Culture and Race Ethnicity Bolder, Deeper, and Broader

American Academy of Political and Social Science
Culture and Race/Ethnicity: Bolder, Deeper, and Broader Author(s): John D. Skrentny Source: Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 619, Cultural Sociology and Its Diversity (Sep., 2008), pp. 59-77 Published by: Sage Publications, Inc. in association with the American Academy of Political and Social Science Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40375795 . Accessed: 14/05/2013 04:31
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Cultureand Race/Ethnicity: Bolder, Deeper, and Broader Keywords: ethnicity; race;culture; globimmigration;
alization; inequality
in the sociology The role of cultural of race, analysis and immigration variesacrosssubjectmatter. ethnicity, ithas been marginalized for reasons, Primarily political in the studyof ethnic/racial inequality, thoughnew in thisimportant It workis reclaiming culture context. ofdiscrimhas an unacknowledged presencein studies in macroandhisanddomination, butis explicit ination This article thesesubfields and torical studies. surveys makesa call forbolder,deeper,and broadercultural in the field.More workis needed on cultural analysis and discrimination how inequality assimilation, prohowethnic and racial duce racialand ethnic meanings, in concepinterests variations cultures affect through howsending oflife, statecultures tionsofthemeaning and ethnicculturesin the United affectimmigrant immiis Americanizing States,and how globalization homelands. before evenleave their they grants
By D. SKRENTNY JOHN
in thesociological roleofculture study fieldof and the related of race,ethnicity, but unevenly. is growing steadily immigration inone as a strategy haslagged Cultural analysis variation areasofresearch: central ofthemost in socioeconomic racial/ethnic between groups culfor reasons, Here, political largely mobility. The tends tobe a "lastresort" ture explanation.
is a professor of sociologyat the JohnD. Skrentny San Diego. He is theauthor of ofCalifornia, University The Minority (Harvard University RightsRevolution Action Press 2002) and The Ironies of Affirmative of Chicago Press 1996) and the editorof (University Color Lines (University of Chicago Press 2001). His articles have appeared in American Journal of Sociology, Annual Review of Sociology, and International Review,amongothers.He is Migration the recipientof awards and fellowships from the the Social ScienceResearch Foundation, Guggenheim Centerfor Council, and the PrincetonUniversity HumanValues. wouldliketo thankRichard NOTE: The author Alba, Tomas Amy Binder,John Evans, David Fitzgerald, Lee, and Daft Jimenez,Michele Lamont,Jennifer or assistanceon earlier Punk for helpfulcomments drafts.
DOI: 10.1177/0002716208319761
2008 ANNALS,AAPSS,619, September
59
60
THE ANNALS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY
in thisarea has been to analyze or racialcultures forscholars ethnic challenge without on for their Although putting responsibilitydisadvantaged groups plight. it is a cultural has also laggedin studies of discrimination and racism, analysis in the and studies of construction as well as assimilation there, growing presence ofracial andcategories. meanings of race and ethnicity Fromthe perspective the study of cultural sociology, I should should be bolder, and broader. mean that bolder, sociologists deeper, By This in not shyawayfrom and assimilation. cultural achievement questions the nature the of in and role culture ethnic and racial requires assessing inequality and ofAmerican I mean ethnic culture. that we should Bydeeper, analyze possible of life itself as this racial variations on "existential" the may meaning questions I meana truly comvariations andpatterns. playa roleinobservable Bybroader, in relation to and globalapproach thatsees American ethnic parative patterns other societies as andunderstands American by shaped immigrant groups possibly and thecultures of their An issuein all of theseareasis theexistence origins. ofintrinsically I amlessconcerned herewith thenature ethnic orracial cultures. I boundoretical than with matter, meanings, approach subject though emphasize as andrepertoires tounderstand howracial culture andethnic matter, aries, might wellas a basicinsight culture interests. from cultural analysis: shapes on ofthefield allowonly a focused overview concentrating Space limitations in thekeyliteratures which show mentioned all the American above, context, I thenoutline an agendafor thefield ofprominence ofculture. varying degrees tobecomemore for areas that seem cultural, emphasizing especially ripe cultural analysis.
The Sociology ofRace and Ethnicity in the UnitedStates:KeyQuestions

The field ofrace and ethnicity has fewdirect roots to theclassical theorists. and Weber the most s on Tocqueville provide insight. Tocqueville(1990)writings based on in observations 1831 and focused on black and conrace, 1832, slavery with flict intheUnited American Indians areimpressively but States, perceptive often articulated his view: blacks and Indians neglected. Tocqueville trenchantly suffered from white whites blacks self-hatred andstripped them tyranny; taught oflanguage, and American Indians faced and religion, family; genocide; slavery wouldendbutbe replaced Crow" norms ofdomination. Weber devoted by"Jim little attention to raceand ethnicity butoffered a definition thatendures: "We shallcall'ethnic those human that in entertain a belief groups* groups subjective their common descent becauseofsimilarities ofphysical or of customs or type orbecauseofmemories ofcolonization and migration" both, (Weber1968,389; see Cornell and Hartmann a discussion). [2007]for Theseare useful butcompared to other fields suchas religion, contributions, and the classical theorists did not American capitalism, politics, give sociologists much tobuildon. Moreover, theAmerican with raceandethnicity, so experience
CULTURE AND RACE/ETHNICITY
61
defined theslaughter ofAmerican Indians, overwhelmingly bybarbarous slavery, of andthedramatic mass seemed intheworld and experience immigration, unique theories and not derived from sources. American concepts European required rosetotheoccasion, with du Bois(1903/2005) onthelegacies sociologists focusing ofslavery andPark and and Thomas Znaniecki more to (1950) (1984)contributing thestudy ofimmigrant The of the American incorporation. uniqueness experience, - -despite hasled thefield theglobal ofdu Bois,Park, and however, perspectives - totend an almost Thomas andZnaniecki toward U.S. focus. parochial ofthefield continue to comeout oftheAmerican The keyquestions today and American with racial ofrace oppression immigration. sociologists experience on the of racial/ethnic focus and ethnicity dynamics inequality, providtypically aboutrace,and ofincome, discrimination, education, publicopinion ingstudies on howimmigrants marked Theyalso concentrate poorneighborhoods. racially also various in United often life the to (the States, inequalities addressing adapt is taking assimilation of inequalities reduction place). These subjects suggests in part becauseoftheir thecoreofthefield, be considered longtraditions, may from receive considerable and in partbecausethey support majorinstitutions, Council. andtheSocialScienceResearch theRussell SageFoundation especially in include these studies The dominant analyses, quantitative methodologies andeconomists. demographers, bysociologists, performed regression, especially interviews and ethnomosttypically are qualitative studies, Equallyprominent studies and race. of the at to Many experiences ethnicity subjective graphies, get thetwomethods. combine with sciunites ofresearch strand morerecent Another political sociologists are on how races It focuses and scholars. historians, legal entists, anthropologists, historimore is and and constructed, dominated, defined, typically categorized, in are moremacro theseworks studies ofinequality, Unlike cal in methodology. in or sometimes over racial of at look and hierarchy longperiods patterns scope remote history.
CultureIs theLast Resort Achievement: Explaining

achievement or educational in economic variations or racial ofethnic Studies Witha few of race and of the center the been at havelong ethnicity. sociology in variations ethnic of the as such (e.g.,Light entrepreneurship study exceptions, of subfields behind other inthis areahaslagged cultural 1972),however, analysis rather than for This is 1960s. the since research sociological primarily political culture tobring recent havemadeimportant scholars reasons. However, attempts inwhileavoiding pitfalls. political Thepolitical explanation ofcultural implications avoidcultural scholars that Patterson Orlando (2006)has argued explanations blame that cultural becauseofmisconceptions: ofracialinequality explanations
62
culthevictim; andthat that are deterministic, they turning peopleintorobots; in and turedoes notchange. economics Patterson out scholars singled Although the of "culture the of Oscar Lewis the science, (1969), political originator ghost and Small ofpoverty" has haunted thesociology ofpoverty (Lamont argument, and of Most also the and achievement. simply forthcoming) sociology ethnicity - especially a lack cultural Lewisargued that andvalues ofthepoor put, practices - keptthem inpoverty. ofvalueon achievement commitThe misconceptions Patterson notedarose in partfrom political in 1965 ments. of cultural of black The politics explanations poverty exploded Patrick Daniel whenthe so-called named after the author, Moynihan Report, leaked to the a social assistant of was scientist and labor, Moynihan, secretary and stahad black that that the family press. slavery destroyed Moynihan argued created an backble families werekeyto upward Press accounts angry mobility. black lashfrom thosewhobelievedMoynihan forpolicy to remake was calling and families thus rather black than (and culture) simply jobs (Rainwater provide ethnic or racial The showed that for 1967). Yancey identifying controversy many, cultural andpractices is bad becauseitblames beliefs that contribute to poverty thevictim, and blaming thevictim is bad becauseit implies is no shared there for ethnic 1997). (Patterson responsibility inequality for themarginality One might add another reason tothose listed byPatterson inthis ofculture to ethnic culture werevery subfield: someearly invoke attempts weak.Steinberg cultural to attack used (1981/1989) argucomparative analysis oriented and ments that he called"ethnic areacademically myths" (e.g.,that Jews of were Catholics are not).He showed that cultural theories achievement many in skill basedon faulty different andeducathat are similar assumptions groups tionlevels. In thisview, was onlya trait rather culture that types, peoplehad in varying than a constitutive of their ethforce that defined themselves or elements groups nicworlds. Thisviewfit culwellwith of where quantitative analyses inequality, ture is often a residual variable. to to culture thus learned Sociologists only appeal - after as a lastresort all ostensibly for noncultural factors to explain controlling in achievement, variation social suchas human economic capital, opportunities, other and "structural" variables. the cultural Left, capital, Mostly neglected by of black or Latino poverty of the Right became the province explanations Hein (Patterson 1997; 2006). culture without thevictim Analyzing blaming In this itwasa boldmove ofa whenWilson environment, (1987),a supporter welfare thereality andindependent effects ofcerstate, generous acknowledged taincultural suchas a tendency toward tardiness or absenteeism at work, traits, whenexplaining thepoverty oftheblack"underclass." In a later Wilson work, cultural to show that detrimental (1996)usedsophisticated sociological concepts behavior can becomeentrenched and self-reproducing. Wilsonalso However,
63
was externally created and uninteresting thatculture from thepointof argued He explained view ofraceandethnicity. that "culture is a response tosocialstructural constraints andopportunities" variations (Wilson 1987,61) andthat "group ingroup inbehavior, norms andvaluesoften reflect variations accesstochannels ofprivilege andinfluence" 1987,75). (Wilson - that culture haseffects butis decoupled from orrace,is Thisview ethnicity is and thus not as a focus of nota fundamental social cause, appropriate policy inother Forexample, Anderson new role works. discussed canbe found (1990,3) in theblackinner oflow-status models who,contemptuous jobs,arosedue city a of recent black to thelackof goodjobs; and Waters (1999) presented study in the of culture withered face continwhose away proachievement immigrants, a sociological as Thisapproach withdiscrimination. ual experiences represents from the and then back move: ittakes cultural wellas political explanations Right, is epiphenomenal. discussion becauseculture themfrom banishes Why policy ofpoverty, ifthose culcultures toward ordirect talk about culture, "fixing" policy this theconditions? tosocialandmaterial a response aresimply tures Moreover, orethnic cultures that racial thevictim avoided ofculture bydenying blaming ory in arises ofblocked a culture werein playat all. Rather, (somehow) opportunity Castellino and behavior to 2005). (Tyson, Darity, anypoorgroup shape assimilation" of"segmented is thetheory in thisapproach Prominent (Portes in three and Zhou 1993; Portesand Rumbaut 2001), whereimmigrants vary human factors, composition (e.g.,whether capital, family including background a group faces whether ofreception and context arepresent), bothparents (e.g., human Low as assistance receives whether it or racism caprefugees). significant will that an immigrant make itmore andracism broken families, ital, group likely but not the children the where "dissonant acculturation," parents, experience - assimilate intothe and control to understand difficult children their whofind this minorities. American of cultures" Although may appear poorer "oppositional are hereis onhowcultures infact thestress ofpoverty tobe a culture argument, in learned or are created but America to notbrought by groups by particular States. in the United conditions structural of classand or racialculture of ethnic Is a theory (as opposedto a culture to not does that in this context blocked appear blamethe possible opportunity) and the school context on is. that it work Carters victim? (2005) Focusing suggests culcultural from cultural of a variety concepts capital, including sociology, using between thedistinctions she examined and symbolic toolkits, tural boundaries, and the cultures students Latino and African American low-income of thecultures ofsolcultures students these that She schools. ofpublic positive develop argued and oththemselves between boundaries cultural and creating idarity distinction, the In Carters do this. in on how success ers.School analysis, they depends part tools to to are able who straddlers" the "cultural are successful most play deploy ofthepeergroup. rules as wellas thecultural oftheschool rules bythecultural as epiphenomewhoviewcultures from those herapproach Carter distinguished cultures ethno-racial their and Latinoyouths, American African nal:"For many
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areimportant sources ofstrength oradaptive andarenot reactive by-products merely oftheir in a stratified structure" positions opportunity (p. vii). is todiscuss Another andavoidblaming thevictim waytouse cultural analysis in ethnic theroleofculture success. Kao and Thompson or racialgroup (2003) educanoted that theories for Asian American cultural areprominent to account human tional which for remains distinctive evenafter success, capital controlling of middlevariables. and Lee (1999) assessedthecultures Neckerman, Carter, of classAfrican exhibit cultures that thesegroups Americans, showing "minority in or cultural and tools for and mobility," along moving upward strategies getting techa predominately white world thatmaymisjudge and repress them. Using or conspicuously for and support, dressing niquessuchas "caucusing" solidarity in particular minimize the and speaking their classstatus, they waysthatsignal of from treatment whites. impacts negative Otherrecent moveshavebrought to thestudy creative cultural arguments of disadvantaged minorities but do not use culture to explainachievement. in stores For example,Lee (2002) founda key role for"cultural brokers" ownedbyKoreanor Jewish in Harlem.These are blackemployees merchants who help blackimmigrants rather thanAfrican Americans) (though typically storeowners culunderstand black culture. Lee showed that these inner-city tural In brokers an in conflict. role dialog play especially important mitigating withRobertWuthnow, McRoberts(2003) analyzedthe cultural impactof inpoorneighborhoods, blackchurches that their "religious presence," arguing or theideas,rituals, and symbols on thatthey has a positive impact generate, association. Small to used cultural (2004) voluntary why neighanalysis explain borhoodpoverty is sometimes associatedwithlow social capitaland sometimes not.In hisview, inhowconducive are "frames" differ neighborhood they toparticipation; in thosewhofind their bestopportunities for mobility upward their are to to more hold frames conducive neighborhoods likely participation (p. 179).
. . . are making moreattempts to Sociologists understand thecultures ofethnic groupsin the contexts and poverty. ofinequality
are making moreattempts to understand the cultures of then, Sociologists, ethnic in thecontexts ofinequality andpoverty. it is a delicate groups Politically, and eventhemostexplicitly cultural accounts often avoiddescribing endeavor, ethnic or traceable to ancestral cultures, anyintrinsically internally generated that achievement. homelands, impact
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StudiesofRacial Domination
and specifically discrimination andracism, ofracial Scholars domination, typwithout that are doingso. make cultural arguments acknowledging they ically butstudies anahavecognitive and"stereotypes" components, rarely "Prejudice" or of as cultural them Similarly, explicitly phenomena systems meaning. lyze ofa system with as part ofpower share andracism discrimination studies defining of and the notions neoinstitutional rules, meanings, taken-for-granted theory for neoinstitutionalism seldom but these studies (see, example, engage scripts, Feagin1991;Feaginand Sikes1994). inpublic studies cultural We canalsofind opinion arguments unacknowledged as see attitudes which andracism, ofdiscrimination social-psychological typically in publicopinion racism" (Edles 2002). Consider theory "symbolic phenomena in tradias lacking viewblackAmericans Americans white In this studies. view, to defer and individual values suchas work tional ethic, gratresponsibility, ability - or moreprecisely, thesemeanings These attitudes ification. manyEuropean - arecorrelated topoliwith inAfrican Americans Americans opposition perceive thedriand Sanders blacks ciesto benefit 1996).In Bobos (2001)view, (Kinder blacksis nota liberal to benefit to policies white behind opposition vingforce Bobos viewseemsto white status. to threat a but Although perceived ideology becauseit is cultural has a it still interests, component strong group emphasize - a cognitive, white interthat drive cultural threat of phenomenon perceptions estsandattitudes 206). (p. in hisare morecommon to racialdomination cultural approaches Explicitly formaon theprocessof "racial Omi and Winant work. torical (1994) focused an as "simultaneously defined which itself basedon "racial tion," they projects," to effort and an racial of or dynamics, explanation representation, interpretation, Edles lines" racial resources redistribute and 56). (p. particular along reorganize is "a spewhich ofracism, in herdefinition front and center (2002) putculture or in which ... of kind ofracialized cific (implicitly explicitly) system meaning internal betweengroupsare assumedto reflect 'racial'differences physical are differences that these and differences, intellectual) orga(moral, personality, ofmeaning andhierarchically, nizedboth i.e.,racist suppose systems biologically toothareinnately somegroups onthebasisofgenetic that inheritance, superior ers"(p. 101,emphasis removed). rolein big-picture, ofculture models Similar comparativeplaya prominent and gender ofracial Glenn's domination. ofracial studies historical (2002) study and American in the labor and Southwest, South, domination citizenship through meanof racial creation the how and showed well this Hawaiicaptured approach hercomparaShe structured is an interactive domination process. ingsthrough - representation withthreemaindimensions tiveanalysis language, (symbols, micro-interaction raceandgender that andimages (focusing meanings), express the andsocialstructure onsocialnorms), (rules p. 12),showing power; regulating the and labor to control and race used different ways gender waysemployers for a framework Patterson subordinated (2005) presented groupsresisted.
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race stratification in different understanding partsof the African diaspora, in his a of suchas thekind ofslave factors, including analysis variety interacting African cultural the ethnic system present, geography, background, demography ofthehost andthenature shows ofEuropean culture. His approach society, why, for North America a mode" characterized example, produced "binary bytheoneof oppression, whiletheAfro-Caribbean modehas dropruleas an instrument raceas continuum, blackandbrown where dominate and politics thepropeople andplaya significant in a culturally fessions roleinbusiness pluralistic society. Thereis noobvious reason culture a clearandexplicit roleinmacro, why plays historical studies of racialdomination in studies ofthe whileit is often muted United States. Rather than the reason for concerns, likely contemporary political theabsenceofexplicit cultural in is that the this research is to analysis agenda document thatdiscrimination occursand to measure itseffects rather thanto understand howandwhy itoccurs.
The Social Construction ofRace

Work on theconstruction ofracial andidentities, which ormay may categories nothavea domination is in also cultural orientation component, (e.g., strongly and Hartmann see thecon2007). These studies Nagel 1994;Cornell typically - part struction of race and racialor ethnic as an interactive identity process assertion andpart which race or ascriptionthrough gains meaning significance. and Stamatov us tothink ofethnicity as a Brubaker, Loveman, (2004,45) invited in and exist and "Race,ethnicity, nationality only cognitive phenomenon: through ourperceptions, classifications, interpretations, representations, categorizations, and identifications. in theworld, but perspectives on the Theyare notthings - notontological world butepistemological realities." The statemaybe a keyactorin thecategorization (2002, process. Skrentny howpolicy makers' 2006) has shown cultural, cognitive processof analogizing some racialcategories AsianAmerican, American (Latinos, Indians)and even nonracial the as similar to African while (women, disabled) Americans, excluding others the in ofinclusion (white ethnics, gays/lesbians) shaped political dynamics this created minority rights programs. Regarding race/ethnicity, process panethnic that becametheAmerican states"official minorities." The statemay categories alsoplaytheroleofinstitutionalizing that aretheresult ofpolitical or categories evenscientific contestation. In hisanalysis ofhowpolitical led the U.S. pressure to require thatmembers ofdifferent racesbe included as research government in medical showed how the ofracial studies, (2007) subjects Epstein categories and mobilization also came to serve as for scientific belonging political categories Atthesametime, he considered howthis newattention to thebiology purposes. ofracial difference alters thebroader of in race U.S. meanings society. works such as theseare mostly abouthow political However, processes - createracialmeanings. movements and the state Lamonts(2000) analysis of blackandwhite in men the United States and France shows how working-class
67
or moral lifethesemendrawsymbolic boundaries that in everyday specify posiIn the U.S. to racialmarkers. and assignmoralmeanings tionin relationships bothuse moralcriteria to distinguish thatblacksand whites case, she found are morelikely to use a standard of"thediscifrom others. Whites themselves work on the other and ethic. which Blacks, integrity emphasizes plinedself," with use self as a more to "the are standard, hand, looking disaplikely caring or in those consider on exploitative lacking compassion. they proval where raceis a dependent areby ofrace, Studies oftheconstruction variable, be into can nature cultural. This their brought fruitfully (currently) approach very to showhowraceis constructed areasofthefield lesscultural everyday through and domination whichmay includediscrimination social interaction, (e.g., creates racial assesshowracial 2006) and/or meanings. inequality Staiger
forCultural New Frontiers Bolder, Analysis: Cultures to Ethnic and Broader Approaches Deeper,
would andracial cultures ofethnic andbroader A bolder, questioning deeper, for or understudied new to cultural ripe more topics. Especially analysis bring of American culture racial/ethnic the are mapping analysis assimilation, energetic ethnic to understand state cultures to attention on "existential" sending questions, culture. on ethnic of the and intheUnited cultures States, impacts globalization culture and American assimilation to cultural Bolderapproaches wordas scholars wasalmost a dirty "assimilation" For several preferred years, has But it madea comeback, or"transnationalism." "acculturation" tostudy partly and Zhou 1993; Portesand Rumbaut s work(Portes of Portes on the strength that becauseitis undeniable ofAlbaand Nee (2003),andpartly 2001) andthat That ethnic differences ethnic is a process there is, groups disappear. whereby canbe writ"culture" is howeasily hasbeensurprising What assimilated. become cultural ten out of a conceptthatseems to have a significant component of race and wasa keyidea in theearly assimilation" "cultural ethnicity sociology assimilation measure 1964).Moretypically, (Gordon quantitatoday sociologists and of residential in statistics languageuse, employment, patterns, tively andJimenez 2005). (e.g.,Waters partners marriage intonew, theassimilation havetaken however, concept sociologists Recently, in culon work Alba(2005),for directions. cultural building example, explicitly as a assimilation processof has movedtoward turalsociology, conceptualizing boundaries. of cultural acrossor movement movement Examining language and well as as cultural as and race, citizenship phenomena, religion acquisition from the majority Alba showedhow boundaries groups immigrant separating cross boundaries Individuals or"blurry." be "bright" by may (unambiguous) may immithemselves boundaries the or shift, formerly redefining may assimilating, ofthemainstream. as part practices grant
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The more fit ofethnic andtheways these culture, however, expressive aspects into thewider American there is are understudied. Yet culture, relatively promisin thisdirection. on work on symbolic (Gans 1979; ethnicity ingwork Building havemaintained tiesto Waters thewayswhiteethnics 1990) thatemphasized their ties after ethnic and elective rituals, foods, leaving background through their theidentities and cultural ethnic (2004) explored neighborhoods, Jimenez livesof multiethnic Mexican with one Mexican-descent Americans (individuals side and one He showed how their Mexican white, parent non-Hispanic parent). is continually with Mexican contact political replenished neighborhoods, through and celebrations stuffoftheir non-Mexican whereas the"cultural movements, which is typically a European ora mix ofEuropean ethnicities, ancestry, ethnicity tends tobe inshort the cultural conCornell who used (2000), supply. Following of to documented the narrative understand ethnic (2004) cept identity, Jimenez in "Mexican tensions ofmixed-background the Mexican Americans' participation American narrative" that is only their own. partially A related area ofinquiry is thedistinctively American culdivergent yetstill tures in address not ethnic the United States. scholars Here, developed by groups as forms of culture but and other also art, fashion, reprejust cognitive patterns Lee andZhou's Americans shows sentation. volume onyoung Asian (2004)edited thepotential ofthis an sensibility sociological approach. Bringing American-style to the Birmingham Schooltheorists, youth theyshowedhowAsianAmerican - out - notclearly havecreated a newhybrid notclearly Asian culture American, ofAmerican andAsianelements. suchcultural forms as Theirauthors examined car consumer and relicontests, culture, campus beauty import racing, gangs, andrevealed their within ethnic andsignificance cultures. giousgroups meaning Another is in to examine the role race mainstream instituthat approach plays tions' of racial and culture. For ethnic interpretations example, groups' expressive we can buildon Binders(1993) comparison in ofmediaconstructions ofharm twopopular music of the late 1980s metal and both of which genres heavy rap, wereassumed to haveracially distinct Whilewriters and audiences. producers in concern that white audiences expressed young might indulge self-inflicted, - taking harmful activities as a result oflistening toheavy metal sex, drugs, having - they and attempting suicide articulated an altogether different concern about blackrapaudiences, whowereseentoinflict harm on therest ofsociety, byrapand in warfare. for theconingwomen, killing cops, engaging gang Controlling tent ofthelyrics in bothgenres, Binder that broadcultural ideas demonstrated aboutraceinform howthemedia(andothers) culture perceive popular objects. there is more tobe doneinthis area.Whatarethesources ofthenew Clearly, ethnic cultures? How are they similar to or different white from mainstream or blackcultural More studies of cultural assimilation lead to styles? important, of what American in culture is the first questions place. - ethnic A full ofethnic cultures wouldneedto be comparative understanding cultures must be in understood relation to cultures. Too often, minority majority research onraceandethnicity is only onracial andethnic minorities (theAmerican Association hasa Section on RacialandEthnic rather than Minorities, Sociological
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on Race and Ethnicity). thatPortesand Rumbauts Note,forexample, simply a of assimilation makes about the (1996)study second-generation strong argument no on of nonwhite race contains data non-Latino white Americans. But yet impact ifwe do notknow what white culture or"American" culture looks howcanwe like, is distinctive about nonwhite or about know what groups, immigrant groups? Albas (2005;Albaand Nee 2003) and Lamont s (2000) works on boundaries are important an approach thattakesAmerican culture stepstoward seriously. of American as a We can conceive and culture set of boundaries that society as "out." somegroups as "in"andothers Butwe canknow more oftheculdefine ifwe areto claim within theboundaries. Forexample, that tural stuff car import American we makes Asian culture need to be able to distinctive, youth racing ofcomparable white orblack But a describe thepractices bolder youth. approach culture wouldalsoneedto getdeeper. to ethnicity, race,andAmerican cultural ofrace and ethnicity deeper:An existential sociology Getting andmeanings, We should alsoknow moreaboutthesubjective as experiences This is the that wellas distinctive shape practices, might profoundly experience. key ofcultural howculture interests. Ofcourse, contribution showing shapes sociology: is a daunting task to saytheleast.Given theclassand culture American mapping to a in does it even make sense search for the United differences States, regional to ethnic and racial cultures? and its relation American culture mainstream find of howAmericans be theclassicstudy One useful might place to start et al. Bellah and his colHabits the Heart in their 1985). (Bellah lives, of meaning Americans but to middle-class limited their focus white, provided leagues(1985) in theiranalysis. They showedhow depthand sophistication unprecedented individualism" traditions of "utilitarian cultural American (the beliefin selfindividualism" and individual (the initiative) "expressive through improvement in in the midoftheself)are manifested cultivation white, and, particular, ways In other and freedom. aboutsuccess, Americans think dle-class words, justice, can shapeinterests. howculture showed they ofdifHabitsoftheHeart:an analysis Whatis neededis a truly comparative the United States. of within orracial ferent ethnic (orindeedclass)groups Wary of ethnic or castingcultures victims manysociologists negatively, blaming in whatdifor evenuniformity, or assumesimilarities, achievement emphasize all ethnic and of life. assume want out on average, ferent ethnic They groups, To this a credible But is havethesameinterests. racialgroups assumption? be and of nonwhite educational sure,studiesindicate aspirations similarly high when same individuals if it means the clear Butitis farfrom white thing youth. togo tocollege orgraduate want orracial cultures ethnic different from saythey in variation ethnic culGiven all of the from school(Kao andThompson 2003). in is it celebrated theAmerican so often andthecultural mosaic, tures, diversity outof want allthesamethings on average that allgroups orevenpossible, likely, in the same ways? demands life,in the same degree,and balancecompeting inlife? see thesamemeaning Does everyone
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Lamont a start toward a multicultural HabitsoftheHeart.As (2000) offered discussed she black and white menon above, specifically compared working-class - including a variety offactors definitions ofsuccess. Andshefound somevariation. success towhites," shewrote, are morelikely to define "blacks "Compared in financial white to a third of their terms of blue-collar blacks (half compared to a and to ambition third of black workers (a counterparts) compared praise In fact, assofourth ofwhites). more workers valuestandards ofevaluation black ciated with theupperhalf, suchas money" (p. 117).
victims or casting cultures Waryofblaming ofethnic negatively, manysociologists or assumesimilarities, achievement emphasize or evenuniformity, in whatdifferent ethnic on average, wantoutoflife. groups,
Variations inthemeaning within oflife canbe found between ethnicities likely racialgroupings. For example, Kao (1995) foundstrong evidenceof cultural inexplaining effects Asian American educational achievepatterns showing high ment.Even after for human Asian earn Americans controlling capitalfactors, than After whites. variables for she however, higher grades adding ethnicity, found variation betweenAsiansubgroups. Southeast OnlyChinese,Koreans, Asians,and South Asiansearned highergradesthan did whites.Filipinos, and PacificIslanders earnedgradessimilar to whites, and Pacific Japanese, Islanders moresigns showed ofeducation than other typidisadvantage groups considered "Asian." of Desmond andTurley theimportance (2007)showed cally "familism" Mexican and Americans, specifically amongHispanics, particularly - a choicethat theimportance ofremaining at homeduring often collegeyears leadsto lower levels ofachievement. The common ofgrouping all whites is also unwarranted on practice together of life" For found American (1981) "meaning questions. example, Stryker Jewish ofsuccess educational and occupational when status understandings emphasized with other whites. Alba found of Catholic (2006) compared underrepresentation white on thefaculties ethnics ofeliteuniversities andconcluded that elites white drawdistinctions between and discriminate, whites Italian particularly against Americans. an alternative with that alsosug(2006)countered Massey explanation cultural variation that Italian American whites, gests among arguing underrepresentation couldbe theresult of"the selective movement more ofItalians toward other,
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attractive that ethnic (1996)showed occupations" (p. 548).Waldinger employment niches Americans and exist for Italian as well as nonwhite Americans, Jewish groups In theseoccupational in New York. sectors wheremembers ofparticular ethnic in be in are found concentrated than other secnumbers, wages may higher groups either discrimination outside the niche or some tors, (cultural?) suggesting special resolve allows for is another that areawhere superior performance. Intermarriage in cultural we may see variation orientations as wellas intraracial variation. In an intheUnited Peach that examination ofmobility found the Irish (2005) Kingdom, resemble each other and are Caribbean toward inteandblack immigrants moving andgreater andIndians, incomes whereas Jews despite higher penetration gration, show lower into suburbia, integration, particularly regarding intermarriage. - is it moredebateon what theneedfor is going on Thesevariations suggest in their career and and racial that ethnic vary groups preferences what possible or a satisfying to be a marital consider life, including satisfying meaningful they Most how does behavior Ifso,howdo they corlife? orpersonal vary? important, and life? of race the of of to Sociologists ethnicity meaning respond perceptions and should ofU.S. culture to offer on thenature situated are uniquely insights and nature of ethnic cultures within forgranted on theexistence takenothing for different of "habits of the heart" a and racial populations. diversity groupings ofcultural the From theview move. be a radical sociology, hardly Doingso would interests. can culture is shape point simple: national How do immigrants' horizons: Broadening matter? and globalization cultures between attention to theconnection ofraceand ethnicity Scholars givelittle in the UnitedStatesand howthey cultures ethnic originally appearedin their in transnationalism, itis morecommon interest states. Despitegrowing sending - to beginandend at theU.S. - andthustheir attention for scholars' theorizing of segmented in thetheory mostexplicit Thisis perhaps borders. assimilation, of reception." on "contexts whichplaces greatimportance Immigrants might much all that is but or broken intact or human families, they pretty capital, bring and sucthe effort understand in to is also Inattention attempts apparent bring. scholars education. inAmerican Asianstudents cessofEastand South Typically, in theUnited States or discrimination to counteract either strategies emphasize of Asian success relative to the on education Asian values invoke explain casually a review). Americans [2003]for (see Kao andThompson counknow wellthesource Some Thereareofcourse sociologists exceptions. whenthey on immigrants their consider and/or oftheimmigrants tries impacts on and Malones[2002]work States(e.g.,Massey, cometo theUnited Durand, in the West Indies; and to conditions s [1999] attention Mexico; Waters ofthepast at theturn ofEastern Morawskas [1985]study European immigrants of note their of Asian Studies importation entrepreneurs immigrant century). But ventures business to finance associations credit 2002). (Lee attempts rotating on or culture stateexperience of sending theimpact theorize to systematically rarer. far are States United in the immigrants
72
Heins(2006)study ofCambodian intheAmerican andHmong Midwest refugees a model offers on which to build. He developed an "ethnic to origins hypothesis" understand howhomeland affect of and assimilaexperiences patterns integration tion. Thereare four vs.collecelements: values(including individualism religious norms ofconstraint innetworks, innational andchoice effects ofinequality tivism), andeffects ofintraethnic andinterethnic conflicts. Heinstressed institutions, political that ethnic culture isnot but that cultural norms from interactions primordial emerge of cultural and noncultural in the homeland This factors and destination state. use to approach prominent gives place culturally shapedcognition: "Immigrants and to into the and culture histories, memory imaginationcontinuously tap politics, oftheir homelands" as they inthenewcontext create lives (p. 31). Morecanbe doneinthis area.First, we canuse cultural tounderstand theory themechanics ofthis Hein between cultural factors (2006) process. distinguished and other in "effects" thatarisefrom (valuesand norms) experiences sending states. Buttheseare easyto conceptualize or schemas as cultural. shape Scripts ininstitutional behavior contexts. an excellent Immigration provides opportunity to study howreactions to the UnitedStatesare conditioned in byexperiences states. do come with a with not tabula rasa. come sending Immigrants They andperceptions ofmeaning overyears. habits, understandings, ingrained can explore states to understand howtheseconSecond, sociologists sending texts matter. For example, consider Asian American educational achieveagain ment. The substantial effort and moneydevoted to educationby Asian to the UnitedStates, as wellas thebuilding ofinstitutions suchas immigrants "cram schools" and much as less (Kao 2003),appear Thompson immigrant-only and muchmoreas transported and institutional cultural phenomena arrangements from states. Cramschools are a major in Korea,Japan, sending industry inAsia, andelsewhere andtheimportance ofeducational as well Taiwan, success, as thestatus from the most or schools are gained prestigious occupations, common themesin everyday lifeand popularculture 2007). In 2007, (Skrentny Koreansociety was rocked a scandal leadersand by major involving political celebrities who inflated their A popular educational to get ahead.1 credentials Koreansoap opera,Catcha Gangnam showed the value on status and Mother, education It details the in sacrifices of a mother the section differently. Gangnam ofSeoul,known formothers whoareparticularly with obsessed their children's education. ina gentlemen's Sheworks clubtoearnmoney tosendhersontoprivatetutoring inthehopesthat school onedayhe willearna placeina prestigious Great sacrifices for children's education are in fact common in Asia, university.2 mothers with children abroad sometimes for so the that including living years children can gain usefullanguageand othereducational benefits (Douglass educational beliefs and practices ofAsiansin the UnitedStates 2006). Similar andinAsiasuggest notall behavior area response to theU.S. context. patterns Nationalcultures, and assimilation globalization, Another theuse ofcultural in thestudy ofraceand wayto broaden analysis is to consider the ethnicity oppositedynamic: immigrants maybe bringing
73
distinctive national cultural to theUnitedStates, butthey also maybe patterns on American cultural before even arrive. In other words, taking patterns they cultures arechanging due to globalization, and thismay state be affectsending of assimilation. Becauseofthenarrow vision in muchofthe ingthedynamics on race,ethnicity, andimmigration, as wellas theinattention tocultural research studies of assimilation do not consider how is assimilation, typically globalization states before their even their shores. depart sending emigrants changing oftenseem to assumean anachronistic of immigration imageof Sociologists But discrete and disconnected national societies. between moving immigrants and American statesare awashin imagesof the UnitedStates, mostsending in all regions ifnotdominant, oftheworld. arepopular, styles ofthis Two oneofthemore Cowen(2002)offered analyses process. perceptive as out that there is no such relevant. he seem First, pointed thing especially points cultures are claims of all the culture. a "pure"national nationalists, Despite orforms ofrepresentation cultural cherished andeventhemost practices hybrids, cultural is elements. haveforeign Second,globalization producing homogenizacultures such as tionand heterogenization. By thishe meantthatnational in the Trade and than were more similar are and France they past. today Germany to the become and others around these led have shared world, nations, technology - in effect, of differa reduction an assimilation moresimilar involving process a national within individuals Atthesametime, theworld. on across encesis going has givenindividuals Globalization thanbefore. are now morediverse culture culture can I collect in world of a He explained, morechoices. globalized "Only readthe music of listen to the tribes, Pygmy prints, nineteenth-century Japanese of Canadian and enjoythehumor VS. Naipaul, author Trinidadian Carrey, Jim ownchoosing" oftheir different while (p. 128). paths pursue my neighbors he that theprocess isparticularly s (2002)example While Cowen middle-class, African American American limited. so is described hardly culture, especially can be heardin theglobe.Rap music, has swept culture, variously interpreted, is all over Association Basketball The National Africa. and Asia, popular Europe, American African of the is as theworld Hipplayers. by style playpioneered areglobal(Mitchell andlanguage 2001). hopclothing andthen shores toAmericas ofimmigrants The notion "acculturating" coming at best.There seems extraterrestrials if are as and "assimilating" they quaint culto and of for here is room sociologists race,ethnicity, immigrationjoinwith from the moves which culture how and of in a tural sociologists project tracing is reintroand and is other to UnitedStates states, reinterpreted reproduced, reach can occurbefore duced to the UnitedStates.Assimilation immigrants when to U.S. and behave how American shores, society adapt shaping immigrants and acculturation ofassimilation an international In short, arrive. sociology they cultural national distinctive sometimes can showthat pattransport immigrants evenbefore Americanization their that and States totheUnited terns may begin to ourshores. arrive they
74
Conclusion
I haveargued inthe that cultural hasan uneven butgrowing presence analysis of are needed and More and bolder efforts race, sociology ethnicity, immigration. inthestudy in ofinequality. ofthebestculturally oriented works especially Many this areahavetreated that culture as epiphenomenal orshied from away asserting ethnic cultures areinplay, the we canbuildon Carter (2005)toidentify although roleofethno-racial cultures' rolein achievement. works on thesocial conUnlike ofraceormacro/historical struction disstudies ofdomination, studies ofeveryday crimination and publicopinion on racism lack and discrimination typically a cultural link to could them cultural sensibility. Sociologists fruitfully sociology, using from social orbuild on their that now constructionism, insights existing arguments invoke and rules or beliefs, only implicitly meanings, taken-for-granted scripts.
and [A]n international ofassimilation sociology acculturation can showthatimmigrants sometimes distinctive national transport cultural to the United Statesand that patterns their Americanization maybeginevenbefore arrive to ourshores. they
We can also do moreto explore cultural assimilation and to understand the extensive in ethnic variation and racialexpressive cultures. Another approach would be toaskdeeper, more existential howdifferent questions. Understanding ethnic andracial tendtosee themeaning andpurpose oflife would groups getat one oftheuniqueand valuable contributions ofcultural thecultural sociology: constitution ofinterests. It appears tobe assumed in most studies that all groups - that want thesamethings inlife with different ancestral homelands are groups - as ifthey all identical on thedeepestquestions are all toyrobots differfacing ent obstacles but goingthe same direction. Lamonts(2000) and Kaos (1995) work that this is flawed. We should include studies ofwhite suggests assumption ethnic as wellfora full, relational I haveused groups understanding. Although theterms "ethnic" and "racial" to determine here,we willneed efforts loosely whether itevenmakes sensetotalk of"racial" cultures. theethnic variMapping ations in themeaning oflifecouldyield intoinequality andcouldaid in insights thedevelopment ofmore effective socialpolicies.
75
intothestudy ofraceand ethnicity is to takea culture Another wayto bring such as where focus. Unlike other scholbroader fields, political sociology, many and other race and States studies arsstudy boththeUnited countries, ethnicity somescholars focus on theUnited States andothoflabor where havea division communication between them. Butcomwork. Thereis little ersdo comparative wherewe can traceethnicor studiescan yieldinsights, especially parative inthecultural to andinstiin United States cultures the likely origins immigrant to deep questions on the Ethnicorientations of homelands. contexts tutional for how to live of and their and it, maybe repertoires meaning purpose life, U.S. of homeland culture and or as from homelands developed hybrids brought attend of broader vision would The other this andsocialstructures. culture part a broadand full on sending ofglobalization to theeffects states; understanding differences now ofethnic that the reduction would culture ofethnic acknowledge before immigration. begins and sometimes is a political and racial ofethnic thecultures groups Studying can to socialjustice, A commitment minefield. emotional however, and should to full include a commitment understanding.
Notes
1. See, forexample, http://english.chosun.com/w21data/html/news/200707/200707200014.html. 2. See http://english.chosun.com/w21data/html/news/200707/200707270011.html.
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The Sociology ofRace and Ethnicity in the UnitedStates:KeyQuestions