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Biology Form 4

Page 40

Ms. R. Buttigieg

UNIT 4 Functioning as a whole


The need for a transport system in multicellular organisms.
Living things constantly absorb useful substances which must be distributed throughout their bodies. They also continuously produce waste products that must be removed by the body before they become harmful. In small organisms this can be done by diffusion, eg. in Amoeba. However, in larger multicellular organisms, diffusion is not fast enough in removing waste products from the organisms. They must have a transport system which can carry these substances fast enough round the body. Usually this consists of some form of pumping organ usually known as the heart which pushes forward a liquid known as blood around a system of blood vessels. The blood vessels pick oxygen from the respiratory organs and passes it to the rest of the body. Blood also picks up carbon dioxide and waste products from the cells and transports them to organs which remove them from the blood and excrete them from the body.

The role of phloem and xylem as vascular tissues.


A plant's transport system is made up of strong, thick pipes called xylem vessels, and thinner tubes called phloem vessels. Xylem consists of dead cells with no end walls, which contain lignin to form stiff tubes. They are impermeable, and are strengthened with fibres. Phloem consists of living cells lined with cytoplasm, with walls made of cellulose and perforated end walls called sieve plates. They are permeable, and are surrounded by companion cells.

Biology Form 4

Page 41

Ms. R. Buttigieg

The table below will help you remember the differences between the two types of vessel: Xylem made of cell wall thickness cell wall material permeability of cell wall cross walls cytoplasm function carried to ... direction of flow tissue also has.. dead cells thick lignin impermeable absent none transport of water and minerals leaves upward fibres Phloem living cells thin cellulose permeable perforated cross walls called sieve plates cells lined with cytoplasm strands transport of food growing parts and storage organs up and down companion cells

Together xylem and phloem form the vascular tissue, often also referred to as the vascular bundle. The two types of vessel are always found together, but they occupy slightly different locations in the root and the stem: Internal anatomy of stems and roots to show the distribution of vascular tissue.

HW: 1. Write 5 differences between the phloem and xylem 2. Draw the cross-sections of the stem and root labelling the main parts.

Biology Form 4

Page 42

Ms. R. Buttigieg

Stem Structure
epidermis cortex phloem cambium xylem pith

Root Structure
epidermis cortex endodermis pericycle phloem cambium xylem root hairs

Epidermis. One cell thick. In young plants the Epidermis. A single layer of cells often with epidermis cells may secrete a waterproof long extensions called root hairs, which cuticle, and in older plants the epidermis may be absent, replaced by bark. increase the surface area enormously. A single plant may have 1010 root hairs.

Cortex. Composed of various packing cells, Cortex. A thick layer of packing cells often to give young plants strength and flexibility, containing stored starch. and are the source of plant fibres such as sisal and hemp. Vascular Tissue. This contains the phloem and xylem tissue, which grow out from the cambium. In dicot plants (the broad-leafed plants), the vascular tissue is arranged in vascular bundles, with phloem on the outside and xylem on the inside. In older plants the xylem bundles fuse together to form the bulk of the stem. Pith. The central region of a stem, used for food storage in young plants. It may be absent in older plants (i.e. theyre hollow). Pericycle. A layer of undifferentiated Endodermis. A single layer of tightly-packed cells containing a waterproof layer called the casparian strip.

vascular bundle

vascular tissue

meristematic (growing) cells. Vascular Tissue. This contains xylem and phloem cells, which are continuous with the stem vascular bundles. The arrangement is different, and the xylem usually forms a star shape with 2-6 arms.

Biology Form 4

Page 43

Ms. R. Buttigieg

Transport of water and mineral ions from the root.


cell wall cytoplasm vacuole

soil particles

root hair

epidermis cortex symplast pathway (cytoplasms) aoplast pathway (cell walls)

endodermis pericycle

xylem

Water is taken up the plant from the roots to the leaves (for photosynthesis and transpiration) - in xylem vessels . Minerals dissolved in the water are taken up the plant to the shoots and leaves - in xylem vessels. Food (the product of photosynthesis) is taken from the leaves and moved up and down the plant to any part which needs it (for growth or for storage) - in phloem vessels.

Water travels in the xylem: o o o Water is taken from the soil by root hair cells by the process of osmosis. From the cells of the root hairs, the water then moves towards the root centre and enters the xylem. Water is drawn through the xylem by being pushed from below (root pressure) and by being pulled from above as a result of the evaporation of water from the leaves (transpiration).

Mineral ions: o o o Taken up with the water Or by simple diffusion. If ion concentration in the soil is low they can be taken in by active transport.

Biology Form 4

Page 44

Ms. R. Buttigieg (see GCSE Biology pg. 62)

Translocation of products of photosynthesis.

Translocation is the movement of sucrose and other organic materials from one place to another within the plant body, primarily through the phloem. Concentration (pressure) gradients drive this process.

Translocation typically begins in any plant location where sucrose (or the other organic solute) is in high concentration. Such a spot would typically be the palisade or spongy mesophyll cells in the leaf. Sucrose has just been manufactured by chloroplasts in these cells so is in greatest concentration here. There is a lower sucrose concentration in the sieve tubes (of the phloem). This concentration or pressure difference causes the sucrose to diffuse toward and into the phloem of the leaf and hence to the phloem of the stem (where there is even less sucrose).

Translocation Experiments give information about the movement of food in phloem


1. Ringing Experiments Since the phloem vessels are outside the xylem vessels, they can be selectively removed by cutting a ring in a stem just deep enough to cut the phloem but not the xylem. After a week there is a swelling above the ring, reduced growth below the ring and the leaves are unaffected. This was early evidence that sugars were transported downwards in the phloem.
leave for a week ring of bark and phloem removed

Biology Form 4

Page 45

Ms. R. Buttigieg

2.

Radioactive Tracer Experiments

Radioactive isotopes can be used trace precisely where different compounds are being transported from and to, as well as measuring the rate of transport. The radioactivity can be traced using photographic film (an autoradiograph) or a GM tube. This techniques can be used to trace sugars, ions or even water.

In a typical experiment a plant is grown in the lab and one leaf is exposed for a short time to carbon dioxide containing the radioactive isotope
14 14

C. This

14

CO2 will be taken up by

photosynthesis and the C incorporated into glucose and then sucrose. The plant is then frozen in liquid nitrogen to kill and fix it quickly, and placed onto photographic film in the dark. The resulting autoradiograph shows the location of compounds containing 14C.

bottle with source of 14 CO2

autoradiograph

increasing time exposed to 14CO2

This experiment shows that organic compounds (presumably sugars) are transported downwards from the leaf to the roots. More sophisticated experiments using fluorescently labelled compounds can locate the compound specifically to the phloem cells.

3. Aphid Stylet Experiments Aphids, such as greenfly, have specialised mouthparts called stylets, which they use to penetrate phloem tubes and sup of the sugary sap therein. If the aphids are anaesthetised with carbon dioxide and cut off, the stylet remains in the phloem so pure phloem sap can be collected through the stylet for analysis. This surprising technique is more accurate than a human with a syringe and the aphids enzymes ensure that the stylet doesnt get blocked.
aphid stem stylet phloem

Biology Form 4

Page 46

Ms. R. Buttigieg

The structure and functions of the human circulatory system

The circulatory system carries blood around the body in the veins, arteries and capillaries. The blood is pumped through the circulatory system by the heart. Blood is carried away from the heart through arteries and flows towards the heart through veins. Your blood acts like a transport system carrying oxygen, carbon dioxide, food and waste products around the body.
Components of the circulatory system include

heart: a muscular pump to move the blood blood vessels: arteries, capillaries and veins that deliver blood to all tissues blood: a connective tissue of liquid plasma and cells

Map of the human circulatory system with the names of the major blood vessels to and from the heart, lungs, liver and kidney.

Make sure you know it well

Mesenteric artery

Deoxygenated blood

Oxygenated blood

Biology Form 4

Page 47

Ms. R. Buttigieg

The Heart

(see GCSE pg. 110-111)

arteries to head aortic arch superior vena cava aorta pulmonary artery left pulmonary veins right atrium semilunar (pulmonary) valve atrioventricular (tricuspid) valve papillary muscle right ventricle inferior vena cava left atrium atrioventricular (bicuspid) valve valve tendons interventricular septum left ventricle cardiac muscle

The heart is enclosed in the pericardium which protects it. The human heart has four chambers: two atria on top, which receive blood, and two thick-walled ventricles underneath, which pump blood. Veins carry blood into the atria and arteries carry blood away from the ventricles. Between the atria and the ventricles are atrioventricular valves, which prevent back-flow of blood from the ventricles to the atria. The left valve has two flaps and is called the bicuspid (or mitral) valve, while the right valve has 3 flaps and is called the tricuspid valve. The valves are held in place by valve tendons (heart strings) attached to papillary muscles, which contract at the same time as the ventricles, holding the vales closed. There are also two semi-lunar valves in the arteries (the only examples of valves in arteries) called the pulmonary and aortic valves.

The left and right halves of the heart are separated by a septum. The walls of the right ventricle are thinner than the left and produce less force and pressure in the blood. This is partly because the blood has less far to go (the lungs are right next to the heart), but also because a lower pressure in the pulmonary circulation means less fluid passes from the capillaries to alveoli.

The heart is made of cardiac muscle, composed of cells called myocytes. When myocytes receive an electrical impulse they contract together, causing a heartbeat. Since myocytes are constantly active, they have a great requirement for oxygen, so are fed by numerous capillaries from two coronary arteries.

Biology Form 4

Page 48

Ms. R. Buttigieg

Blood vessels:

Veins, Arteries and Capillaries


Lung Capillaries Pulmonary Artery Pulmonary Vein

(see GCSE pg. 111-113)

RV LA RA LV

pulmonary circulation

Vena Cava Veins

Heart systemic circulation

Aorta Ateries

Venules

Arterioles

Capillaries

Veins and Venules


collagen & connective tissue smooth muscle & elastic tissue semilunar valve lumen (blood) 0.1-20mm

Capillaries
basement membrane (collagen) endothelium cell red blood cell 8 m

Arteries and Arterioles


collagen & connective tissue smooth muscle & elastic tissue lumen (blood) 0.1-10mm

Function is to carry blood from tissues to the heart Thin walls, mainly collagen, since blood at low pressure Large lumen to reduce resistance to flow. Many valves to prevent backflow Blood at low pressure Blood usually deoxygenated (except in pulmonary vein)

Function is to allow exchange of materials between the blood and the tissues Very thin, permeable walls, only one cell thick to allow exchange of materials Very small lumen. Blood cells must distort to pass through. No valves Blood pressure falls in capillaries. Blood changes from oxygenated to deoxygenated (except in lungs)

Function is to carry blood away from the heart to the tissues Thick walls with smooth elastic layers to resist high pressure and muscle layer to aid pumping Small lumen No valves (except in heart) Blood at high pressure Blood usually oxygenated (except in pulmonary artery)

Biology Form 4

Page 49

Ms. R. Buttigieg (see GCSE Biology pg. 108-9)

Body fluids: blood, tissue fluid and lymph

Blood consists of four different components. Each one has a job.

Plasma- liquid part of blood. A dilute solution of salts, glucose, amino acids, vitamins, urea, proteins and fats. White blood cells- involved in immune system. Platelets- involved in blood clotting. Red blood cells- involved in carrying oxygen.

1. Plasma is the liquid part of blood and its main job is transportation. It transports: o red blood cells o platelets o heat o fibrinogen a protein which helps blood to clot around the body o waste substances - carbon dioxide from the body - tissue cells - urea from body tissue cells to the liver and kidney o food glucose and amino acids o white blood cells o hormones (insulin, adrenalin) from glands to target organs. 2. Red blood cells are biconcave, spongy and have no nucleus. o The colour of red blood cells is due to a red pigment called haemoglobin. o Haemoglobin contains iron that allows it to join with oxygen. o As red blood cells pass through the lungs, the oxygen and haemoglobin form a new chemical called oxyhaemoglobin. The red blood cells carry the oxyhaemoglobin around the body to the organs and tissues. o When the red blood cells reach cells in the body that have little oxygen, the oxyhaemoglobin splits back into haemoglobin and oxygen.

Biology Form 4

Page 50

Ms. R. Buttigieg

Blood + oxygen Blood oxygen

oxygenated blood deoxygenated blood

bright red dark red

Red blood cells are produced in the red bone marrow of short bones. A red blood cell lives for 3-4 months and it then destroyed in the liver.

Anaemia results due to lack of red blood cells resulting from lack of iron or from loss of blood.
An anaemic person feels tired and is pale.

3. Platelets are small fragments of red blood cells, which ensure that your blood clots when you
cut yourself. A clot protects against microbes entering your body through the wound.

This triggers off a chemical reaction, turning the soluble protein fibrinogen into fibrin, which doesnt dissolve in blood. These fibrin fibres create a web, which traps the blood underneath and leaves a clot or scab on the surface.

4. White blood cells are larger than red cells.

There are 2 main kinds of white blood cells. Phagocytes and lymphocytes are part of the bodys defence system.

Phagocytes have a lobed nucleus. They move like Amoeba. They act to remove germs from the blood stream by moving to infected sites. Due to this, the infected site often becomes red and swollen and painful (inflamed). Dead bacteria and phagocytes form pus.

Biology Form 4

Page 51

Ms. R. Buttigieg

Lymphocytes have a large and round nucleus. They can detect proteins (antigens) on the germ surface. Once they detect them they start producing chemical substances called antibodies. The antibodies combine with the antigens of the germs and destroy them. Lymphocytes are made in glands called lymph nodes. o There is a different kind of antibody for every germ. o These actions, which take place in destroying the pathogens, are known as immune responses. The protection the immune responses give you is known as natural immunity. o Sometimes the lymph nodes swell up during an immune response, and it is possible to feel the nodes in your neck, under your arms or in the groin area. Antibodies stop germs in 4 ways: a. Make them burst when they stick to them b. Make them stick and clump together so cant act c. Make the germs more easily take up by the phagocytes d. Neutralise the toxins (harmful substances) produced by germs Tissue Fluid
(see GCSE Biology pg. 114-5)

Substances are all exchanged between the blood and the cells in capillary beds. Substances do not actually move directly between the blood and the cell: they first diffuse into the tissue fluid that surrounds all cells, and then diffuse from there to the cells.
capillary

cells

tissue fluid


lymph vessel

See GCSE Biology pg. 114 figure 12.16 Blood, tissue fluid and lymph.

Biology Form 4

Page 52

Ms. R. Buttigieg

1.

At the arterial end of the capillary bed the blood is still at high pressure, so blood plasma

is squeezed out through the permeable walls of the capillary. Cells and proteins are too big to leave the capillary, so they remain in the blood. 2. This fluid now forms tissue fluid surrounding the cells. Materials are exchanged between

the tissue fluid and the cells by all four methods of transport across a cell membrane. 3. At the venous end of the capillary bed the blood is at low pressure, since it has lost so

much plasma. Water returns to the blood by osmosis. Solutes (such as carbon dioxide, urea, salts, etc) enter the blood by diffusion, down their concentration gradients. 4. Not all the plasma that left the blood returns to it, so there is excess tissue fluid. This

excess drains into lymph vessels, which are found in all capillary beds. Lymph vessels have very thin walls, like capillaries, and tissue fluid can easily diffuse inside, forming lymph.

The Lymphatic System

This is a system of fine tubes, which end blindly among the tissues of the body. Along the tubes are swellings known as lymph nodes. lymphocytes are produced. The largest tube of this system joins with the vein in the left arm. Therefore the lymphatic and blood system are connected together. The fluid flowing through the system is known as lymph. The lymphatic system has these functions: a. b. c. d. It returns excess tissue fluid to the blood Lymph nodes act as a defence by adding lymphocytes in the blood It filters out bacteria by the presence of phagocytes in the nodes It absorbs fats from the small intestines and discharges it into the blood These were already mentioned as the sites where

There is no pump, but there are numerous semi-lunar valves, and lymph is helped along by contraction of muscles, just as in veins. Lymph vessels also absorb fats from the small intestine, where they form lacteals inside each villus. There are networks of lymph vessels at various places in the body (such as tonsils and armpits) called lymph nodes where white blood cells develop. These become swollen if more white blood cells are required to fight an infection.

Biology Form 4

Page 53

Ms. R. Buttigieg

lymph nodes in neck lymph drains into veins lymph nodes in armpits Vena Cava

lymph vessels from intestine lymph nodes in groin

Plasma

The liquid part of blood. It contains dissolved glucose, amino acids, salts and vitamins; and suspended proteins and fats.

Tissue Fluid The solution surrounding cells. Its composition is similar to plasma, but without proteins (which stay in the blood capillaries). Lymph The solution inside lymph vessels. Its composition is similar to tissue fluid, but with more fats (from the digestive system).

The two diagrams on this page show the lymphatic system

Biology Form 4

Page 54

Ms. R. Buttigieg

Answer the following 1. a) Describe how water in soil is transported into roots. b) State one importance of water to the plant. c) State the function of: (i) xylem ; (ii) phloem as vascular tissues. d) Draw transverse sections through the (i) root xylem and phloem. (2) (1) (2,2)

(ii) stem to show the position of: (4,4) (15 marks)

2. a) List the main components of the human blood and give one function of each. (4) b) Describe an experiment to show that the heart beat changes during exercise. (5) 3. The diagram below shows a section through the heart of a mammal.

ii) Draw arrows to show direction of blood flow through vessels C, D, E, and F (4) iii) Is the blood found at G oxygenated or de-oxygenated? _________________ (1) iv) Give a reason for your answer in 3iii. _________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ (1) v) Why is the wall of K thicker than the wall of A? _____________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________(1)

Biology Form 4

Page 55

Ms. R. Buttigieg

vi) State three (3) differences in structure or function between an artery and a vein. Artery Vein

(total 14 marks) (3)

5. The diagram below shows two cells taken from a human blood sample. a) ame : Cell A _____________________ Cell B _______________ (2)

b) Give one difference, shown on the diagram, between these two cells. _________________________________________________________ (1) c) State one function, and one adaptation related to this function, of: (i) Cell A (ii) Cell B Function of Cell A ____________________________________________ Adaptation _________________________________________________________________ (2) Function of Cell B _____________________________________________ Adaptation ____________________________________________________ (2) (Total 7 marks)

Cell A

Cell B

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