General Psychology

Psychology Greek words psyche (the mind or soul) and logos (the study of) Definition: the scientific study and practical application of observable behavior and mental processes of organisms. Coined by RUDOLF GOCLENIUS OR RUDOLF GOCKEL The principles are based on the combination of other sciences such as Biology, Medicine and Philosophy. Mental Processes and Behavior Involve reasoning, emotion, motivation, learning, cognition (how humans think and relate) and how the brain works. Different types of behavior 1. 2. OVERT observable and outwardly manifested behavior. COVERT behavior/actions that is not directly visible. CONSCIOUS actions that is within ones awareness. UNCONCIOUS actions that are done by a person yet he is not aware of doing so. NON-CONCIOUS activities which may be detected by instruments or apparatus. 3. 4. 5. RATIONAL actions which is in the realm of sanity and adequate reason. IRRATIONAL actions that are done without any apparent reason and explanation. VOLUNTARY behavior that is done with mans will INVOLUNTARY actions that are done automatically (like breathing, digestion) SIMPLE utilizes fewer neurons. COMPLEX behavior that uses greater amount of neurons Aims and Goals of Psychology 1. 2. DESCRIBE detailed characterization of a certain behavior / phenomenon. UNDERSTAND organization of facts about a behavior and the development of reasons about relationships among observed behavior and arriving to a reasonable principle in explaining behavior. 3. 4. PREDICT anticipate future actions of an individual based on the observed behavior, pattered partially on the past and on the state of cognition of the individual. CONTROL/INFLUENCE alteration of behavior of an individual. Scientific Study

History of Psychology ANIMISM The gods and spirits are the direct cause of events and mans activities.

Therefore, people who are suffering from mental disorders before are considered to be cursed by the gods.
DIALECTICAL STAGES OF DEVT Georg Hegel dialectic continuous intellectual dialogue in which thinkers strive for increased understanding (Sternberg) Thesis an established concept Anti-thesis - challenges the thesis by presenting another concept Synthesis combination of two concepts PLATO

General Psychology
The mind resides within the brain View of Reality

Reality can be found in the ideal and not in the (material/tangible) objects that are recognized by our senses.
ARISTOTLE According to him, the soul has three functions. o o o -

Vegetative- deals with the basic maintenance of life (eating for survival) Appetative- focuses on the desire/motives Rational- reason Reality rests upon the concrete and tangible objects.

View of reality: Concept of EMPIRICISM: Human knowledge can be attained in two ways:

1. The use of senses. 2. Introspection/experience

HIPPOCRATES The father of medicine First theorized that mental disorders arose from natural causes. Claimed that the body and mind is qualitatively different from each other (MIND-BODY DUALISM THEORY) RENE DESCARTES DUALISM: the mind (spiritual entity) and the body (physical/material entity) interact TABULA RASA at birth, the mind is like a blanket that gathers its contents through experiences that the person will have in his entire life. The collection of his experiences would reflect on his behavior. He also believed that man is innately good. Human behavior is driven by unconscious desires and motives SIGMUND FREUD JOHN LOCKE

Schools of Psychology STRUCTURALISM Wilhelm Wundt Focuses on breaking down mental processes into the most basic components The mind is structured through conscious experience The mind functions by combining objective and subjective elements of experience William James It focused on behavior in addition to the mind or consciousness how our experience helps us function more adaptively in our environment Adaptive behavior patterns are learned and maintained. Therefore, maladaptive behavior patterns tend to drop out and only the fittest behavior survives. Adaptive behaviors tend to be repeated and become habits. BEHAVIORISM John Watson

FUNCTIONALISM

General Psychology
Focuses on learning observable (can be measured easily and observers would agree about their existence) behavior GESTALT Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang Kohler Focused on perception and on how perception influences thinking and problem solving Human nature cannot be understood by focusing only on observable behavior. Perceptions are more than the sums of their parts. Gestalt Psychologist saw our perceptions as wholes that give meaning to parts. the whole is greater than the sum of its parts Sigmund Freud Behavior is determined by powerful inner forces, most of which are in our unconscious mind. People repress any desires or needs that are unacceptable to themselves or to the society. Jean Piaget Focuses on the realm of perception, thought and memory Learners as active processors of information Students learn better when they can inquiry and experimentation Why are we here? What is the purpose of life? Views people as free to choose and as being responsible for choosing ethical conduct. Abraham Maslow An individuals behavior is primarily determined by his perception of the world around him Individuals are not solely the product of their environment, but they are internally driven to fulfill their human potential. Scientific Methods IDENTIFY THE PROBLEM - Problem an unresolved or undesired situation that has to be addressed. FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS - Based on initial observation and explanation DATA GATHERING FORMULATION OF EXPLANATORY HYPOTHESIS - The product of ones critical thinking, supported by relevant evidences. TESTING OF CONSEQUENCES - Through certain methods such as survey an interview THEORY APPLICATION Methods of Psychology SAMPLE - A segment of population POPULATION - A complete group of organisms INDEPENDENT VARIABLE - A variable that may be manipulated DEPENDENT VARIABLE - The measured result or outcomes in an experiment CASE STUDY - In depth collection of information about individuals and small groups. SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRES - Used to learn about behavior and mental processes that cannot be observed in natural setting or studied experimentally

PSYCHOANALYSIS

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

EXISTENTIAL PSYCHOLOGY

HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY

General Psychology
NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION - Observation of people in their natural habitats What is the Nervous System? It is a system of nerves involved in thought processes, heartbeat, visual and moral coordination etc. Consists of the brain, the spinal cord and receptors of information from the outside world.

Main division of Nervous Systems CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM - Consists of the brain and the spinal cord. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM - Composed of all nerve fibers that connect the receptors to the CNS and connects the CNS to the effectors. Functions of the Nervous System Sensory Output - Interpretation of action potentials from sensory receptors which travels along the nerves to the spinal cord Integration - The process of input to initiate response Homeostasis - Response to changes in the external and internal environment to maintain balance Mental Activity - Cognition, thinking, interpretation Control of Skeletal Muscles Neuron - The basic functional unit of the nervous system Parts of Neuron Cell Body the central portion, consisting of nucleus, cytoplasm and cell membrane Dendrites short branching processes which receives nerve impulses and carries them toward the cell body Axon elongated strand where nerve impulses are transmitted to the next neuron Neurons according to functions Sensory/Afferent Neurons carry messages or nerve impulses from the sense organs to the central nervous system Motor/Efferent Neurons carry impulses away from the brain to the effectors like muscles and glands Inner - Neurons carry impulses within the central nervous system Characteristics of Neurons Irritability the ability to react to external stimulation Conductivity ability of neurons to transmit impulses up to the end of the nerve fiber Brain floats on Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) and is protected by the skull It is jelly-like and weighs about 1,400 grams Controls and directs all activities in the nervous system

Division of the Brain Forebrain consists of the cerebrum, thalamus and hypothalamus

General Psychology
Midbrain - serves as the bridge between the hindbrain and the forebrain and functions as switchboard of receiving nerve impulses all over the body and sending them to the higher brain centers. Responsible in linking the sensory and motor pathways between the upper and the lower parts of the nervous system Hindbrain consists of the pons, medulla oblongata and cerebellum and is connected to the spinal cord Parts of the brain Cerebrum Pons -

seat of consciousness
Responsible for higher mental activities (thinking, reasoning, memory, etc.) Right cerebral hemisphere left side of the body Left cerebral hemisphere right side of the body

Thalamus

relay center of the impulses sent to the brain areas seat of emotions memory
Responsible in changing short-term memories into long-term memories Believed to cause aggressive behavior among animals

Hypothalamus Hippocampus

Amygdala

bridge
Relays information from the cerebrum to the cerebellum Regulates involuntary muscles responsible for heartbeat, respiration, swallowing and digestion

Medulla Oblongata

Cerebellum -

little brain
Coordination of voluntary motor activities Body balance and posture and the development of habits and skills

Peripheral Nervous System Divisions: Somatic System responsible for voluntary skeletal movements and movement of the arms and legs and the whole body. Autonomic/Visceral System responsible for involuntary movements within the body and is composed of the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems Sympathetic System involved in the activities of the internal organs in the thoracic-lumbar regions speeds up life activities

fight or flight response

Activates body resources to expend energy in times of stress Slows down life activities Restores the body-stored energy and calms down the body after stressful or emergency situations where greater amount of energy was consumed

Parasympathetic System

General Psychology
The Endocrine System ductless gland Involves in maintaining homeostasis (biochemical equilibrium in the body)

Hormones chemical, excitatory substances The Endocrine Glands Pituitary Glands master gland Secretes a number of hormones that affect the activities of almost all the endocrine glands -

Underactivity of Anterior Lobe

Dwarfism Gigantism Acromegaly overgrowth of certain parts of the bones

Diabetes Insipidus large urine volume excretion due to inability to conserve water during blood filtration

Overactivity of Anterior Lobe

Underactivity of Posterior Lobe

Overactivity of Posterior Lobe Pineal Gland gland of childhood Controls the activity of the reproductive organs Secretes melatonin and responds to light and dark cycle which governs the period of the day in which reproduction takes place. Underactivity Premature appearance of secondary sexual characteristics Thyroid Gland Butterfly-shaped gland at the base and anterior part of the throat Secretes thyroxine and idothyroxine, affecting growth and metabolism Cretinism related physical and mental development during childhood characterized by physical deformity, mental retardation and often by goiter cause by iodine deficiency Myxedema gain weight, thickening of the lips, slow motor movements, yellow skin during adulthood Overactivity Increased body heat production Parathyroid Gland Pea-shaped gland at the back of the thyroid gland Secretes parathormone which controls the calcium level of the blood Tetany or Lockjaw spasms of the muscles of the lower jaw which may lead to muscular rigidity Overactivity Hyponatremia and Fluid Overload excessive fluid in the blood

Underactivity

Underactivity

General Psychology
Lethargy muscular weakness and decreased nerve cell activity characterized by overpowering drowsiness or sleep (fatigue) Thymus Gland gland of babyhood Keeps and individual childish Secretes thymosin Inhibits sexuality during the childhood years and help in building up the bodys immune system Adrenal Gland Located at the upper end of each kidney Adrenal Cortex secretes cortin, controlling the appearance of some adult sexual characteristics Adrenal Medulla secretes adrenaline, for added strength; and noradrenaline, for constriction of blood vessels during injury to prevent too much blood loss Underactivity Addisons Disease bronze-like Discoloration of the skin and generalized physiological breakdown (weight loss, muscles weakness etc.) caused by damage in the adrenal cortex Delayed puberty due to under activity of the adrenal cortex Cushings Disease round or moon-shaped face, cessation of menstruation and appearance of beard and change in voice Upper body obesity, rounded face, and thinning arms and legs Adrenogenital Syndrome Virilism an increased muscular features among young girls Overactivity Divisions:

Islets of Langerhans Small bodies of special cell clusters that are scattered in the pancreas Secretes glucagon (utilization of sugar level in the blood) and insulin (controls sugar level of the blood) Underactivity Diabetes Mellitus Insulin Shock convulsions or seizures Overactivity Gonads/Sex Glands TESTES located in the scrotal sac and secretes testosterone, for the appearance of secondary sexual characteristics

Premature secretion may lead to puberty praecox or early sexual maturity

OVARIES located at the abdominal cavity and secretes estrogen, which promotes secondary sexual characteristics; and progesterone, responsible for primary sexual characteristics that prepare the reproductive system for child-bearing

Qualitative Changes Development Progressive series of changes leading to improvement Growth Changes that are measurable

Quantitative Changes

General Psychology
Three Major Paths of Human Development Physical changes in bodily appearance and structure as well as in bodily activities Psychosocial changes in social and emotional aspects of personality Cognitive changes in thought processes Two factors of Development Nature Nurture Environment Determines the manner by which the raw materials are to be shaped Heredity Provides the raw materials and potentials of an individual

Mechanics of Heredity Time life span to grow and develop Heredity blueprint that guide ones growth and development Environment Somatic cells/Body cells contains a nucleus, which has 46 chromosomes or 23 pairs of chromosomes. Reproductive cells/Germ cells have 23 chromosomes Chromosomes efficient storage bodies of DNA Genes real bearers of heredity traits Classifications: Autosomes/Trait chromosomes (22) Gonosomes/Sex chromosomes (1)

Sex Determination XX and XY chromosomes

Principles of Heredity Principle of Reproduction like begets like Human will reproduce their own kind No two individuals of any kind are exactly alike. Even identical twins have differences Dominant traits: traits assured of appearing in the child Recessive traits: traits that appear in the absence of a dominant trait Which of the millions of sperm cells will fertilize the ripened egg cell is dependent on chance alone Principle of Sex-Linked Characterized

Principle of Variation Principle of Dominance and Recessiveness

Principle of Chance

General Psychology
Sex-linked characteristics are carried by the gonosomes. Oftentimes, it is carried by women but usually suffered by most men. Example: baldness, color blindness

Physical Traits appearance including physical defects and physical diseases Mental Traits IQ level, some cases of mental retardation and predisposition to mental disorder Special Talents/Abilities BIRTH Identical/Monozygotic Twins once egg cell divides into two after being fertilized by one sperm Non-Identical/Fraternal Twins two eggs were fertilized by two different sperm cells

Genetic Engineering In-Vitro Fertilization extraction of ovum from the mothers ovary and is allowed to mature in an incubator and fertilized with a few drops of the fathers sperms. When the egg has divided into eight cells, it is implanted to the mothers uterus to grow in a normal way Artificial Insemination insemination of a sperm of a donor to the woman. The anonymous donor trait is usually matched with the racial traits of the father Surrogate Motherhood a woman other than the wife conceives the child until delivery because the woman is infertile Cloning/Mapping creating identical copy or mirror image of an original

Stages of Development Gestation period 266 days development of the fetus within the mothers womb Prenatal Stage Birth Types of Birth 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Natural/Spontaneous Birth Instrumental Birth Breech Birth the fetal buttocks appear first followed by the legs, arms and eventually the head. Transverse Birth the fetus lies crosswise in the mothers womb Cesarean-Section Birth the fetus is delivered surgically by means of a slit created in the maternal abdominal wall Post-Natal Stage INFANCY birth to two weeks 1. 2. Period of Partunate first 12-20 minutes after birth Period of Neonate from the moment the umbilical cord fall off, almost two weeks after birth. BABYHOOD Age of Helplessness second week of infancy up to two years old 1. 2. SUCKING REFLEX ROOTING REFLEX fertilization to two weeks period of embryo: week 2 to week 8 period of fetus: week 8 to birth

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3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 1. 2. BABINSKI REFLEX DARWINIAN REFLEX MORO REFLEX PUPILLARY REFLEX SWIMMING REFLEX Early Childhood two to six years Late Childhood six years up to the onset of puberty

CHILDHOOD

PUBERTY STAGE Age of Confusion pubescent boys and girls do not know whether to behave like a child or like a grown-up 1. 2. PRE-PUBESCENCE changes in primary sexual characteristics POST-PUBESCENCE completion of pubic hair growth; completion in primary and secondary sex characteristics

ADOLESCENCE period of storm and stress 1. 2. Teenager/Young Adolescent 13 to 17 years of age Youth/Older Adolescent 18 to 21 years old Early Adulthood 21 to 40 years of age Middle Adulthood 40 to 60 years old Late Adulthood/Old Age 60 years onwards

ADULTHOOD 1. 2. 3.