distribution class surge arresters.

14

Chapter Five

How Does a Distribution Class Arrester Work?

One in a Series

ANSI/IEEE Standard C62.11-1987 Describes Relevant Laboratory Tests For Distribution Class Surge Arresters

Radio Influence and Internal lonization Voltage Test

The surge arrester is continuously energized with a 60 Hz voltage. If a solid electrical Figure 1 contact is not Cross-section of a ground lead disconnector maintained throughout the surge arrester, it will have result in radio influence voltage (RIV). ANSI C62.11 requires testing of the internal ionization which may result in arrester design with a circuit in accordegradation of the internal elements. Also, this internal ionization can result in dance with NEMA Standard LA- I . The arrester must have an RIV/IIV level of radio and television interference. Loose 250 microvolts or less. This voltage is external hardware connections can also measured at 1000k Hz with the arrester energized at 1.05 x MCOV. All Ohio Brass PDV surge arresters are factory tested at 1.176 x MCOV. The arrester must exhibit an RIV/IIV of 10 microvolts or less.

In this installment, we will complete

our look at design testing of distribution class surge arresters. The tests that will be covered are: 1. 2. 3. 4. Radio influence and internal ionization voltage test Disconnector tests Contamination test Fault current withstand test.

Disconnector Tests
Today's polymer-housed MOV surge arresters have a very low failure rate. They are still subject to system-generated failures. The majority of arrester failures occur with the arrester becoming a short circuit to ground. If a shorted arrester remains connected to the line, it is not possible to reenergize the line. The disconnector serves to disconnect a failed arrester from the line. This serves two purposes. It allows the line to be put back in service and allows the failed arrester to be identified for future replacement.

15

Fault Current Withstand Test

Since surge arresters fail as line-toground short circuits, they will conduct system fault current after failure. The fault current withstand test is performed to verify the surge arrester will not fail in a manner that will cause large internal parts to be violently expelled. The test sample is preshorted by one of the two methods prescribed by standards. The shorted arrester is then energized on a circuit with a given available fault current. (The standard does not specify currents and durations.) Additional test samples are tested at higher currents until the maximum value claimed by the design is verified. The values achieved by Ohio Brass PDV arresters are summarized in the table below: The test program consists of three separate tests. The first test is a voltage excursion test with a total of 32 test cycles at voltages from MCOV to duty cycle voltage. The second test is a five hour contamination test. This test is performed by 20 separate applications of contaminant solution. Between contaminant applications, the arrester is energized at MCOV. At the conclusion of the test, thermal stability is verified. The final contamination test is the partial wetting test. This is performed by contaminating the bottom units of a multiple unit arrester. Thermal stability is verified at the end of the test series. Ohio Brass PDV arresters comply with all Contamination Test Requirements.

Figure 2 Curve of Detonation The disconnector must not operate under any normal service condition. All design tests must be performed with the disconnector installed on the sample. The disconnector operation characteristic must also be verified. This is done by subjecting samples to rms currents of 20 through 800 amps. The time for the disconnector to operate is plotted as a function of current. The detonation time-current curve for the Ohio Brass PDV arrester is included in this article.

Table I
Fault Current 500A 2500A 5000A 10,000A 20,000A Allowable Duration (cycles) PDV-65 PDV-100 120 120 60 60 30 30 10 10 N/A 10

Contamination Tests
Gapless MOV arresters are resistant to contamination failures. ANSI/IEEE Standard C62.11 requires an external contamination test be performed on the arrester to verify contamination resistance.

This concludes our discussion of design tests required by ANSI/IEEE Standard C62.11-1987. In the next issue, we will look at the various factory tests used to verify the quality of metal oxide varistors and assembled polymer arresters.

16

Chapter Six

How Does a Distribution Class Arrester Work?

In the last several issues we have looked at design tests required on distribution arresters. Design tests provide a measure of the arrester's capability, but they cannot verify the quality of the finished arrester as manufactured. To ensure the quality of the arrester, a series of factory tests are performed on the metal oxide varistors and the arrester itself. These tests are in excess of any required by today's industry standards. The metal oxide varistor blocks used in all Ohio Brass PDV arresters are made in a dedicated plant in Wadsworth, Ohio. The varistors are used in arresters that are subject to direct lightning strokes. It is important to verify they will withstand the type of duty they will see in the field. Each varistor receives an 8120 current surge that ~subjects the varistor to its rated energy. ANSI Standards do not require this type of testing. However, the Ohio Brass 100% energy test recognizes the unique environment in which the PDV arrester operates. One of the most important characteristics of a distribution arrester is the discharge voltage. To assemble an arrester with the proper total discharge voltage, the discharge voltage of each varistor must be measured. Every PDV-100 (heavy duty arrester) varistor has the 10 kA discharge voltage measured. The PDV-65 (normal duty arrester) varistor has a 5 kA discharge measured. The discharge voltage of each block is stamped on the metallized face.

An blocks receive an 8/20 classifying current shot. The batch and m data is printed on each block.

In addition to the above tests which are performed on every varistor block, a number of tests are performed on a sample of blocks from each batch. These are briefly described below: 1. Square Wave EnergyA sample of varistors are tested using a switching surge type waves of successively higher current. These blocks are taken to the point of failure. This test is used to verify the energy rating of the varistors. 2. High Current TestPDV-100 varistors are tested at 100 kA and PDV65 varistors at 65 kA. This testing verifies the high current strength of the varistors. 3. AC TestThe watts loss and capacitive currents of a sample are measured. These are measured to ensure the batch is within the design limits for the arrester. 4. Accelerated Aging TestA sample of each batch is energized at MCOV at 1 30C for 250 hours. This test is equivalent to energizing the arrester in service for over 100 years at 40C, per IEEE/ ANSI C62.11-1987. After all testing is completed on the blocks, they are shipped to Aiken, South Carolina, for assembly into arresters.

All finished arresters receive two electrical tests. Each arrester is tested for RIV at a voltage equal to 1.176 x MCOV. The arrester must test at ten microvolts or less. A starting voltage test is performed. This is a measure of the voltage at which the arrester begins to conduct. This test is a final check on the assembly. It assures the arrester has been energized at least at MCOV before it is shipped. For more information on these tests, please request OB publication EU1150HR1 for PDV-100 and EU1281-H for PDV-65 arresters from your Ohio Brass customer service representative. In the next issue, we will look at lead length effects.

RIV and starting voltage tests performed on all PDV arresters.

Life tests performed at elevated temperatures on sample blocks from each batch.

17

Chapter Seven

How Does a Distribution Arrester Work?

The selection of the best arrester for a given application can be negated by poor installation practices. The length and configuration of the line and ground leads is critical in determining the amount of equipment protection available. This chapter will examine the effects of voltage drop in the leads on protective margins. Surge current flowing through the leads causes an inductive voltage drop. The voltage in the lead is calculated by the formula: di dt There is always a voltage drop in the lead wires. This voltage does not always add to the arrester discharge voltage. For lead wire voltage to count in protection, it must carry surge current and be electrically in parallel with the equipment the arrester is protecting. Ohio Brass publication EU1202-H covers various connection methods in much greater detail. Request a copy of it from your OB representative. We will look at the protective margins achieved by an 8.4kV MCOV PDV-100 arrester protecting a 95kV BIL transformer. Figure 1 shows the insulation coordination curve for this application. The insulation coordination curve gives a graphical method of showing the relationship between the transformer insulation strength and the arrester protective level. Both of these are a function of the time it takes for the voltage to crest. The transformer can withstand a higher voltage for waves that have a voltage that crests in a short time. You can also see that the arrester allows a higher voltage to be developed for fast rising waves. The protection level is the sum of the arrester discharge voltage and the voltage drop in the lead wire. We need to determine the protective level of the arrester/lead wire combination. The arrester discharge voltage comes from the catalog. In this example, the coordination current will be 10kA. The 10kA-8/20 discharge voltage of the arrester is 32kV. Now add the voltage drop from the lead wire. The voltage is:

V=L

You really do not have to do calculus to calculate this voltage. For a straight lead wire, the inductance is .4H/foot. If the lead wire is coiled, the inductance can be much higher. This can really hurt the protective margins.

.4x10-6 H/ft x

10x103A =500V/ft 8x10-6 Sec

18

The total protective level at the 8/20 current level (transformer BIL) is: 32+(.5kV/ft) (6ft)=35kV The margin is:

The protective margin (Figure 2) is: -1 x 100 = 4.9% [ 110.00kV ] 104.9kV This is a small margin. It is easy to see how important it is to keep the leads as short and straight as possible! Utilities will often look at insulation coordination when selecting arresters and use the full insulation strength of the transformer. As the transformer ages however, the BIL and other insulation levels will likely reduce. A reduction of at least 20% is considered typical. The protective levels of MOV arresters do not increase with duty. This also was not true for silicon carbide designs. We will look at the protection if the insulation levels have reduced by 20%. Figure 2 shows the resulting protective margins. At the BIL the margin is: -1 x 100 = 117% [ 76kV 35kV ]

and the fast wave margin is: 88kV -1 x 100 = 16.1% [ 104.9kV ] Therefore, for the fast front the insulation strength is well below the protective level. The leads must be shortened or eliminated. The effect of the line and ground leads can be reduced if the connections are made properly. The lead wire from the phase conductor should go to the arrester before going to the high voltage bushing of the transformer. The voltage in the lead coming to the arrester does not contribute to the voltage stress on the insulation. The ground connection should be made to the tank of the transformer to minimize the lead effect. This article shows dramatically how much the improper lead wire connection can affect performance of a complete system. In the next issue we will look at the effects of the continuous power loss of the surge arrester.

95kV -1 35kV

x 100 = 171%

Next we need to consider the fast front characteristics. The arrester 10kA .5sec IR is 36.5kV. For MOV arresters the current crests in about 70% of the time to voltage crest. Therefore the current crest is .35sec. This value is coordinated with the transformer chopped wave strength. The chopped wave strength is approximately 15% higher than the transformer BIL. The voltage drop in the lead is: .4x10-6 H/ft x 10x103A =11.4kV/ft .35x10-6Sec The total protective level is:

36.5kV + 11.4kV/ft) (6ft) = 104.9 (arrester) (lead wire) (total) The voltage drop in the lead is significantly higher than for the 8/20 wave. This is a result of the much faster time for the current to crest.

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Chapter Eight

How Does a Distribution Arrester Work?

Watts Loss and You
In this series we have studied how a distribution arrester works. We have reviewed the important tests and product characteristics. Another important trait of all MOV surge arresters is the continuous power loss resulting from leakage currents. All MOV arresters, even todays gapped units, conduct a leakage current. In fact gapped units can be expected to conduct higher leakage currents and generate higher power losses than gapless arresters. The power loss in MOV arresters results from continuous leakage current at MCOV. This power loss has several implications for utility engineers. Power losses affect: 1. The operating and total ownership cost of the arrester. 2. The thermal recovery of the arrester after experiencing high energy duty. The power loss of the arrester can be affected by the processing methods and the ingredients in the MOV and by the amount of the MOV material used. The MOV block can be developed to have a low power loss which will affect the shape of the MOV volt-amp curve. Also the amount of MOV used in the arrester can be reduced to improve the discharge voltage but this may result in higher power losses. losses. These include such factors as fuel costs, time value of money, operating life, etcetera. The usual method of determining these factors is based on the EEI method. These factors are expressed in $/Watt of power loss. The no-load factor is commonly known as the A factor and the load losses are the B factor. The distribution arrester engineer will not need to calculate these factors if the utility already evaluates transformer losses since these factors are already available from the transformer standards group. The A factor is applied to the losses of the surge arrester. To evaluate the long term operating costs of the surge arrester, the engineer will need to determine the average watts loss of the designs under consideration. This information should be supplied readily by the manufacturer of the arrester. For reference, the average watts loss of the Ohio Brass PDV-100 arrester is .018 watts/kV-MCOV. Therefore, for an 8.4kV MCOV PDV-100 heavy duty arrester the average loss is .151 watts [(.018 watts/kV-MCOV)*(8.4kVMCOV)]. The manufacturer of the arrester should be contacted for information on the average power losses. We have performed tests on some other designs and the results of the random samples tested are summarized in Table 1. arrester with lower impedance silicon carbide grading elements in parallel with the gap assembly. The silicon carbide grading circuit in this hybrid arrester allows for a higher continuous current flow than is found in similarly rated gapless designs. The power losses combined with the A factor allow the utility to calculate the effect of the losses on the ownership cost of the arrester. Power loss A factors at most utilities are below $10.00/Watt. If we use a conservative value of $2.50/Watt applied to an 8.4kV MCOV arrester the above losses translate to the operating costs over the life of the arrester shown in Table 2.

TABLE 2
Arrester Type Operating Cost ($) Ohio Brass PDV-100 .38 Type Y (gapless) 1.22 Type X (gapless) 1.28 Type Z (gapped) 4.20 Depending on the first cost of the surge arrester, these additional operating costs can have a significant impact on the total ownership cost of the arrester.

Thermal Recovery and Long Term Aging

When a surge arrester experiences high energy duty such as a high current lightning stroke, the MOV blocks absorb energy. The temperature of the blocks can rise significantly as a result of the discharge duty. MOV blocks exhibit a negative temperature coefficient in the operating voltage region of the volt-amp curve. Figure 1 is a typical volt-amp curve for a gapless MOV arrester. The negative temperature coefficient is apparent from the fact that at higher block temperatures the MOV elements conduct more current. Since the blocks conduct more current they become hotter and then will conduct even more current. If this condition continues without the excess heat being removed the arrester will experience thermal runaway.

Operating and Total Ownership Costs

The power loss of the MOV surge arrester results in a cost to the utility. The utility industry has evaluated the power loss of distribution transformers for many years. The same type of economic analysis can be applied to arresters. There are two types of losses that are evaluated for transformers. These are the no-load (or core) losses and the load losses. The no-load losses are always present and are independent of the system loading conditions. The load losses vary as the system load fluctuates. The continuous surge arrester losses are comparable to the no-load loss of the transformer. A utility that evaluates losses of transformers will determine two cost factors associated with these types of

TABLE 1
Arrester Type Average (Watts/kV-MCOV) .018 .058 .061 .200

Ohio Brass PDV-100 Type Y (gapless) Type X (gapless) Type Z (gapped)

This table shows that not all power losses are the same. It also shows the extremely high power losses of the gapped type arrester. This high loss may come as a surprise to some so an explanation may be in order. The high losses of the gapped arrester result from replacing some of the high resistance MOV elements in the gapless

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A well designed surge arrester will never experience thermal runaway for any reasonable set of circumstances. The excess heat being generated by the blocks is dissipated by conduction and convection through the housing and end hardware. Figure 2 is a typical curve showing the rate of power generation (of the MOV blocks) versus the rate of heat dissipation (of the housing). A polymer arrester with blocks in contact with the housing will provide better heat transfer than a design relying on convection. In service the arrester will reach equilibrium at a temperature slightly above ambient. When it discharges high energy duty the block temperature rises. As long as the temperature remains below the upper equilibrium point the arrester will slowly cool back to equilib-

rium. The Ohio Brass PDV arresters are designed to remain thermally stable after being subjected to two rated energy discharges within one minute. The energy rating of the PDV-100 is 2.2 kJ/ kV-MCOV and 1.4 kJ/kV-MCOV for the PDV-65. The curve in Figure 2 is based on the assumption that the arrester has the highest watts loss blocks that would ever be used in that design. The lower the initial watts loss, the more likely the arrester will be thermally stable. Designs that have higher losses can still be thermally stable, but depending on the magnitude of the losses special heat transfer methods may be required. Also as the MOV blocks age, there is long term effect. This is why the design tests call for an accelerated aging test.

(However, the standard does not require one for production. Ohio Brass does such a test on each batch of MOV blocks.) If the watts loss of the arrester increases with time, the arrester watts generated curve can shift up as shown in Figure 3. This will result in a reduced upper thermal equilibrium temperature. (The Ohio Brass surge arrester actually has decreasing watts over time which helps to make it more stable.) The arrester design test requires that any thermal recovery tests after high energy duty simulate any increase in watts loss resulting from aging effects. An increasing watt loss will also affect the economic analysis of the cost of the losses. The economic calculations are based on the assumption that the losses are constant. In the specific case of the Ohio Brass arresters this is very conservative since the losses of these arresters decrease. This means that the loss costs will be even lower than calculated.

Summary
The power losses of MOV arresters have economic and performance effects that need to be considered by the utility engineer. To do an effective job of evaluating the losses, data must be gathered on the average watts loss and the long term aging performance of the arrester. This information should be available from the supplier of the surge arrester.

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Chapter Nine

How Does a Distribution Arrester Work?

Hardware Attachments For PDV Surge Arresters
To optimize surge protection, it is important to properly position the surge arrester near the protected equipment. System reliability may also be compromised by animal contact to the energized terminal of the arrester, so proper selection of hardware options is critical. This article explains the mounting and hardware accessories that are available for Ohio Brass arresters to obtain maximum benefit. The table below describes the standard hardware items which are available on Ohio Brass Type PDV arresters. The hardware described in this table is suitable for the PDV-100 (heavy duty) and PDV-65 (normal duty) surge arresters. Ohio Brass PDV arresters are specified by the six digit catalog number which describes the MCOV (maximum continuous operating voltage) rating of the arrester. For example the PDV-65 arrester 8.4 kV MCOV is Catalog Number 217259. However, this six digit catalog number is not sufficient to completely specify the surge arrester. In addition to the basic arrester the optional hardware attachments which are required must also be specified. The optional hardware attachments are specified by the use of a four digit suffix code beginning with the Number 7. The three digits following 7 specify the top end hardware, the mounting hardware, and the bottom end hardware. For example, if you need an 8.4 kV MCOV PDV 65 arrester with a nut, wire clamp and protective cover on the top end, the insulating base bracket and NEMA crossarm bracket as the mounting attachment and the isolator, washer, terminal nut and nut as the lower end hardware, then this arrester would be specified by code 217259-7324. In response to market requests, Ohio Brass is now offering a flipper fuse holder accessory kit. This is available by specifying 76XX code series. A drawing of the components is shown in Figure 1. This concludes our series on how MOV distribution arresters work. The entire series is being reprinted and bound into Ohio Brass publication number EU1377-H. If you would like a copy, please contact your Ohio Brass representative.

*Must be ordered in conjunction with codes 7060 and 7070. **Transformer Bracket 11 " for 8.4 kV MCOV and below and 7-1/2" for 10.2 kV MCOV and above.

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2004

Hubbell

EU1377-H
A&J 1/01