Lab Manual Rock & Aggregate

ROCK And AGGREGATE Test procedures
Rock and aggregate laboratory manual
INTRODUCTION
The test procedures collected in this manual are based on ISRM Suggested Methods, on ASTM, French and British Standards. However, in various cases the test procedures were adapted to the type of equipment generally used in a rock mechanics laboratory and in some cases to the equipment present at de laboratory of Engineering Geology, Delft University of Technology. This means that often a realistic compromise had to be found between strict requirements and practical possibilities. Test procedures are continuously updated as a result of further development of rock mechanics. This manual reflects the situation at the time that the manual was prepared.
Warning:
Whenever tests have to be performed following a prescribed standard, always consult that standard before testing.
This laboratory manual is an extended and improved version of the manual made by Dr Niek Rengers from the International Institute for Aerospace Survey and Earth Sciences (ITC ) Enschede.
W. Verwaal and A. Mulder Laboratory of Engineering Geology, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Department of Applied Earth Sciences, Delft University of Technology
September 2000
References:
ISRM: ASTM: BS:
"Rock Characterization, Testing and Monitoring", ISRM Suggested Methods, Editor E.T. Brown. Pergamon press 1981 "1985 Annual Book of ASTM Standards", Volume 04.08: Soil and Rock; Building Stones. Published by ASTM in 1986. 812: Published by British Standards Institution.
Geotechnical Laboratory DGM, Thimphu Bhutan
Geotechnical laboratory DGM, Thimphu Bhutan
CONTENTS
1.1: Standard test procedure for the determination of rock material dry density. .................................................. 4 1.2: Standard test procedure for the determination of the (natural) water content of rock material. ..................... 6 1.3: Standard test procedure for the determination of porosity of rock material. .................................................. 8 2.1: Standard procedure for the determination of Schmidt Hammer Rebound Hardness. ................................... 10 2.2: Equotip hardness number ............................................................................................................................. 13 2.3: Standard laboratory test procedure to determine the ultrasonic velocity in rock.......................................... 15 2.4: Standard test procedure for the determination of rock material toughness in the laboratory........................ 18 2.5: Standard test procedure for the determination of rock swelling properties. ................................................. 19 2.6: Standard test procedure for the determination of the slake durability. ......................................................... 21 2.7: Standard test procedure for the determination of the point load strength of rock material........................... 23 3.1: Standard procedure for the determination of rock material indirect tensile strength by the Brazilian test ... 30 3.2: Standard test procedure for the determination of unconfined compressive strength of rock material. ......... 32 3.3: Standard test procedure for the determination of the strength of rockmaterial in triaxial compression ....... 35 3.4: Standard test procedure for the determination of the shear strength of rock material in direct shear........... 38 3.5: Shear strength of rock discontinuities with Golder Shear Box..................................................................... 41 4.1: Standard test procedure for the determination of the modulus of elasticity.................................................. 43 4.2: Standard test procedure for the determination of the Poisson Ratio............................................................. 46 5.1: .Standard test procedure for the determination of the resistance to abrasion of aggregate by use of the Los Angeles machine. ...................................................................................................................................... 49 5.2: Aggregate impact value BS 812:part 112 1990 ........................................................................................... 54 5.3: Aggregate crushing value BS 812:part 110:1990 ........................................................................................ 58 5.4: Ten per cent fines value BS 812:part 111 1990............................................................................................ 62 5.5: Micro-Deval abrasion test NF P 18-572 (AFNOR 1978) ............................................................................. 65 6.1: The methylene blue adsorption spot test....................................................................................................... 67 Appendix I: Rock core preparation...................................................................................................................... 72 Appendix II: Table with indications of strength properties of rock...................................................................... 69
1.1: Standard test procedure for the determination of rock material dry density.
Scope of the test The objective of the test is to measure the dry density of samples of cylindrical or other regular form. (For samples of irregular form see Remarks). The dry density is expressed in units of mass (kg or g) per unit of volume (m or cm or mm). All individual steps for this test are also contained in the porosity determination test. Apparatus used Oven (24 hours at 105 C +/- 5 C) Desiccator Calliper with accuracy of 0.1mm Balance with accuracy of 0.01 g and range of 100 g Sample container (not-corrodible) with airtight lid.
Procedure
- Prepare three specimens of regular form from a representative sample of rock. The size of the specimens should be such that both following conditions are fulfilled: - the specimen mass should be at least 50 g (cube of 3x3x3cm, or cylinder with diameter of 2.5 cm and length 5 cm.) - the minimum specimen dimension should be at least ten times the maximum grain size of the rock. - The specimen volume (V) is calculated from the average value of several calliper readings (3 at least, with an accuracy of 0.1 mm) for each dimension of the specimens. - The specimen is located in a container (to avoid loss of mass during subsequent specimen handling), but without the lid, and dried in an oven to constant mass (generally 24 hours is enough) at a temperature of 105 C. After replacing the lid, the specimen is cooled in a desiccator for 30 minutes. The mass (C) of the container (and lid) with the specimen is determined with an accuracy of 0.1 g.(d) The container with the lid is cleaned and dried and its mass (A) is determined. Calculation Dry density:
d =
dry mass C - A = (in kg/ m3 or g/ cm3 or g/ mm3 ) volume V
(dry unit weight = d x 9.8 (in kN/m)) Reporting The report shall include the following information: (a) Data on the sampling: - Project name, location, date of sampling, sample number, depth below terrain (in case of borehole) - Type of sample (core, block, disturbed, or other), sample dimensions - Lithology, weathering grade, grain size, natural water content - Sample transport and storage conditions. (b) Data on the specimens: - Form, dimensions and weight of all specimens.
(c) Data on the testing procedure: - The individual results for the three specimens (or more) per rock sample should be reported, together with the average result for the sample. Density values should be given to the nearest 10 kg/m. The report should specify that bulk volume was obtained by calliper measurement. Remarks If irregular samples are used the volume can be determined by measurement of the saturated-submerged mass (Msub) and the saturated mass (Msat)of the samples. The volume is then calculated as follows
V=
Msat - Msub water
It should be specified in the report that the volume was determined by measurement of the saturated submerged mass. Reference International Society for Rock Mechanics Suggested Methods "Rock Characterisation, Testing and Monitoring" Editor E.T. Brown, Pergamon Press 1981, pages 81 - 85 ASTM Standard Test Method C97-83
1.2: Standard test procedure for the determination of the (natural) water content of rock material.
Scope of the test The objective of the test is to determine the water content of the rock material as it was retrieved in the field. For the accurate determination of the in-situ water content, the sampling, storage, transport and handling precautions should be such that the water content remains within 1% of the in situ value. Apparatus used Oven (24 hours at 105 C +/- 5C) Desiccator Calliper with accuracy of 0.1 mm Balance with accuracy of 0.1 g and range of 1000 g Sample container (non corrodible) with airtight lid.
Procedure - A representative sample must consist of at least 10 lumps, fulfilling the following conditions: - the mass of each lump should be at least 50 g - the minimum lump dimension should be at least ten times the maximum grain size of the rock. - The lumps are located in a container, the lid placed, and the mass (B) is determined with an accuracy of 0.1 g. - The lumps are kept in the container, but with the lid removed, and dried in an oven to constant mass (generally 24 hours is enough) at a temperature of 105C. After replacing the lid the lumps are cooled in a desiccator for 30 minutes. The mass (C) of the container with the lumps is determined with an accuracy of 0.1 g. - The container with the lid is cleaned and dried, and its mass (A) is determined. Calculation Water Content:
w=
porewatermass BC 100% = 100% grainmass CA
Reporting The report includes the following information: (a) Data on the sampling: - Project name, location, date of sampling, sample number, depth below terrain (in case of borehole). - Type of sample (core, block, disturbed, or other), sample dimensions. - Lithology, weathering grade, grain size, natural water content. - Sample transport and storage conditions. (b) Data on the specimens: - Form, dimensions and weight of all specimens. - Density and water content during testing. (c)Data on the testing procedure.
The water content should be reported to the nearest 0.1 %. It should be stated whether this corresponds to "in-situ" water content. If this is the case then the precautions which were taken to preserve the natural water content during sampling and storage should be specified. Reference International Society for Rock Mechanics Suggested Methods "Rock Characterisation, Testing and Monitoring" Editor E.T. Brown, Pergamon Press 1981, pages 83 ASTM Standard Test Method D2216-80.
1.3: Standard test procedure for the determination of porosity of rock material.
Scope of the test The objective of the test is to measure the porosity of rock specimens of cylindrical or other regular form.(For samples of irregular form see Remarks). The porosity is the volume of the pores in the rock expressed as a percentage of the total volume of the rock. Apparatus used Oven (24 hours at 105C +/-5C) Desiccator Calliper with an accuracy of 0.1 mm Balance with an accuracy of 0.01 g and a range up to 200 g Sample container (non-corrodible) with airtight lid Vacuum chamber with pressure less than 800 Pa (6 Torr)
Procedures - Prepare three specimens of regular form from a representative sample of rock. The size of the specimens should be such that both following conditions are fulfilled: - the specimen mass should be at least 50 g (a cube of 3x3x3 cm, or a cylinder with a diameter of 2.5 cm and a length of 5 cm). - the minimum specimen dimension should be at least ten times the maximum grain size of the rock. - The specimen bulk volume (V) is calculated from the average value of several calliper readings (3 at least, with an accuracy of 0.1 mm) for each dimension of the specimen. - The specimen is saturated by water immersion in a vacuum of less than 800 Pa (6 torr) for a period of at least 1 hour, with periodic agitation to remove trapped air. - The specimen is removed from the water and surface dried using a moisten cloth, care being taken to remove only surface water and to ensure that no fragments are lost. The specimen is located in a container to avoid loss of mass during subsequent sample handling. The mass of specimen plus container (B) is determined with an accuracy of 0.01 g. - The specimen (in the open container) is dried in an oven to constant mass (generally 24 hours is enough) at a temperature of 105C. After closure of the container and cooling in a desiccator for 30 minutes, the mass (C) of the dry sample with the container (and lid) is determined with an accuracy of 0.01 g. - The container with the lid is cleaned and dried and its mass (A) is determined with an accuracy of 0.01 g. Calculation Saturated surface dry mass Dry specimen mass Pore volume
Msat = B A Ms = C A
Vv = Msat Ms Density water
Porosity
n=
Vv 100% V
Reporting The report shall include the following information: (a) Data on the sampling: - Project name, location, date of sampling, sample number, depth below terrain (in case of borehole). - Type of sample (core, block, disturbed, or other), sample dimensions. - Lithology, weathering grade, grain size, natural water content. - Sample transport and storage conditions. (b) Data on the specimens: - Form, dimensions and weight of all specimens. (c) Data on the testing procedure: - The individual results for the three specimens (or more) per rock sample should be reported, together with the average result for the sample. Porosity values should be given to the nearest 0.1 %. - The report should specify that bulk volume was obtained by calliper measurement, and that porosity was obtained by water saturation. Remarks If irregular samples are used the volume can be determined by measurement of the saturated-submerged mass (Msub) and the saturated mass (Msat) of the samples. The volume in this case is: It shall be specified in the report if the volume has been determined with the saturated-submerged mass. Reference International Society for Rock Mechanics Suggested Methods "Rock Characterisation, Testing and Monitoring" Editor E.T. Brown, Pergamon press 1981, pages 81 to 85. ASTM Standard Test method C97-83
2.1: Standard procedure for the determination of Schmidt Hammer Rebound Hardness.
Scope of the test The rebound value of the Schmidt Hammer is used as an index value for the intact strength of rock material, but it is also used to give an indication of the compressive strength of rock material. The Schmidt Hammer is essentially a field instrument but it may be used as well in the laboratory. When used in the laboratory special attention has to be given to the connection of the sample with the V-block and the base, and to the connection with the supporting table, as these factors have a great influence on the testing results. The method is of limited use on very soft and on very hard rocks. Apparatus used - A standard Schmidt Hammer of the L-type having an impact energy of 0.74 Nm. - A calibration test anvil for the calibration of the test hammer rebound numbers. - A steel base of minimum weight of 20 kg with a steel V block for cylindrical samples and with a clamping device. Such a base can also be used if irregularly formed samples (lumps) should be tested in the laboratory. - A vertically oriented cradle to guide the Schmidt Hammer in a vertical downward direction during the testing. Test Procedure - Prior to the testing sequence, the Schmidt Hammer should be calibrated using the calibration anvil supplied by the manufacturer of the Schmidt Hammer for that purpose. The average value of 10 readings on the test anvil should be obtained. - The specimens obtained for the laboratory testing should be representative and characteristic for the rock material to be studied. The type-L hammer should be used on NX (54 mm) or larger diameter core samples or on block samples having an edge length of at least 60 mm. The specimens must be securely clamped to a rigid base to adequately secure the specimen against vibration and movement during the test. The base must be placed on a flat surface that provides firm support. - The test surface of all specimens in the laboratory and testing locations in the field, should be smooth and flat over the area of contact with the plunger. This area and the rock material beneath the surface to a depth of 60 mm shall be free from cracks, or any discontinuity in the rock. - The hardness values obtained will be affected by the orientation of the hammer. In the laboratory the vertical cradle will hold the Schmidt Hammer in vertical downwards position during the testing. During in-situ testing in the field the testing direction must always be perpendicular to the surface tested. The orientation of the Schmidt Hammer in that case should be recorded and reported in the results. With the Schmidt Hammer a chart is provided to make corrections for non vertical measurements. - At least 20 individual tests must be conducted on any rock sample. The test locations shall be separated by at least the diameter of the plunger. Any test that causes cracking or any other visible failure of the rock should be rejected. Errors in specimen preparation and testing tend to produce low hardness values.
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Fig.2.1.1: Relation between the Schmidt Hammer Hardness, type L hammer and the Uniaxial Compressive Strength of Rock (ISRM).
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Calculation - The correction value is calculated as follows - For tests in the laboratory on rock material of uniform strength the measured test values for the sample must be ranked in descending value. The lower 50% of the values should be discarded and the average calculated of the upper 50% values. This average shall be multiplied by the correction factor to obtain the Schmidt Rebound Hardness. - When a number (15 to 20) readings is taken in the field to characterise a unit with some variation of hardness and strength, the same procedure for reporting as used with point load strength testing can be applied, which involves ranking, discarding of the upper and lower 2 or 3 values and averaging of the remaining values. The maximum and minimum of the remaining values are recorded as the range of the Schmidt Hammer Rebound Value. (For the influence of rough surface conditions in situ see remarks) Reporting The report shall include the following information: (a) Data on the sampling: - Project name, location, date of sampling, sample number, depth below terrain (in case of borehole) - Type of sample (core, block, broken, in situ or other), sample dimensions - Lithology, weathering grade, grain size, natural water content - Sample transport and storage conditions (b) Data on the specimens: - Form, dimensions and weight of all specimens - Density and water content during testing (c) Data on the testing procedure: - Orientation of the Schmidt Hammer during every test in the field - Method of clamping used in the laboratory - The Schmidt Hammer Rebound Hardness value as obtained from the calculations explained above. - Indication of the value of uniaxial compressive strength in Mpa +/- the average dispersion as read from the graph in figure 2.1.1, with reference to the fact that the graph has been used for this purpose. The rock density (test nr.1.1) must be known when this graph is used. Remarks When measurements are taken in situ, the testing location is usually not as flat as is required. By repetition of the test several times at exactly the same location the rebound value usually is observed to increase until a constant value is reached. This is due to cracking of points of the surface asperities and the subsequent increase of the contact area between the plunger and the rock surface. The reading must be taken after it has reached a stable value. References International Society for Rock Mechanics Suggested Methods "Rock Characterisation, Testing and Monitoring" Editor E.T. Brown, Pergamon Press 1981, pages 101 and 102.
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2.2: Equotip hardness number
Scope of the test The equotip is de developed by Proceq SA, the company with manufacturers the Schmidt Hammer, to measure the hardness of metallic material. According to research at the section of Engineering Geology of Delft University the equotip can also used as a index test to estimate the rock strength. An article about Equotip is added to this manual as appendix 2. Apparatus used
figure 2.2.1. 1 loading tube 2 guide tube 3 coil with coil holder 4 release button 5 connection cable leading to the indicating device with coil plug 6 large support ring, 6a small supportring 7 impact body 8 spherical test tip 9 impact spring 10 loading spring 11 catch chuck 12 material to be tested
figure 2.2.2.: Using the Equotip impact device
Fig 2.2.1
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Test Procedure - Prior to the testing the equotip should be calibrated using the anvil supplied with the equotip apparatus. The correct reading on the anvil is located on the anvil. - The test sample should be representative and characteristic for the rock material to be studied. - Although smaller sample can be used, it is recommended to use rock sample with a minimum volume of 200 cm3. - The test surface of all specimens in the laboratory and testing locations in the field should be smooth and flat over the test area, minimum about 10 cm2. - At least 10 individual test must be conducted on any rock sample. the test locations shall be separated by at least 5mm. On a core sample we can take 5 reading on each side. Calculation From the ten readings the highest en the lowest reading must be discard, from the remaining values the average is calculated and expressed as the L value. We can estimate the Unconfined compressive strength with the following formula:
estimatedU.C.S.= 4.906 E -7 * L value2.974

Reporting The report shall include the following information: (a) Data on the sampling: - Project name, location, date of sampling, sample number, depth below terrain (in case of borehole) - Type of sample (core, block, broken, in situ or other), sample dimensions - Lithology, weathering grade, grain size, natural water content - Sample transport and storage conditions (b) Data on the specimens: - Form, dimensions and weight of all specimens - Density and water content during testing (c) Data on the testing procedure: - The type of equotip device - The equotip L value as obtained from the calculations explained above. - Indication of the value of uniaxial compressive strength in MPa with reference to the fact that the graph has been used for this purpose. Remarks When measurements are taken in situ, the testing location is usually not as flat as is required. The use of a battery operated hand-held drilling machine with a small grinding stone is advisable. References Verwaal W. and Mulder A. Estimating Rock Strength with the Equotip Hardness Tester Int. J. Rock. Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr. Vol. 30, No. 6. pp. 659-662, 1993.
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2.3: Standard laboratory test procedure to determine the ultrasonic velocity in rock.
Scope of the test This test is used to determine the velocity of propagation of elastic compression- and shear waves in rock samples in the laboratory. The ultrasonic (dynamic) elastic constants of a rock can be determined from the compression and shear wave velocities and the rock density for isotropic or slightly anisotropic rock. Apparatus used - A pulse generator unit. Three different types of pulse generators are used for three different types of test procedures: - high frequency ultrasonic pulse technique - low frequency ultrasonic pulse technique - sine wave resonant technique - The transducers consist of a transmitter which converts electrical pulses into mechanical pulses and a receiver, which converts mechanical pulses into electrical pulses. environmental conditions such as average temperature, air moisture and impact should be considered in selecting the transducer element. Piezoelectric elements are usually recommended, but magnetostrictive elements may de suitable. - Display and timing unit. An oscilloscope is needed for the display of the transmitted and received pulse, which is necessary to separate arrivals of compression and shear waves. The timing unit must be capable of measuring time intervals between 2 micro seconds and 5 milliseconds to an accuracy of 1% . - Measuring calliper with an accuracy of 0.1 mm - Acoustical bench which can keep the sample and the transducers properly aligned along one axis with the required contact pressure between transducers and sample. - Contact fluid to ensure a good contact between the transducers and the flat and polished rock surface. Test procedure - Sample preparation. Care should be taken that core drilling, handling, storage, sawing, grinding and lapping does not cause mechanical damage of the test sample. As sample form a cylinder with perpendicular and flat end faces is usually applied. - Three different types of test procedure are possible: - The high frequency technique, in which pulses with a frequency of 100 kHz to 2 MHz are used. Rectangular blocks, cylindrical cores or even spheres can be used. The lateral minimum dimension (perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation) is recommended to be not smaller than 10 times the wave-length. The travel distance of the pulse through the rock must be at least 10 times the average grain size. The positioning of the transducers on the sample is illustrated in figure 2.2.1. In case the velocities of compression and shear waves are calculated from the measured travel time and the distance between transmitter and receiver. In case b the distance between transmitter and receiver is varied. The velocities of compression and shear waves are calculated from the curves of travel time vs. distance. - The low frequency technique, in which pulses with a frequency of 2 to 30 kHz are used. This method is suitable for samples which are long compared to the diameter (length to diameter ratio > 3). The wave length of the pulse must be long compared with the diameter (ratio > 5). The positioning of the transducers is in principle the same as in figure 2.3.1., when measuring compression wave velocity, but figure 2.3.2 shows the preferred arrangement for positioning when measuring the shear wave velocity.
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The velocities of compression and shear waves are determined as in the high frequency technique. - The sine wave resonant technique. Samples of cylindrical form with a length to diameter ratio > 3 and a wavelength to diameter ratio > 6 can be used in this method. Positioning of transducers is as shown in fig 2.2.1. for the determination of compression wave velocity, and as shown in figure 2.2.2. for shear wave velocity.
Figure 2.3.1.: Positioning of transmitter and receiver on the test sample used in the high frequency technique.
Figure 2.3.2.; Positioning of transducers when measuring shear wave velocity with the low frequency technique.
Calculation For the high frequency and low frequency techniques the velocities are calculated from the travel time (tp and ts) and the distance between transmitter and receiver (d), by using the following equations:
velosity compressio n wave Vp =

and
d (in M / sec) ts
velosity shear wave Vs =
d (in m / sec) ts
If the seismic profiling technique was used (positioning of transducers as in figure 2.2.1.b) the velocities are given by the slope of the curve travel time versus distance d. For the resonant technique the following calculation is used
Vd = 2 L f 0 (in m / sec)
where Vd is the wave velocity, L is the length of the sample , and f0 is the resonant frequency of zero mode of either longitudinal (compressional) or shear (torsional) vibrations. The following so called ultrasonic (dynamic) elastic constants can be calculated if the density of the material is determined and if the sample is isotropic or very slightly anisotropic:
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Modulus of elasticity
E=
D * Vs 2 * ( 3Vs 2 - 4 Vs 2 ) (in Mpa ) 2 Vp - Vs 2
Modulus of rigidity G = D x Vs 2 (in Mpa)

2
P oissons ratio
Vp - 2 Vs 2 = 2( Vp2 - Vs 2 )
L ames constant
= D ( Vp 2 - 2 Vs 2 ) (inMpa)
D (3 Vp 2 - 4 Vs 2 ) (inMpa) 3
Bulk modulus
K=
In these formulas D is the rock material density in kg/m. Reporting The report should include the following information: (a) Data on the sampling: - Project name, location, date of sampling, sample number, depth below terrain (in case of borehole). - Type of sample (core, block, disturbed, or other), sample dimensions. - Lithology, weathering grade, grain size, natural water content. - Sample transport and storage conditions. (b) Data on the specimens: - Form, dimensions and weight of all specimens. - Density and water content during testing. (c) Data on the testing procedure: - Description of experimental technique and of electronic equipment used. - Tables with the values of the velocities measured and the calculated ultrasonic elastic constants. Remarks More detailed information on the electronic equipment can be found in the ISRM and ASTM standard procedure (see references).
References International Society for Rock Mechanics Suggested Methods "Rock Characterisation, Testing and Monitoring" Editor E.T. Brown, Pergamon Press 1981, pages 107 to 110. ASTM standard D2845-83
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2.4: Standard test procedure for the determination of rock material toughness in the laboratory.
Scope of the test The objective of the test is to determine the resistance of rock material against impact by a falling hammer. Apparatus used - ASTM standard testing machine for the drop impact toughness test. Test procedure - Samples needed for this test are cylindrical in form, with flat end faces, which are perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. The length of the sample is 25 mm, the diameter must be 24 to 25 mm. The test samples should be free of cracks or weakness zones. - The sample is placed with one of its end planes on an iron anvil. A weight of 2 kg is permitted to fall vertically between parallel guides upon a spherical-ended plunger weighing 1 kg, which rests on top of the specimen. The height of the first blow is 1 cm and each successive blow thereafter is increased in height by 1 cm, until the sample fails. - The height in cm of the fall which caused failure of the sample is recorded as the toughness of the material. - At least six specimens of the same rock material, three being prepared so that the direction of impact is perpendicular, and three parallel to the plane of structural weakness if such a plane is apparent. Reporting The report shall include the following information: (a) Data on the sampling: - Project name, location, date of sampling, sample number, depth below terrain (in case of borehole). - Type of sample (core, block, disturbed, or other), sample dimensions. - Lithology, weathering grade, grain size, natural water content. - Sample transport and storage conditions. (b) Data on the specimens: - Form, dimensions and weight of all specimens. - Density and water content during testing. (c) Data on the testing procedure: - The individual and the average toughness of the three specimens in each set are separately reported. References ASTM Standard Testing Technique ASTM D-3-18 Deere, D.U. and R.P Miller : "Engineering Classification and Index Properties for Intact Rocks" Air Force Weapon Lab. New Mexico, USA 1966.
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2.5: Standard test procedure for the determination of rock swelling properties.
Scope of the test This test is intended to determine the rock swelling properties when an undisturbed specimen of that rock is immersed in water. Two swelling properties are distinguished: - the swelling pressure index under conditions of zero volume change. - the swelling strain index for a radially confined specimen with axial surcharge. Apparatus used Adaptation of soil consolidation testing equipment, as described in the ISRM suggested methods on pages 89 and 90, consisting of the following: - A metal ring for rigid radial restraint of the specimen, polished and lubricated to reduce side friction and of depth sufficient to accommodate the fully swollen specimen. - Porous plates to allow water access at top and bottom of the specimen, the top plate of such a diameter to slide freely in the ring. Filter paper may be inserted between specimen and porous plates. - A cell to contain the ring with the specimen, capable of being filled with water to a level above the top porous plate (the principal features of the cell and specimen assembly are illustrated in the ISRM publication). - A micrometer dial gauge (0.0025 mm) mounted to measure the swelling displacement at the central axis of the specimen. for the swelling pressure index : - A load measuring device capable of measuring to an accuracy of 1% the force required to resist swelling. - A loading device such as a screw jack, capable of continuous adjustment to maintain the specimen at constant volume as swelling pressure develops. The force should be applied through rigid members to ensure that the porous plates remain flat, a spherical seat allowing rotation of the top porous plate. for the swelling strain index : - A loading device capable of applying a constant pressure of 5kPa to the specimen, this pressure to be maintained within 1% throughout the swelling of the specimen. The force should be applied through rigid members to assure that the porous plates remain flat, a spherical seat allowing rotation of the top porous plate. Test procedure - For testing at natural initial water content, preparation of the specimen should be such as to retain water content within 1% of its in situ value. Per sample three test specimens must be prepared. - The specimen should be a cylinder fitting closely in the ring. It should have a diameter not less than four times its thickness. The thickness should be more than 15 mm or ten times the maximum grain size, whichever is greater. - The initial thickness and the diameter of the specimen are recorded with an accuracy of 0.1%.
for swelling pressure index : - The apparatus is assembled and a small axial stress of about 10 kPa is applied to the specimen. - The cell is flooded with water to cover the top porous plate. - The applied force is regularly adjusted to maintain zero specimen swelling (less than 0.01 mm) throughout the test.
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- The swelling force is recorded as a function of time until it reaches a constant level or passes a peak. for swelling strain index : - The apparatus is assembled and the specimen is loaded axially to a pressure of 3 kPa. - The cell is flooded with water to cover the top porous plate. - The swelling displacement is recorded as a function of time until it reaches a constant level or passes a peak. Calculation
Swelling pressure index
F A
(in MPa)
In this formula F = maximum axial swelling force recorded during the test and A = cross sectional area of the specimen
Swelling strain index =
d L
x 100% (ratio)
In this formula d = maximum swelling displacement recorded during the test and L = initial thickness of the specimen. Reporting The report shall include the following information: (a) Data on the sampling: - Project name, location, date of sampling, sample number, depth below terrain (in case of borehole). - Type of sample (core, block, disturbed, or other), sample dimensions. - Lithology, weathering grade, grain size, natural water content. - Sample transport and storage conditions. (b) Data on the specimens: - Dimensions and weight of all specimens. (c) Data on the testing: - The report must clearly indicate that the specimen was radially confined during the swelling test. - For each specimen the value of the swelling pressure index or swelling strain index respectively. - The initial water content of the specimen. It must be indicated if this equals the natural water content (see also section 5a). Remarks The ISRM suggested method describes a third possible type of swelling testing for unconfined rock specimen. This type of test is to be used for rock material which does not change appreciably its geometry when swelling. It needs a specially built cell which is described in the ISRM book. References International Society for Rock Mechanics Suggested Methods "Rock Characterization, Testing and Monitoring" Editor E.T. Brown, Pergamon Press 1981, pages 89 to 92.
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2.6: Standard test procedure for the determination of the slake durability.
Scope of the test This test is intended to assess the resistance offered by a rock sample to weakening and disintegration when subjected to cycles of drying and wetting. The ISRM standard is based on two cycles of drying and wetting. Four or five cycles of drying and wetting are recommended when evaluating rocks of higher durability. The slake durability index is expressed as the percentage ratio of the final dry sample mass to the initial dry sample mass. Apparatus used - Standard slake durability testing equipment as specified by ISRM (page 92+93) - Oven capable to maintain a temperature of 105 C (+/-5C) for a period of at least 12 hours - Balance capable to determine the mass of the drum plus sample to an accuracy of 0.5g Procedure - A representative sample is selected, consisting of ten lumps of rock, each with a mass of 40 to 60 grams, to give a total sample of 450 to 550 grams. The maximum grain size of the rock should not be larger than 3 mm. Lumps should be as good as possible rounded in form and corners should be rounded during preparation of the sample. - The sample is placed in a clean drum and is dried to constant mass at a temperature of 105C, usually requiring 2 to 6 hours in the oven. The mass (A) of the drum plus the sample is recorded with an accuracy of 0.1 g. The sample is then tested after cooling. - The lid of the drum is replaced, the drum is mounted in the trough and coupled to the motor. - The trough is filled with slaking fluid (usually tap water at 20C) to a level 20 mm below the drum axis, and the drum rotated for 200 revolution during a period of 10 minutes +/- 0.5 minutes. - The drum is removed from the trough, the lid removed from the drum, and the drum plus retained portion of the sample is dried to constant mass at 105C.. The mass B1 of the drum plus retained portion of the sample is recorded after cooling with an accuracy of 0.1 g. - Steps (c) to (e) are repeated and the mass B2 of the drum plus retained portion of the sample after another 200 revolutions is recorded. - The drum is brushed clean and its mass D is recorded with an accuracy of 0.1 g. Calculation
-D x 100% Slake durability index (ISRM) Id 2 = B 2 A- D -D after n cycles Id n = B n x 100% A- D

Reporting The report shall include the following information: (a) Data on the sampling: - Project name, location, date of sampling, sample number, depth below terrain (in case of borehole)
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- Type of sample (core, block, disturbed, or other), sample dimensions - Lithology, weathering grade, grain size, natural water content - Sample transport and storage conditions (b) Data on the specimens: - Form of the lumps (c) Data on the testing procedure: - The slake durability index after each cycle rounded to the nearest 0.1% - The nature and temperature of the slaking fluid. This will usually be tap water at 20C, but for example distilled water, natural ground water, sea water, a dilute acid, or a dispersing agent may be specified. - The appearance of the fragments retained in the drum. - The appearance of the material passing through the drum. Remarks Samples which show a slake durability index after two cycles which is lower than 20% should be further subjected to soil classification tests such as the determination of Atterberg limits and hydrometer grain size distribution determination. A classification combining slake durability index and plasticity index is suggested in cases where detailed characterization (particularly of argillaceous rocks) is required. References International Society for Rock Mechanics Suggested Methods: "Rock Characterisation, Testing and Monitoring" Editor E.T. Brown, Pergamon Press 1981, pages 92 to 94. Goodman, R.E.: "Introduction to Rock Mechanics", John Wiley & Sons, 1980, pages 36 and 37.
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2.7: Standard test procedure for the determination of the point load strength of rock material
Scope of the test The point load strength test is intended as an index test for the strength classification of rock material. It may also be used to predict other strength parameters with which it is correlated, for example uniaxial compressive and tensile strength. The test determines the Point Load Strength Index Is(50) of rock specimens (expressed in units of stress, preferably in MPa) and their Strength Anisotrophy Is(50), which is the ratio of Point Load Strength values in directions which give the highest and lowest values. Rock specimens in the form of either core (the diametral and axial tests), cut blocks (the block test), or irregular lumps (the irregular lump test) are broken by a pair of spherically truncated, conical platens (see fig. 2.7.1).
figure 2.7.1 platen shape and tip radius. Apparatus used - The standard testing machine for point load testing, according to the specifications listed in the "suggested method for determining point load strength" issued by the International Society for rock mechanics. - A calliper to measure the width W of the specimens and the diameter D of core samples. Accuracy 0.1 mm. Specimen selection and preparation A test sample is defined as a number of rock specimens of similar strength for which a single Point Load Strength value is to be determined (preferably 10 specimens at least are tested from 1 sample). For diametrical tests the specimens should have a ratio of length to diameter which is greater than 1.0. For axial tests the core specimens should have a ratio length/diameter between 0.3 and 1.0. For block tests and for irregular lump tests the shape requirements are illustrated in figure 2.7.2.(c) and 2.7.2.(d). The ratio D/W should be between 0.3 and 1.0, preferably close to 1.0. For all types of samples the size limits are 15mm<D<85mm, however it is preferred that the D size of the specimens is as close as possible to 50mm, which is the size at which the standard index is defined. For routine testing and classification, specimens should be tested either fully water-saturated or at their natural water content.
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Test procedure for diametrical test - The specimen is inserted in the testing machine and the platens are closed to make contact along a core diameter, ensuring that the distance L between the contact points and the nearest free end is at least 0.5 times the core diameter (fig. 2.7.2.a).
Figure 2.7.2.:Specimen shape requirements for (a) the diametrical test; (b) the axial test; (c) the block test; (d) the irregular lump test
- The distance D is recorded +/- 2%. - The load is steadily increased such that failure occurs within 10 to 60 seconds and the failure load P is recorded. The test should be rejected if the failure surface passes through only one loading point (see fig 2.7.3). - The procedures above shall be repeated for the remaining specimens in the sample.
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figure 2.7.3.: Typical modes of failure for valid and invalid tests. (a) valid diametrical test; (b) valid axial tests: (c) valid block tests; (d) invalid diametrical test; (e) invalid axial test Test procedure for the axial test - The specimen is inserted in the testing machine and the platens are closed to make contact along a line which is perpendicular to the core end faces. In case of isotropic rock this is usually parallel to the core axis, but for anisotropic rock see figure 2.7.3. - The distance D between the platen contact points is recorded +/- 2%. The specimen width W, perpendicular to the loading direction is recorded +/- 5%. - The load is steadily increased in such a way, that failure occurs within 10 to 60 seconds, and the failure load P is recorded. The test should be rejected as invalid if the fracture surface passes through only one loading point see fig. 2.7.3.
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figure 2.7.4.: loading directions for test on anisotropic rock. Test procedure for the block and irregular lump test
- The procedures above shall be repeated for the remaining specimens of the sample.
- The specimen is inserted in the testing machine, assuring that the distance L (see fig. 2.7.2(c) and 2.7.2(d)) is at least 0.5 W. The specimen must be inserted in such a way that D is the smallest dimension of the specimen and that the platens are in contact with the specimen away from edges and corners. - The distance D between the platens is recorded +/- 2%. The smallest specimen width W perpendicular to the loading direction is recorded +/- 5%. If the sides are not parallel, the W is calculated as (W1 + W2)/2 as shown in fig. 2.7.2(d). This smallest width is used for further calculation. It does not depend on the actual mode of failure. - The load is steadily increased in such a way that failure occurs within 10 to 60 seconds and the failure load P is recorded. The test should be rejected as invalid if the fracture surface passes through only one loading point. - The procedures above shall be repeated for the remaining specimens of the sample. Testing of anisotropic rock - When a rock is shale, bedded, schistose or otherwise anisotropic due to a clearly developed splitting direction, it should be tested in directions which give the lowest and highest strength values, which are in general parallel and perpendicular to the planes of anisotropy. - If the sample consists of core drilled through the weakness planes, a set of diametrical test may be completed first, spaced at intervals which will yield pieces which can then be tested axially. - Best results are obtained when the core axis is perpendicular to the planes of weakness, so that when possible the core should be drilled in this direction (this is possible when the cores are bored in the laboratory from a large block of rock). The angle between the core axis and the line perpendicular to the weakness planes should preferably not exceed 300. - For measurement of the Is value in the directions of least strength, care should be taken to ensure that load is applied along a single weakness plane. Similarly when testing for the Is value in the direction of greatest strength, care should be taken to ensure that the load is applied perpendicularly to the weakness planes (see fig. 2.7.4.). - If the sample consists of blocks or irregular lumps, it should be tested as two sub-samples, with load applied firstly perpendicular to, then along the observable planes of weakness. Again, the required minimum strength value is obtained when the platens make contact along a single plane of weakness. Calculation Uncorrected Point Load strength The uncorrected point load strength Is is calculated as P/De2, where De (the equivalent core diameter) is given by:
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De2 = D2 for diametrical tests = 4A/, for axial, block and lump tests and A = W * D = minimum cross sectional area of a plane through the platen contact points Size correction - It varies as a function of D in the diametrical test, and as a function of De in axial, block and irregular lump tests, so that a size correction must be applied. - The size corrected Point Load Strength Index Is(50) of a rock specimen or sample is defined as the value which would have been measured by a diametrical test with D = 50 mm. - The most reliable method of obtaining Is(50), is to conduct diametrical tests at or close to D = 50 mm. Size correction is then either unnecessary (D=50mm) or introduces a minimum of error. This is the case, for example, for diametrical tests on NX core (D=54mm). Most point load strength tests, however, are executed using other sizes or shapes of specimen. In such cases the size correction as below must be applied. - The most reliable method of size correction is to test the sample over a range of D or De values and to plot graphically the relation between P and De2. If log-log plotting is used the relation is usually a straight line (see fig. 2.7.5). Points that deviate substantially from the straight line may be disregarded (although they should not be deleted). The value P50 corresponding to De2=2500mm2 can then be obtained by interpolation, if necessary by extrapolation, and the size corrected Point Load Strength Index calculated as P50/502. - When this method is not practical, for example when testing single sized core at a diameter other than 50 mm or if only a few small specimens or lumps are available, size correction may be accomplished by using the formula:
Is (50) = (
De 0.45 ) * Is 50
- It has been found, that the size correction procedures specified above are not influenced by the degree of anisotropy Ia and the direction of loading with respect to planes of weakness; a result that greatly enhances the usefulness of this test.
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figure 2.7.5.: Procedure for graphical determination of Is(50) from a set of results at De values other than 50mm.
Mean value calculation The mean value of Is(50) is to be calculated by deleting the two highest and lowest values from the 10 or more valid tests, and calculating the mean of the remaining values. If significantly fewer specimens are tested only the highest and the lowest value are deleted and the mean calculated from those remaining. Point Load Strength Anisotropy Index The point load strength anisotropy index Ia(50) is defined as the ratio of mean Is(50) values measured perpendicular and parallel to planes of weakness, i.e. the ratio of the highest to lowest Point Load Strength Indices. The strength anisotropy index assumes values close to 1.0 for quasi-isotropic rocks and higher values when the rock is anisotropic. Reporting The report shall include the following information: (a) Data on the sampling: - Project name, location, date of sampling, sample number, depth below terrain (in case of borehole) - Type of sample (core, block, disturbed, or other), sample dimensions - Lithology, weathering grade, grain size, natural water content - Sample transport and storage conditions (b) Data on the specimens: - Form and dimensions of all specimens - Density and water content during testing (c) Data on the testing procedure: - Results for diametrical tests, axial tests, block tests and irregular lump tests, and for tests perpendicular and parallel to planes of weakness should be tabulated separately. - For every specimen tested, it must be indicated which direction with respect to planes of weakness in the rock (if recognisable) was tested. - A tabulation of the values of P, D, (W, De2 and De if required), Is, (F if required) and Is(50) for each specimen in the sample.
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- For all isotropic samples a summary tabulation of mean Is(50) values. - For all anisotropic samples a summary tabulation of mean Is(50) values for sub-samples tested perpendicular and parallel to the planes of weakness, and of the corresponding Ia(50) values. Remarks For a through discussion about the principles of the test and about the practical application of its results see the "notes" on the pages 57 to 60 of the publication about the Suggested Method by ISRM. References ISRM - Commission on testing Methods. Working Group on Revision of the Point Load Test Method. "Suggested Method for Determining Point Load Strength", Int. Journal Rock Mech. Min. Sc. Vol.22,No.2,pp.51-60 1985
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3.1: Standard procedure for the determination of rock material indirect tensile strength by the Brazilian test
Scope of the test The purpose of the test is to determine the splitting tensile strength of rock material by diametrical line compression of a disk form specimen. Apparatus used - A suitable testing machine, capable to load to the rock specimen at the required speed (see test procedure) and measure the applied load with the required accuracy. - Loading platens of hardened steel between which the rock specimen is compressed. - ASTM procedure is based on flat platens - ISRM procedure uses specially designed loading jaws (see figure 1 of the ISRM suggested method) to reduce premature cracking due to high stress concentrations. If such loading jaws are used, then the spherical seat of the testing machine must be kept in a locked position. The following test procedure is based on the use of flat platens. To reduce stress concentrations, cardboard with a thickness of 0.5 mm can be used between the specimen and the loading platens. - Double thickness (0.2 to 0.4 mm) adhesive paper strip (masking tape) with a width equal or slightly greater than the specimen thickness. Test procedure - The test specimen must have the form of a cylinder, with end faces perpendicular to the axis. The cylindrical surface must be free from obvious tool marks and any irregularities across the thickness of the specimen should not exceed 0.25 mm. The end faces must be flat to within 0.25 mm and square and parallel to within 0.250. At least ten specimens should be taken from one sample to obtain a meaningful average. If the sample rock is anisotropic due to the presence of weakness planes or preferred orientation of minerals, the specimens should be prepared in such a way that both directions parallel as well as perpendicular to such planes can be tested (axis of the cylinder parallel to the plane). - The specimen diameter shall preferably be not less than NX core size (54 mm), or at least 10 times the average grain size. The thickness/diameter ratio should be 0.5 to 0.6. - The specimen must be wrapped with the extra thick masking tape around it. If masking tape is not available cardboard can be used to prevent stress concentrations. - The load on the specimen must be applied continuously at a constant rate such that failure occurs within a few minutes. The actual loading rate depends on the strength of the material and the size of the specimen and may vary from 10 to 50 kN/minute Calculation The splitting tensile strength of the specimen can be determined with the following formula:
(indirect) tensile strength =
2P (in Mpa) * L* D
In this formula P is the maximum load at failure (in MN); L is the length of the specimen (in m) and D is the specimen diameter (in m). Reporting
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The report shall include the following information: (a) Data on the sampling: - Project name, location, sample number, co-ordinates, depth below terrain (in case of borehole), date of sampling. - Type of sample (core, block, disturbed), sample dimensions. - Lithology, weathering grade, grain size, natural water content. - Sample transport and storage conditions (b) Data on the specimens: - Form, dimensions and weight of all specimens - Density and water content during testing (c) Data on the testing procedure: - Type of the testing machine used, loading rate - Sketch of then mode of failure - The indirect tensile strength of each specimen, together with the average result for the sample. If the sample is anisotropic separate figures should be given for the directions parallel and perpendicular to planes of weakness. References International Society for Rock Mechanics Suggested Methods "Rock Characterisation, Testing and Monitoring" Editor E.T. Brown, Pergamon Press 1981, pages 119 to 121. ASTM Standard Test Method D3967-81
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3.2: Standard test procedure for the determination of unconfined compressive strength of rock material.
Scope of the test The aim of this test is to determine the unconfined (or uniaxial) compressive strength of rock specimens of cylindrical form. The test is mainly intended for use in strength classification and characterisation of intact rock. Apparatus used - A testing machine of sufficient capacity and capable of applying axial load at a rate conforming to the requirements described in the test procedure. The steel platens with which the specimen is loaded shall consist of hardened steel (specifications see ASTM and ISRM) and be at least as large, but preferably not more than double the diameter of the specimen. - The upper bearing plate shall be equipped with a spherical seat. The centre of curvature of the spherical seat must coincide with the centre of the top face of the specimen. Test procedure - Test specimens shall be right circular cylinders having a height to diameter ratio of 2.5 and a diameter preferable of not less than 54mm. The diameter of the specimen should be at least 10 times larger than the average grain size. The number of specimens from one sample to be tested shall preferably be at least five. If the sample rock is anisotropic due to the presence of weakness planes and/or preferred orientation of minerals, the specimens should be prepared in such a way that both directions parallel as well as perpendicular to such planes can be tested. If enough testing specimens are available various intermediate angles can also be tested. The end faces of the specimen shall be flat to 0.02 mm and be perpendicular to the specimen axis within 0.250 (0.25mm in 50mm). During the test capping of the samples is not permitted (see appendix 1). The sides of the cylinder shall be smooth and free of abrupt irregularities and straight to within 0.5 mm over the full length of the specimen. - The diameter of the specimen shall be recorded to the nearest 0.1mm by taking two perpendicular measurements at three different heights of the cylinder. The height of the cylinder shall be determined to the nearest 0.1mm. - Preferably specimens should be tested at their natural water content. Precautions have to be taken that this water content is preserved during storage and specimen preparation. - The load on the specimen shall be applied continuously at a constant stress rate such that failure will occur within 5 to 10 minutes of loading. This means for relatively strong rock a stress rate between 0.5 and 1Mpa/sec. The maximum load on the specimen shall be recorded in Newton with an accuracy of 1% . Calculation
Uniaxial compressive strength (U.C.S) =
P max 2 D * 2
In this formula Pmax is the maximum load on the specimen (in N) and D is the average specimen diameter (in m). The uniaxial compressive strength is expressed in Mpa.
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Reporting The report shall include the following information: (a) Data on the sampling: - Project name, location, date of sampling, sample number, depth below terrain (in case of borehole) - Sketch of the mode of failure - Type of sample (core, block, disturbed, or other), sample dimensions - Lithology, weathering grade, grain size, natural water content - Sample transport and storage conditions (b) Data on the specimens: - Form, dimensions and weight of all specimens - Density and water content during testing (c) Data on the testing procedure: - Description of the testing machine and the stress rate used. - A table listing of all the specimens that the values of unconfined compressive strength determined and the orientation of weakness planes (if present) with respect to the specimen axis. - The average value of unconfined compressive strength for all specimen, when necessary grouped together for the same orientation of their plane of weakness. Remarks An important part of this testing procedure is essentially identical with parts of the tests for the determination of the rock elastic modulus and the Poisson ratio. Often the test is executed for the three purposes simultaneously. References International Society for Rock Mechanics Suggested Methods "Rock Characterisation, Testing and Monitoring" Editor E.T. Brown, Pergamon Press 1981, pages 113 to 114. ASTM Standard Test Method D2938-80
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3.3: Standard test procedure for the determination of the strength of rockmaterial in triaxial compression
Scope of the test The objective of this test is to determine the strength of cylindrical rock specimens subjected to triaxial compression. From the results of this test the values of internal friction and cohesion of the rock material can be calculated. Apparatus used - A triaxial cell body in which the specimen may be placed in order to apply the confining pressure. - Both bearing plates shall be equipped with a spherical seat. The centres of curvature of the spherical seats must coincide with the centres of the end faces of the specimen. - A flexible jacket to prevent the hydraulic fluid from entering the specimen. It shall be sufficiently rigid, so as not to enter surface pores. - A testing machine of sufficient capacity and capable of applying controlling and measuring the axial load at a rate conforming to the requirements described in the test procedure. The steel platens with which the specimen is loaded shall consist of hardened steel (specifications see ASTM and ISRM) and be at least as large, but preferably not more than two mm larger than the diameter of the specimen. The spherical seating of the testing machine (if present) shall be removed or placed in a locked position. - A hydraulic pump and oil pressure gauge, able to maintain and measure the confining oil pressure with an accuracy of 2%. Test procedure - Test specimens shall be right circular cylinders having a height to diameter ratio of 2.5 and a diameter preferable of not less than NX core size (54mm). The diameter of the specimen should be at least 10 times larger than the average grain size. The number of specimens from one sample to be tested shall preferably be at least five, each one at a different level of confining stress. For the determination of cohesion and friction also the results from specimen(s) tested in unconfined compression can be used. If the sample rock is anisotropic due to the presence of weakness planes and/or preferred orientation of minerals, the specimens should be prepared in such a way that both directions parallel as well as perpendicular to such planes can be tested. If enough testing specimens can be prepared from the available sample, various intermediate angles could also be tested. - The end faces of the specimen shall be flat to 0.025 mm and be perpendicular to the specimen axis within 0.250 (0.25 mm in 50 mm). During the test, capping of the samples is not permitted. The sides of the cylinder shall be smooth and free of abrupt irregularities and straight to within 0.5 mm over the full length of the specimen. (Methods for the check of specimen from requirements are described in appendix 1. - The diameter of the specimen shall be recorded to the nearest 0.1 mm by taking two perpendicular measurements at three different heights of the cylinder. The height of the cylinder shall be determined to the nearest 0.1 mm. - Moisture can have a significant effect on the triaxial strength of the test specimen. When possible the natural water content shall be preserved until the time of the test. The moisture condition shall be reported in accordance with test nr. 2 in this handbook. - The cell must be assembled with the specimen aligned between the steel platens and surrounded by the jacket. The specimen, the platens and the spherical seats shall be accurately aligned so that each is coaxial with the others.
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- The cell is placed into the testing machine. The confining stress and axial load are increased simultaneously and in such a way, that axial stress and confining pressure are approximately equal, until the predetermined level of confining pressure is reached. Subsequently, the confining pressure shall be maintained to within 2% of the prescribed value. - The axial load on the specimen shall then be increased continuously at a constant stress rate such that failure will occur within 5 to 15 minutes of loading. This means for relatively strong rock a stress rate between 0.5 and 1 Mpa/sec. - The maximum axial load and the corresponding confining pressure of the specimen shall be recorded. Calculation - The maximum axial load is converted to axial stress in the following way:
Axial stress =
P Ao
(in Pa)
In this formula P is the maximum axial load (in Newton), A0 is the cross sectional area of the specimen at the start of the test. - Construct Mohr circles for the test results from the unconfined compressive strength test and the triaxial compressive strength tests at the different values of confining pressure (see figure 3.3.1.).
figure 3.3.1: Mohr diagram with plotting of the Mohr circles resulting from unconfined and triaxial test. From the failure envelope the values for cohesion and friction can be determined (ASTM). Reporting The report shall include the following information: (a) Data on the sampling: - Project name, location, date of sampling, sample number, depth below terrain (in case of borehole) - Type of sample (core, block, disturbed, or other), sample dimensions - Lithology, weathering grade, grain size, natural water content - Sample transport and storage conditions (b) Data on the specimens: - Form, dimensions and weight of all specimens
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- Density and water content during testing (c) Data on the testing procedure: - Testing equipment used (loading frame, triaxial cell equipment to create and measure confining pressure) - Loading rate during the test, sketch of failure - Table with specimen number, specimen height, specimen diameter, confining pressure and the corresponding axial strength - Mohr diagram with the Mohr circles from unconfined and triaxial strength tests - Angle of internal friction and cohesion as determined graphically from the Mohr diagram Remarks The levels of confining pressure at which the triaxial test is executed shall be determined on the basis of the result of the unconfined compressive strength testing plotted in the Mohr diagram. References International Society for Rock Mechanics Suggested Methods "Rock Characterisation, Testing and Monitoring" Editor E.T. Brown, Pergamon Press 1981, pages 254 to 127) ASTM Standard Test Method D2664-80
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3.4: Standard test procedure for the determination of the shear strength of rock material in direct shear
Scope of the test The objective of this test is to determine the shear strength of discontinuity planes or weak horizons in rock as a function of the stress perpendicular to the sheared plane. Peak and residual strength are distinguished. Apparatus used - A mould to set the test specimen at the required orientation and position in the filling material (plaster or cement), leaving the shear plane free. This mould must have exactly the same form as the shear box, to ensure perfect fitting when sample plus filler material are placed in the shear box. - Testing equipment (shear box) consisting of the following parts: - System to apply the normal load perpendicular to the plane to be tested. The resultant load should pass through the centre of the area tested. The loading system must be capable to maintain and measure the normal force to within 2% of the selected value during the whole duration of the test. - System to apply and measure the shear force to the specimen. The force must be directed parallel to the shear plane and act through its centre. The system should enable shear displacements of the order of magnitude of 10% of the length of the shear plane in the direction of sliding. The shear force must be capable of increase at constant rates and of measuring the shear force with an accuracy of 2%. - Micrometer dial gauges for the measuring of shear and normal displacements with an accuracy of 0.05 mm. Shear and normal displacement measurements must be possible up to 5mm with an accuracy better than 0.05 mm Test procedure - Test specimens can be taken from borehole cores or from block samples which are cut or bored in the laboratory. Extreme care must be taken that during sample taking in the field, transport and storage and during the preparation of the specimen for the test, the weakness plane is not damaged or disturbed. For this purpose the sample can be protected against failure by metal wiring and against drying out by wax or special foam material. No specific requirements exist for the form of the sample as long as it fits in the shear box, is deep enough enclosed in the filling material, and the shear plane is parallel to the shear direction of the shear box. The number of specimens from one sample to be tested shall preferably be at least five, each one at a different level of confining stress. - After placing the hardened filler with the enclosed rock specimen in the shear box, the normal displacement and shear displacement measurement gauges are installed. A zero reading is taken on the dial gauges and then the normal force is applied by the vertical hydraulic jack. The normal load is increased gradually but continuously in such a way that the selected normal stress on the plane to be tested is reached in a few minutes. The normal deformation during this process of consolidation is recorded at regular time intervals. The binding wire connecting both halve of the sample may now be cut. The normal stress must now be kept at a constant level during the remaining part of the test. - After the displacement gauges have reached a steady value (less than 0.05mm displacement in 10 minutes), indicating that the consolidation process has come to an end, the shear load can be applied in steps as to allow the various readings to be made. Approximately 10 readings should be taken before the peak strength is reached. The rate of shear movement should not reach values higher than 0.2 to 0.5 mm per minute. The shear load should be recorded continuously so as not to miss the peak value. After reaching the peak strength readings of all displacement gauges should be taken every 0.5 to 1 mm of displacement.
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- If at least four consecutive readings give not more than 5% of variation in shear stress over a displacement of more than 0.5mm, it can be concluded that the residual shear strength value has been reached. - After a shear displacement of not more than 10% of the length of the shear plane in shear direction, the shear load can be reduced to zero. The shear direction can now be reversed (without decreasing the normal load) if residual values of shear strength for large amounts of shear displacements are requested. If not, or if residual strength has already been reached, the normal load can also be released, the specimen removed from the shear box and the shear plane inspected and described. - An important observation is if the shear plane has coincided with the shear direction of the shear box. If this is not the case, a correction must be made for the inclination of the shear plane when normal and shear stress are determined. Calculation - The displacement readings are averaged, when several normal and shear displacement gauges are used. The normal and shear stresses are calculated as follows:
Normal stress = P n A
Shear stress = P s A
In these formulas Pn is the total normal force, Ps is the total shear force and A is the area of contact of both parts of the specimen, corrected for a decrease of this area due to shear displacement. - For each test specimen graphs are plotted for shear stress against shear displacement and for normal displacement against shear displacement. In these graphs the value of normal stress should be annotated for each test. The values for peak and residual shear strength and the normal stresses, shear displacements and normal displacements at which these occur can be read from the graphs. - Graphs of peak and residual shear strength versus normal stress are plotted from the combined results for all test specimens. The peak and residual shear strength parameters of cohesion and angle of friction can so be determined. Reporting The report shall include the following information: (a) Data on the sampling: - Project name, location, date of sampling, sample number, depth below terrain (in case of borehole) - Type of sample (core, block, disturbed, or other), sample dimensions - Lithology, weathering grade, grain size, natural water content - Sample transport and storage conditions (b) Data on the specimens: - Form, dimensions and weight of all specimens - Water content of the shear plane during testing. (c) Data on the testing procedure: - Testing equipment used and loading rates during the test, sketch of specimen shear plane after the test. - For each specimen the graphs of shear stress and normal displacement versus shear displacement and the graph of shear stress versus normal stress. - Table with specimen number, normal stress and the corresponding values for peak and residual shear strength with the corresponding values for shear displacement and normal displacement. - Shear stress versus normal stress graph for the values obtained from all test specimens. Table with the concluded values of cohesion and angle of friction for peak and residual shear strength.
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Remarks The levels of normal stress at which the shear test is executed shall be started at a low level and be increased on the basis of the results from the lower level shear strength. References International Society for Rock Mechanics Suggested Methods "Rock Characterisation, Testing and Monitoring" Editor E.T. Brown, Pergamon Press 1981, pages 135 to 137.
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3.5: Shear strength of rock discontinuities with Golder Shear Box
Scope of the test The objective of this test is to determine the shear strength of rock discontinuities as a function of the stress perpendicular to the sheared plane. Peak and residual strength, friction angle and roughness angle are distinguished. An article about the Golder shear box is added to this manual as appendix 2 Apparatus used The Golder shear box of Engineering geology in Delft consists of the following parts: - Upper and lower shear box. - System to apply the normal load perpendicular to the plane to be tested. The normal load is applied by means of dead load system and it remains constant throughout one test. - Shear stress is applied via a hydraulic ram and the whole apparatus is relative portable. - Vertical displacement up to 5 mm/10 mm (depending on the roughness of the discontinuity plane) is measured at a single point on the lever arm and registered by the computer. - Horizontal displacement measuring device, 0 - 20 mm. The horizontal displacement transducer is also registered by the computer. - Converter, computer, plotter.
procedures Sample Test specimens can be taken from the borehole cores or from block samples which are cut to size to fit the shear box (lower and upper box) and set in dental plaster or some other suitable fixing medium. Extreme care must be taken that during the preparation of the specimen for the test, the weakness plane is not damaged or disturbed. The shear plane must be parallel to the direction of the shear box. When shearing the upper part is kept in place while the lower part is moving. The sample is described before the test: rock type, discontinuity type, dimensions, roughness. (JRC classification, measurement by roughness meter device). After describing the sample and the discontinuity plane the sample is placed in the shear box. The vertical and horizontal displacement measuring devices are installed and connected to the computer. To be able to analyse the results properly, horizontal and vertical displacements must be recorded throughout the test. Shear test Testing can be carried out by either single or multistage procedures. For single stage test the sample is sheared at one constant normal load. In the multistage test, the normal load is increased after peak strength has been measured at each stage. After each stage the sample may be reset to the original position, but if this can be avoided it should not be done because of the risk of damaging the surface. Normally there is sufficient shear displacement still available to allow the next stage of peak strength to be mobilised and shearing can continue from the same point after changing the normal load. Shear stress is applied via a hydraulic ram and it is important to keep the rate of shearing constant and rather slow, very high rates of shearing (> 1 mm/s) may cause errors to the results. While shearing the sample, the increasing values of shear stress and the horizontal and vertical displacements can be followed on the monitor. The computer-based retrieval system in use at TU-Delft allows data from all channels to be read at the same time and at very short time intervals. Also the results of the test can be plotted immediately after testing the sample. In the computer program there is
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also the possibility to apply correction of test data for dilation. As dilation occurs, work is done in lifting the upper sample and this results in an increasing of shear force being required to continue shearing. After testing the surface of the discontinuity plane should examined, particularly with regard to the conditions of the areas involved in shearing. Calculation The data presented by separate graphs showing: - shear stress versus horizontal displacement (3 stages = 3 tests) - vertical displacement versus horizontal displacement (1 stage) - shear stress versus normal stress (3 stages together) - basic friction angle versus horizontal displacement (1 stage). Reporting Good reporting starts with clear sample description. From the graphs obtained, shear strength and residual strength of the discontinuity plane should be derived. Residual strength may not always be found. The incremental roughness angle i can be calculated from a graph showing vertical horizontal displacement. From the graph showing shear stress versus normal stress the "basic" friction angle can be determined. The relationship between laboratory shear strengths and realistic field values is much less straightforward for rock discontinuities than for soils. Tests that have been poorly performed or documented are difficult or impossible to interpret.
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4.1: Standard test procedure for the determination of the modulus of elasticity
Scope of the test The objective of this test is to determine stress strain curves and the modulus of elasticity (Young's modulus) of a rock specimen of cylindrical shape. The test is mainly intended for characterisation and classification of intact rock. Apparatus used - A testing machine of sufficient capacity and capable of applying axial load at a rate conforming to the requirements described in the test procedure. The steel platens with which the specimen is loaded shall consist of hardened steel (specifications see ASTM and ISRM) and be at least as large, but preferably not more than double the diameter of the specimen. Measuring inaccuracy shall not be more than 2% of the working load during the test. - The upper bearing plate shall be equipped with a spherical seat. The centre of curvature of the spherical seat must coincide with the centre of the top face of the specimen. - Dial gauges to determine the axial deformation of the specimen during loading. The dial gauges should have scale units of 0.002mm. Test procedure - Test specimens shall be right circular cylinders having a height to diameter ratio close to 2.5 and a diameter preferable of not less than NX core size (54 mm). The diameter of the specimen should be at least 10 times larger than the average grain size.(See also appendix 1) The number of specimens from one sample to be tested shall preferably be at least five. If the sample rock is anisotropic due to the presence of weakness planes and/or preferred orientation of minerals, the specimens should be prepared in such a way that both directions parallel as well as perpendicular to such planes can be tested. If enough testing specimens can be prepared from the available sample, various intermediate angles could also be tested. - The end faces of the specimen shall be flat to 0.02 mm and be perpendicular to the specimen axis within 0.250 (1:200). During the test capping of the samples is not permitted. The sides of the cylinder shall be smooth and free of abrupt irregularities and straight to within 0.5 mm over the full length of the specimen. - The diameter of the specimen shall be recorded to the nearest 0.1mm by taking two perpendicular measurements at three different heights of the cylinder. The height of the cylinder shall be determined to the nearest 0.1mm. - Moisture can have a significant effect on the deformability of the test specimen. When possible the natural water content shall be preserved until the time of the test. The moisture condition shall be reported in accordance with test nr. 1.2. in this handbook. - The load on the specimen shall be applied continuously at a constant stress rate between 0.5 and 1 Mpa/sec. - The load and the axial deformation shall be recorded at evenly spaced load intervals during the test. At least ten readings should be taken over the full load range until failure occurs. For this purpose the loading must be interrupted to take the measurements. These interruptions of the test shall be as short as possible. (When using automatic stress and strain recorders the specimen shall be continuously loaded until failure). - A few cycles of loading and unloading between loads of 10% and 60% of the anticipated failure load can be made to repeat the determination of the modulus of elasticity. Calculation
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- The measurements of load and axial deformation made during the various stages of the test are converted to values for stress and strain in the following way:
Compressive stress = dL L0
P A0
(in MPa)
Axial strain =
(dimensionless)
In these formulas P is the axial load (in Newton), A0 is the cross sectional area of the specimen at the start of the test, dL is the axial deformation of the specimen (in m, and positive for a decrease of length), L0 is the original length of the specimen (in m). - The compressive stress and axial strain are plotted in a diagram of stress versus strain. Such curves give the best possible description of the deformation behaviour of the rock from zero stress up to failure, in the case that the rock shows non-linear stress-strain behaviour at low and high stress levels. - The axial modulus of deformation may be calculated using any of the three following methods (see fig 4.1.1.).
Figure 4.1.1 (a) tangent Et at a fixed percentage of ultimate strength (b) average Eav of linear portion of axial stress-strain curve (c) secant Es up to a fixed percentage of ultimate strength - The tangent modulus Et is measured at a stress level, which is some fixed percentage of the ultimate strength. It is generally taken at a stress level of 50% of the unconfined compressive strength. - The average modulus Eav is determined from the average slope of the more or less straight line portion of the stress-strain curve. The secant modulus Es is usually measured from zero stress to some fixed percentage of the ultimate strength, generally at 50%. The modulus of elasticity is expressed in Pascal, but more appropriate is Giga Pascal (GPa = 109Pa). Reporting The report shall include the following information:
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(a) Data on the sampling: - Project name, location, date of sampling, sample number, depth below terrain (in case of borehole) - Type of sample (core, block, disturbed, or other), sample dimensions - Lithology, weathering grade, grain size, natural water content - Sample transport and storage conditions (b) Data on the specimens: - Form, dimensions and weight of all specimens - Density and water content during testing (c) Data on the testing procedure: - Type of the testing machine and rate of loading used. - Sketch of the mode of failure - Specimen dimensions and orientation of weakness planes (if present) with respect to the specimen axis. - For all specimens the values of the stress and strain during the different stages of the test, in a table or plotted in a drawing as figure 4.1.1. - The method used for the determination of the modulus of elasticity (figure 4.1.1 (a), (b), or (c)) and which levels of stress were used. - Modulus of elasticity of each specimen as well as an average result for all specimens in the sample. If weakness planes were included in various orientations, the results shall be grouped together according to orientation. Remarks An important part of this testing procedure is essentially identical with parts of the tests for the determination of the unconfined compressive strength and the Poisson ratio Often the test is executed for the three purposes simultaneously. References International Society for Rock Mechanics Suggested Methods "Rock Characterisation, Testing and Monitoring" Editor E.T. Brown, Pergamon Press 1981, pages 114 to 116) ASTM Standard Test Method D3148-80
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4.2: Standard test procedure for the determination of the Poisson Ratio
Scope of the test The objective of this test is to determine the Poisson ratio of rock material in unconfined compression. The test is mainly intended for characterisation and classification of intact rock. Apparatus used - A testing machine of sufficient capacity and capable of applying axial load at a rate conforming to the requirements described in the test procedure. The steel platens with which the specimen is loaded shall consist of hardened steel (specifications see ASTM and ISRM) and be at least as large, but preferably not more than double the diameter of the specimen. Measuring inaccuracy of the axial load shall not be more than 2% of the working load during the test. - The upper bearing plate shall be equipped with a spherical seat. The centre of curvature of the spherical seat must coincide with the centre of the top face of the specimen. - Dial gauges or other displacement measuring equipment to determine the axial deformation and the diametrical deformation of the specimen during loading. The dial gauges should have scale units of 0.002mm. Test procedure - Test specimens shall be right circular cylinders with a height to diameter ratio close to 2.5 and a diameter preferably of not less than NX core size (54mm). The diameter of the specimen should be at least 10 times larger than the average grain size. (See also Appendix 1). The number of specimens from one sample to be tested shall preferably be at least five. If the sample rock is anisotropic due to the presence of weakness planes and/or preferred orientation of minerals, the specimens should be prepared in such a way that both directions parallel as well as perpendicular to such planes can be tested. If enough testing specimens can be prepared from the available sample, various intermediate angles could also be tested, to determine the anisotropy of the material. - The end faces of the specimen shall be flat to 0.02 mm and be perpendicular to the specimen axis within 0.250 (1:200). During the test, capping of the samples is not permitted. The sides of the cylinder shall be smooth and free of abrupt irregularities and straight to within 0.5 mm over the full length of the specimen. - The diameter of the specimen shall be recorded to the nearest 0.1mm by taking two perpendicular measurements at three different heights of the cylinder. The height of the cylinder shall be determined to the nearest 1.0mm. - Moisture can have a significant effect on the Poisson ratio of the test specimen. When possible the natural water content shall be preserved until the time of the test. The moisture condition shall be reported in accordance with test nr. 1.2. in this handbook. - The load on the specimen shall be applied continuously at a constant stress rate between 0.5 and 1Mpa/sec. - The axial load and the axial and diametrical deformation shall be recorded at evenly spaced load intervals during the test. At least ten readings should be taken over the full load range until failure occurs. For this purpose the loading must be interrupted to take the measurements, These interruptions of the test shall be as short as possible. (When using automatic stress and strain recorders the specimen shall be continuously loaded until failure). - A few cycles of loading and unloading between loads of 10% and 60% of the anticipated failure load can be made to repeat the determination of the Poisson ratio. Calculation
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- The measurements of axial load ,and of axial and diametrical deformation made during the various stages of the test are converted to values for stress and strain in the following way:
Compressive stress =
P Ao
(in Pa)
Axial strain =
dL L0
(without dimension)
Diametral strain =
dD D0
(without dimension)
In these formulas P is the axial load (in Newton), A0 is the cross sectional area of the specimen (in m2) at the start of the test, dL is the axial deformation of the specimen (in m, and positive for a decrease of length), L0 is the original length of the specimen (in m), dD is the diametrical deformation of the specimen (defined to be negative for an increase in diameter), and D0 is the original diameter of the specimen (both in m). - The compressive stress, the axial strain and the diametrical strain are plotted in two diagrams of stress versus strain (see figure 4.2.1.).
figure 4.2.1.: Graphical representation of the axial and diametric stress-strain curves
- The Poisson ratio can be calculated from the following formula:
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Poisson ratio =
slope of axial stress - strain curve slope of diametric stress - strain curve
The slope of the diametrical curve can be calculated with one of the three methods discussed in the standard test procedure for the determination of the modulus of elasticity (test nr. 12, fig. 1). Note that the Poisson ratio in the formula above has a positive value, since the slope of the diametric curve is negative due to the conventions used in this test procedure. Reporting The report shall include the following information: (a) Data on the sampling: - Project name, location, date of sampling, sample number, depth below terrain (in case of borehole) - Type of sample (core, block, disturbed, or other), sample dimensions - Lithology, weathering grade, grain size, natural water content - Sample transport and storage conditions (b) Data on the specimens: - Form, dimensions and weight of all specimens - Density and water content during testing - Orientation of any weakness planes in the specimen with reference to the specimen axis (c) Data on the testing procedure: - Type of testing machine used and the stress rate during the test. Sketch of the mode of failure, if the specimens are loaded up to failure. - Values of the stress and strain at the various stages of the testing listed in a table or plotted in a drawing as figure 4.1.1. - The method used for the determination of the modulus of elasticity. - Poisson ratio of each specimen as well as an average result for the sample. If various orientations of weakness planes are tested these should be grouped together. Remarks An important part of this testing procedure is essentially identical with parts of the tests for the determination of the unconfined compressive strength and the modulus of elasticity. Often the test is executed for the three purposes simultaneously. References International Society for Rock Mechanics Suggested Methods "Rock Characterisation, Testing and Monitoring" Editor E.T. Brown, Pergamon Press 1981, pages 114 to 116) ASTM Standard Test Method D3148-80
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5.1: .Standard test procedure for the determination of the resistance to abrasion of aggregate by use of the Los Angeles machine. Scope of the test The objective of the test is to determine the abrasion resistance of rock aggregate using the Los Angeles testing machine. Separate test procedures are described for aggregate larger than 19 mm and aggregate smaller than 38 mm. Aggregate in the size range of 19 to 38 mm can be tested following either one of the two procedures. The sample used and the abrasive charge are dependent on the aggregate size and grading. Apparatus used - Los Angeles abrasion testing machine according to the specifications of the ISRM (see ISRM page 98 + 99) - Balance with weight range up to 10000 g with an accuracy of 5g - A set of sieves consisting of the following sizes: 75mm, 63mm, 53mm, 38mm, 25.4mm, 19mm, 13.2mm, 9.5mm, 5.6mm, 4.7mm, 2.3mm and 1.7mm. - Abrasive charge. Depending on the composition of the test sample a number of 6 to 12 steel balls has to be added to the sample (see test procedure). The steel balls shall have a diameter of 46 to 47.6 mm and a weight between 390 and 445 grams (these are usually readily available for steel ball bearings). procedure - A representative test sample must be prepared. Usually the abrasiveness must be determined before the aggregate is sieved and recombined to the grading at which it will be used. Table 5.1.1 and table 5.1.2 describe a limited number of test sample grading. That grading of the test sample must be chosen which is closest to the grading of the sieved and mixed aggregate as it will be used. By sieving and combination of fractions of the original sample the test sample must be prepared. If the aggregate is to be tested after it has obtained the grading with which it will be used, the first step is to determine which grading from table 5.1.1 or 5.1.2 is closest to the composition of the original sample. For this purpose, the original sample must (after oven drying) be sieved to determine the main grain size fractions, using the set of sieves listed above. The test sample must now be recombined to the grading in table 5.1.1. or table 5.1.2. which is closest to the grading of the original sample. - Record the weight Wo of the test sample to the nearest g and place the sample with the abrasive charge in the Los Angeles abrasion testing machine (the number of steel balls depends on the composition of the test sample, see table 5.1.3). - Rotate the cylinder of the testing machine with a speed of 30-33 revolutions/minute. The number of revolutions must be as follows: - 500 revolutions for a sample smaller than 38 mm - 1000 revolutions for a sample larger than 19 mm Valuable information concerning the uniformity of the sample under test maybe obtained by determine the loss after 100 revolutions in the case where 500 revolutions is specified or after 200 revolutions in the case where 1000 revolutions is specified. After the 100 or 200 revolutions, discharge the material from the machine and sieve it on the 1.7 mm sieve (no. 12 U.S.). Record the weight of the part of the sample retained on the sieve. - Replace the whole test sample (not losing any part of the sample, not even the dust of abrasion) carefully in the machine and rotate the cylinder at the same speed mentioned above for the following number of rotations: - - 400 or 800
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Sieve size (mm) (square openings) passing retained through on 38.0 mm 25.4 mm 19.0 mm 13.2 mm 9.5 mm 5.6 mm 4.7 mm Total 25.4 mm 19.0 mm 13.2 mm 9.5 mm 5.6 mm 4.7 mm 2.3 mm A 1250 + 25 1250 + 25 1250 + 10 1250 + 10 ---5000 + 10 Weight of indicated sizes (g) grading B C D
2500 + 10 2500 + 10 ---5000 + 10
2500 + 10 2500 + 10 -5000 + 10
5000 + 10 5000 + 10
Table 5.1.1.: Grading of test samples smaller than 38 mm.
Sieve size (mm) (square openings)
weight of indicated sizes (g) grading
passing through 75.0 mm 63.0 mm 53.0 mm 38.0 mm 25.4 mm Total
retained on 63.0 mm 53.0 mm 38.0 mm 25.4 mm 19.0 mm
1 2500 + 50 2500 + 50 5000 + 50 --10000+100
2 --5000 + 50 5000 + 25
3 ---5000 + 25 5000 + 25 10000 + 50
10000 + 75
Table 5.1.2: Grading of test samples larger than 19 mm. - Discharge all the material from the cylinder and sieve the sample on the 1.7mm sieve. Wash the material retained on the sieve. After oven drying to constant weight (at 105 to 110C), record the weight W500 or W1000 of this sample to the nearest 1 g. Grading A, 1, 2, 3 B C C Number of spheres 12 11 8 6 Weight of charge (g) 5000 + 25 4584 + 25 3330 + 20 2500 + 15
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Table 5.1.3: Number of steel balls in the abrasive charge for different test sample gradings.
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Calculation
Percentage of wear =
W 0 - W 500 * 100% (for a sample < 38 mm) W0 W 0 - W 1000 * 100% ( for a sample > 19 mm) W0 W 0 - W 100 (for a sample > 38 mm) W 0 - W 500 W 0 - W 200 (for a sample > 19 mm) W 0 - W 1000
Uniformity Factor (UF) =
The Uniformity Factor should not greatly exceed the value of 0.2 for material of uniform hardness. Reporting The report shall include the following information: (a) Data on the sampling: -Project name, location, date of sampling, sample number, depth below terrain (in case of borehole) -Type of sample (core, block, disturbed, or other), sample dimensions -Lithology, weathering grade, grain size, natural water content -Sample transport and storage conditions (b) Data on the tested sample: -Grading of the original sample and of the tested sample -Water content during testing -Description of the abrasive charge -The Los Angeles percentage of wear of the sample and the Los Angeles uniformity factor UF. Remarks - ASTM standards C 131 and C 535 are not fully identical (sieves) - If the aggregate is essentially free from adherent coatings and dust, the requirement for washing before and after the test can be waived. Elimination of washing after testing will seldom reduce the percentage of wear by more than about 0.2 percent. - The driving mechanism of the Los Angeles machine must produce a constant peripheral speed. Back-lash or slip are likely to cause unreliable test results. References International Society for Rock Mechanics Suggested Methods "Rock Characterisation, Testing and Monitoring" Editor E.T. Brown, Pergamon Press 1981, pages 98 to 100.
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ASTM Standard test C131-69 and C535-69
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5.2: Aggregate impact value BS 812:part 112 1990
Scope of the test The aggregate impact value gives a relative measure of the resistance of an aggregate to sudden shock or impact, which in some aggregates differs from its resistance to a slowly applied compressive load. With aggregate of aggregate impact value higher than 30 the result maybe anomalous. Apparatus used An impact testing machine according to the British Standard 812:Part 112 1990. The general form is shown in figure 5.2.1 BS sieves of aperture sizes 14.0 mm, 10.0 mm and 2.36 mm. A cylindrical metal measure with an internal diameter of 75 mm and an internal depth of 50 mm. A straight metal tamping rod, 10 mm diameter, 230 mm long rounded at one end. A balance of capacity not less than 500 g and accurate to 0.1g.
Procedure Preparation of the sample. - The material for the standard test shall consist of aggregate passing a 14.0 mm sieve and retained on a 10.0 mm sieve. The sample shall be surfaced dry. If dried by heating, the period of drying shall not exceed 4 hours and the temperature shall not exceed 110C. Cooled to room temperature before testing. - Fill up the measure cup for about one third full by means of a scoop. The aggregate is being discharged from a height not exceeding 50 mm above the top of the cup. - Tamp the aggregate with 25 blows of the rounded end of the tamping rod, each blow being given by allowing the tamping rod to fall freely from a height of about 50 mm above the surface of the aggregate and the blows being evenly distributed over the surface. - Add a similar quantity of aggregate in the same manner and tamp with 25 blows. - Fill up completely the measure and tamp 25 times. Remove, by rolling the tamping rod across and in contact with the top of the container, any aggregate which impedes its progress. Aggregate being added to fill any obvious depressions. - Weigh the mass of aggregate in the measure cup (mass A). Testing - Put the aggregate in the test cup. - Fix the cup firmly in position on the base of the machine and place the whole of the test sample in it and compact by a single tamping of 25 strokes of the tamping rod as above. - Subject the test sample to a total of 15 blows from the aggregate impact test machine, each being delivered at an interval of not less than 1 second. - Remove the crushed aggregate by holding the cup over a clean tray and hammering on the outside with a suitable rubber mallet until the sample particles are sufficiently disturbed to enable the mass of the sample to fall freely on to the tray. Transfer the fine particles adhering to the inside of the cup and the underside of the hammer to the tray by means of a stiff bristly brush. - Sieve the whole of the sample in the tray on the 2.36 mm BS test sieve until no further significant amount passes in 1 min. - Weigh the fractions passing and retained on the sieve to an accuracy of 0.1 g (mass B and mass C respectively), and if the total mass B + C is less than the initial mass (mass A) by more than 1 g, discard the result and make a fresh test. - Repeat the whole procedure starting from testing using a second sample of the same mass as the first sample.
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Calculations The ratio of the mass of fines formed to the total sample mass in each test shall be expressed as a percentage, the result being recorded to the first decimal place.
Percentagefines =
B * 100 A
where: A is the mass of surface-dry sample (g) B is the mass of fraction passing the sieve for separating the fines (g). Reporting The mean of the two results shall be reported to the nearest whole number as the aggregate impact value. If a non-standard size of aggregate is tested, the size shall be reported. The report shall also include details of any special processing of the sample, other than that required by the test methods, carried out in the laboratory. For example, crushing to provide larger quantities of smaller sizes or the separation of constituents from an as-dug gravel. Remarks This test is carried out on certain size fractions, which normally have to be sieved out from the laboratory sample. Where such a fraction constitutes less than 15% of the total sample the results may not be representative. Under such circumstances the following recommendations should provide a more representative test sample: a. where general assurance about a given source of aggregate is required a further sample of a different grade and containing more than 15% of the required size should be obtained and tested; b. where a particular consignment is to be tested for impact value, a non-standard size should be tested. In the event of neither of these options proving possible it may be necessary to test the original fraction. The report shall state the fact when a further sample was obtained when a non-standard size was tested or when the test was made on a fraction containing less than 15% of the laboratory sample. Smaller sizes of aggregate shall be tested in a similar manner using the appropriate sieves given in table 5.2.1. sample size standard non-standard passing mm 14.0 10.0 6.30 5.00 3.35 retained mm 10.0 6.4 5.00 3.35 2.36 for separating fines mm 2.36 1.70 1.18 .850 .600
Table 5.2.1. Particulars of BS test sieves for testing aggregate impact value, standard and non-standard sizes of aggregate. Interpretation of results The variation in aggregate impact value within specific rock type categories, or between broader rock groups, can be attributed to the influence of aggregate particle shape (Ramsay 1965) and geological features such as: bulk composition; texture and structure; grain size; alteration. The shape of the aggregate particles, in particular the index of flakiness, can introduce differences in AIV of 30% to 60%.
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Also factors like apparatus rigidity and the nature of test substrate can introduce considerable variation in AIV values. --------------------------------------------------Rock type AIV range --------------------------------------------------Basalt 11% 10-13% Andesite 13% 11-16% Felsite 13% 12-15% Dolerite 13% 10-17% Granite 19% 17-21% Limestone 17% 15-20% Marble 19% 16-21% Table 5.2.2. Some characteristic AIV values for rock types exploited in Scotland.
figure 5.2.1 Aggregate impact apparatus
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5.3: Aggregate crushing value BS 812:part 110:1990
Scope of the test The aggregate crushing value gives a relative measure of the resistance of an aggregate to crushing under a gradually applied compressive load. With aggregate of an aggregate crushing value higher than 30 the result may be anomalous and in such cases the ten per cent fines value should be determined instead. Apparatus - An open ended steel cylinder of nominal 150 mm internal diameter with plunger and base plate according to the British Standard 812:Part 110 1990 . The general form is shown in figure 5.3.1. - A straight metal tamping rod of circular cross section, 16 mm diameter and 450 mm to 600 mm long, rounded at one end. - A balance of at lest 3 kg capacity and accurate to 1 g. - BS test sieves of sizes 14.0 mm, 10.0 mm and 2.36 mm. - A compression testing machine capable of applying a force of 400 kN and which can be operated to give a uniform rate of loading so that this force is reached in 10 minutes. - A cylindrical metal measure optional for measuring the sample, having an internal diameter of 115 mm and an internal depth of 180 mm. Procedure Preparation of the sample - The material for the standard test shall consist of aggregate passing a 14.0 mm sieve and retained on a 10.0 mm sieve. The sample shall be surfaced dry. If dried by heating, the period of drying shall not exceed 4 hours and the temperature shall not exceed 110C. Cooled to room temperature before testing. - The quality of aggregate for one test shall be such that the depth of the material in the cylinder shall be 100mm after tamping. - The appropriate quantity may be found conveniently by filling the cylindrical measure in three layers of approximately equal depth, each layer being tamped 25 times from a height of approximately 50 mm above the surface of the aggregate with the rounded edge of the tamping rod and finally levelled off, using the tamping rod as a straight edge. - The mass of material comprising the test sample shall be determined (mass A). Testing - Put the cylinder of the test apparatus in position on the base plate, and add the test sample in thirds, each third being subjected to 25 strokes from the tamping rod distributed evenly over the surface of the layer and dropping from a height approximately 50 mm above the surface of the aggregate. Carefully level the surface of the aggregate and insert the plunger so that it rests horizontally on this surface, taking care to ensure that the plunger does not jam in the cylinder. - Place the apparatus, with the test sample and plunger in position, between the platens of the testing machine and load it at a uniform rate as possible so that the required force is reached in 10 min. The required force shall be 400 kN. - Release the load and remove the crushed material by holding the cylinder over a clean tray and hammering on the outside with a suitable rubber mallet until the sample particles are sufficiently disturbed to enable the mass of the sample to fall freely on to the tray. Transfer fine particles adhering to the inside of the cylinder, to the baseplate and the underside of the plunger to the tray by means of a stiff bristle brush.
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- Sieve the whole of the sample on the tray on the 2.36 mm, sieve until no further significant amount passes in 1 min. - Weigh the fraction passing the sieve (mass B). - Repeat the whole procedure, starting from testing, using a second sample of the same mass as the first sample. Calculations The ratio of the mass of fines formed to the total mass of the sample in each test shall be expressed as a percentage, the result being recorded to the first decimal place:
Percentage fines =
B * 100 A
where A is the mass of surface-dry sample (g) B is the mass of the fraction passing the 2.36 mm sieve (g) Reporting The mean of the two results shall be reported to the nearest whole number as the aggregate crushing value. The report shall also include details of any special processing of the sample, other than that required by the test methods, carried out in the laboratory. For example, crushing to provide larger quantities of smaller sizes or the separation of constituents from an as-dug gravel. Remarks This test is carried out on certain size fractions which normally have to be sieved out from the laboratory sample. Where such a fraction constitutes less than 15% of the total sample the results may not be representative. Under such circumstances the following recommendations should provide a more representative test sample: a.where general assurance about a given source of aggregate is required a further sample of a different grade and containing more than 15% of the required size should be obtained and tested; b.where a particular consignment is to be tested for crushing value, a non-standard size should be tested. In the event of neither of these options proving possible it may be necessary to test the original fraction. The report shall state the fact when a further sample was obtained when a non-standard size was tested or when the test was made on a fraction containing less than 15% of the laboratory sample. If required, or if the standard size is not available, tests may be made on aggregates of other sizes larger than the standard up to a size which passes a 28.0 mm BS test sieve, using the standard apparatus. Alternatively, tests may be made on aggregates smaller than the standard down to a size, which is retained on a 2.36 mm BS test sieve, using either the standard apparatus or the smaller apparatus. Owing to the non-homogeneity of aggregates the results of tests on non-standard sizes are not likely to be the same as those obtained from standard tests. In general, the smaller sizes of aggregate will give a lower aggregate crushing value and the larger sizes a higher value, but the relationship between the values obtained will vary from one aggregate to another. However, the results obtained with the smaller apparatus have been found to be slightly higher than those with the standard apparatus and the errors for the smaller sizes of aggregate tested in the smaller apparatus are therefore compensatory. Apparatus used for "smaller apparatus test"
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- An open ended steel cylinder, with plunger and base plate, with a nominal internal diameter of 75 mm. - A straight metal tamping rod of circular cross section 8 mm diameter and 300 mm long, rounded at one end. - A balance of at least 500 g capacity and accurate to 0.2 g. - BS sieves of appropriate sizes given in table 2. - A compression testing machine that it shall be capable of applying a force of 100 kN, and of being operated to give a uniform rate of loading so that this force is reached in 10 min. - A cylindrical metal measure with an internal diameter of 57 mm and an internal depth of 90 mm. Procedure for testing non-standard sizes of aggregate Preparation of test sample. - The material for tests on non-standard sizes shall consist of aggregate passing and retained on corresponding BS test sieves given in table 5.3.1. - When using the smaller apparatus the quantity shall be such that the depth of material in the nominal 75.0 mm internal diameter cylinder shall be 50 mm after tamping with the smaller rod. The appropriate quantity may be found conveniently by using the smaller measure and tamping rod. Testing - Tests on non-standard sizes shall follow the procedure given for the standard test, except that when using the smaller apparatus, the smaller tamping rod shall be used and the total force shall be 100 kN. - Take particular care with the larger sizes of aggregate to ensure that the plunger does not jam in the cylinder. - Sieve the material removed from the cylinder on the appropriate sieve given in the "for separating fines" column in table 5.3.1. Calculations for testing non-standard sizes of aggregates Calculations for tests on non-standard sizes shall follow the method given for the standard test substituting in the description of mass B the test sieve of appropriate size. Reporting for testing non-standard sizes of aggregates Results of tests on non-standard sizes shall be reported as for the standard test with, additionally, a report on the size of the aggregate tested and, if smaller than the standard size, the nominal size of the cylinder used in the test. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------sample size for sample preparation for separating passing retained fines mm mm mm mm ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------non-standard 28.0 20.0 5.00 --20.0 14.0 3.35 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------standard 14.0 10.0 2.36 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------non-standard 10.0 6.40 1.70 --6.30 5.00 1.18 --5.00 3.35 ---850 3.35 2.36 ---600
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----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Table 5.3.1. Particulars of BS test sieves for aggregate crushing value, testing standard and non-standard sizes of aggregate.
Interpretation of results The variation in aggregate impact value within specific rock type categories, or between broader rock groups, can be attribute to the influence of aggregate particle shape (ramsay 1965) and geological features such as: bulk composition; texture and structure; grain size; alteration.(Dhir et al.1971; Ramsay 1974) The shape of the aggregate particles, in particular the index of flakiness, can introduce differences in ACV of 30% to 60%. ------------------------------------------Rock type ACV range ------------------------------------------Basalt 16% 16-17% Andesite 16% 15-17% Dolerite 19% Granite 26% 23-30% Marble 26% 25-28% -------------------------------------------
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5.4: Ten per cent fines value BS 812:part 111 1990
Scope of the test Ten per cent fine value gives a measure of the resistance of an aggregate to crushing which is applicable to both weak and strong aggregates. Apparatus used - An open ended steel cylinder of nominal 150 mm internal diameter with plunger and base plate according to the British Standard 812:Part 111 1990 . The general form is shown in figure 5.4.1. - A straight metal tamping rod of circular cross section, 16 mm diameter and 450 mm to 600 mm long, rounded at one end. - A balance of at lest 3 kg capacity and accurate to 1 g. - BS test sieves of sizes 14.0 mm, 10.0 mm and 2.36 mm. - A compression testing machine capable of applying a force which may vary from 5kN to 400 kN and which can be operated to give a uniform rate of loading so that this force is reached in 10 minutes. - A cylindrical metal measure optional for measuring the sample, having an internal diameter of 115 mm and an internal depth of 180 mm. Procedure Preparation of the sample - The material for the standard test shall consist of aggregate passing a 14.0 mm sieve and retained on a 10.0 mm sieve. The sample shall be surfaced dry. If dried by heating, the period of drying shall not exceed 4 hours and the temperature shall not exceed 110C. Cooled to room temperature before testing. - The quality of aggregate for one test shall be such that the depth of the material in the cylinder shall be 100mm after tamping. - The appropriate quantity may be found conveniently by filling the cylindrical measure in three layers of approximately equal depth, each layer being tamped 25 times from a height of approximately 50 mm above the surface of the aggregate with the rounded edge of the tamping rod and finally levelled off, using the tamping rod as a straight edge. - The mass of material comprising the test sample shall be determined (mass A). Testing - Put the cylinder of the test apparatus in position on the base plate and adding test sample in thirds, each third being subjected to 25 strokes from the tamping rod distributed evenly over the surface of the layer and dropping from a height approximately 50 mm above the surface of the aggregate, particular care being taken in the case of weak materials not to break the particles . - Carefully level the surface of the aggregate and insert the plunger so that it rests horizontally on this surface, taking care to ensure that the plunger does not jam in the cylinder.
- Place the apparatus, with the test sample and plunger in position, between the platens of the testing machine. Apply force at a uniform rate as possible so as to cause a total penetration of the plunger in 10 min of about: a. 15 mm for rounded or partially rounded aggregates (e.g. uncrushed gravel); b. 20 mm for normal crushed aggregates; c. 24 mm for honeycombed aggregates (e.g. some slag).
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These figures may be varied according to the extent of the rounding or honeycombing. NOTE: When an aggregate impact value is available, the force required for the first ten per cent; fines test can be estimated by means of the following more conveniently than by the use of the dial gauge.
This value of force will nearly always give a percentage fines within the required range of 7.5 to 12.5. - Record the maximum force applied to produce the required penetration. - Release the force and remove the crushed material by holding the cylinder over a clean tray - and hammering on the outside with a suitable rubber mallet until the sample particles are sufficiently disturbed to enable the mass of the sample to fall freely on to the tray. - Transfer fine particles adhering to the inside of the cylinder and the underside of the plunger to the tray by means of a stiff bristle brush. - Sieve the whole of the sample in the tray on the 2.36 mm. Sieve until no further significant amount passes in 1 min. - Weigh the fraction passing the sieve and express this mass as a percentage of the mass of the test sample. Normally this percentage of fines will fall within the range 7.5 to 12.5 but if it does not make a further test loading to a maximum value adjusted as seems appropriate to bring the percentage fines within the range of 7.5 to 12.5. (The formula given by calculations may be used for calculating the force required). - Make a repeat test at the maximum force that gives a percentage fines within the range 7.5 to 12.5. Calculations The mean percentage fines from the two tests at this maximum force shall be used in the following formula to calculate the force required producing ten per cent fines.
force required producing ten percent fines =
14x Y +4
where x is the maximum force (kN) Y is the mean percentage fines from two tests at x kN force Reporting The force required to produce ten per cent fines shall be reported to the nearest 10 kN for forces of 100 kN or more or to the nearest 5 kN for loads of less than 100 kN as the ten per cent fines value. The report shall also include details of any special processing of the sample, other than that required by the test methods, carried out in the laboratory. For example, crushing to provide larger quantities of smaller sizes or the separation of constituents from an as-dug gravel. Remarks This test is carried out on certain size fractions that normally have to be sieved out from the laboratory sample. Where such a fraction constitutes less than 15% of the total sample the results may not be
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representative. Under such circumstances the following recommendations should provide a more representative test sample: a. where general assurance about a given source of aggregate is required a further sample of a different grade and containing more than 15% of the required size should be obtained and tested; b. where a particular consignment is to be tested for ten per cent fines value, a non-standard size should be tested. In the event of neither of these options proving possible it may be necessary to test the original fraction. The report shall state the fact when a further sample was obtained when a non-standard size was tested or when the test was made on a fraction containing less than 15% of the laboratory sample. If required, or if the standard size is not available tests may be made on aggregates of other sizes which pass a 28.0 mm BS test sieve and are retained on a 2.36 mm BS test sieve. The aggregate shall be tested in a similar manner using the appropriate sieves given in table 3. It should be noted that the penetration of the plunger may not accord with the values given for the standard test. Results of tests on non-standard sizes shell be reported as for the standard test with, additionally, a report on the size of aggregate tested. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------sample size for sample preparation for separating passing retained fines mm mm mm mm --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------non-standard 28.0 20.0 5.00 --20.0 14.0 3.35 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------standard 14.0 10.0 2.36 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------non-standard 10.0 6.40 1.70 --6.30 5.00 1.18 --5.00 3.35 ---850 3.35 2.36 ---600 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Table 5.4.1. Particulars of BS test sieves for ten per cent fines value, testing standard and non-standard sizes of aggregate
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5.5: Micro-Deval abrasion test NF P 18-572 (AFNOR 1978)
This test has been developed in France for the evaluation of small to medium aggregate. It is a modification of Deval test developed during the sixties, for determining the resistance of an aggregate to abrasion. The abrasion of the aggregate is produced by a charge of stainless steel balls in a rotating cylinder. The test may be carried out either wet or dry. Apparatus used Balance accurate to 0,1 gr. Drying oven (24 hr at 105C to 5C) Micro Deval apparatus. Sieves of sizes 14.0 mm, 10.0 mm and 1.6 mm.
Test Procedure - A representative test sample must be prepared. - The test material shall consist out a standard size fraction, see table 5.5.1 .The sample shall be oven dry. For a aggregate passing a 14.0 mm sieve and retained on a 10.0 mm sieve: - Fill the test drum with 500 2 gr. of the standard size fraction. - Add 5.000 5 g steel balls with a diameter of 10 mm. - Add 2.5 litre water. Testing - Close the drum, put it in the apparatus and rotate it with 100 revolutions per minute for 2 hours, total 12.000 revolutions. - Wash the material on a 8 mm sieve to remove the steel balls and on a 1.6 mm sieve to separate the fines. - Dry the sample that remains on the 1.6 mm sieve for 24 hours on 105C and take the mass Calculations The Micro-Deval abrasion value is the loss in weight of the oven-dried material after testing expressed as a percent of weight of the original sample.
MDAV =
A- B x 100% A
where A = the mass of oven dry sample before testing B = the mass of oven dry fraction on the 1.6 mm after testing.
65
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------for sample size sample for separating weight passing retained weight fines steel balls mm. mm. g. mm. g. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------14.0 10.0 500 2 1.6 5000 5 10.0 6.3 500 2 1.6 4000 5 6.3 4.0 500 2 1.6 2000 5 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Table 5.5.1 Test conditions for different sample sizes
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6.1: The methylene blue adsorption spot test.
Scope of the test This test is used to quantify the effect of clay mineral (smectite group) present in an aggregate and hence to indicate the soundness of the aggregate. If a significant amount of methylene blue is adsorbed by the soil or ground rock material, this may indicate the presence of swelling clay minerals, although there exist substances that also may adsorb methylene blue. Further study, for example using specialised Xray diffraction techniques suitable to identify smectite clay minerals, is necessary to assess the true nature of the adsorbing substance. Low MBA (methylene blue adsorption) values, however, nearly always indicate absence of significant amounts of swelling clay minerals. If a petrographic study is carried out concurrently, the adsorbing minerals may be stained, by immersing the thin sections with the methylene blue solution. In this way the volumetric amount of adsorbing minerals can be estimated and an educated guess of the nature of the clay mineral may be made. The methylene blue test is an alternative way to determine the cation exchange capacity of a soil or finely ground rock. Apparatus and reagents used 25 ml burette mounted on stand 250 ml Erlenmeyer flasks 100 ml volumetric flask and stopper 250 ml beakers glass stirring rod magnetic stirrer small clock glasses sample containers spatula Whatman No. 40 filter papers (12.5 cm diameter) distilled or de-ionised (demineralized) water methylene Blue chemical waste tank analytical balance; aggregate crusher; grinding apparatus; riffle boxes; scoop; metal trays; an oven.
Procedure Preparation of the Methylene Blue solution The crystalline Methylene Blue (3.9-bis-dimethylamino-phynazothionium-chloride; C16H18N3ClS)nH2O is hygroscopic. The solution can be prepared by dissolving a certain weight of methylene blue crystals in distilled water and determine the normality of the solution. To determine the hygroscopic water content of the MB, a sample of the crystalline dye is dried at 105 C and the loss of the weight, x, is determined (a typical weight loss is about 12.34 %). The normality of a MB solution can then be calculated: N = (c x 1000)/319.9 x (100.00 - x)/100 [meq/l] c = concentration methylene blue solution [g/ml] x = weight loss of crystalline dye by drying, in percentages [%] A 3 g/l solution is commonly prepared for the method used in the way described here . The methylene blue solution must not be kept more than one month maximum. Note that an alternative method is being developed by LCPC (Paris, France), where a 10 g/l solution is used to test larger quantities of soil/rock (about 30 g)
1
67
Preparation of the aggregate suspension If the MBA value of a soil has to be prepared, the soil has to be sieved. The test has to be performed on the fine fraction of the soil (at least smaller than 63 micrometer: silt and clay fraction). The fines content "f" of the soil has to be determined. If the MBA content of a rock has to be determined, a representative portion of the rock has to be ground down to smaller than 0.063 mm. Prepare from the rock or soil aggregate a very fine grained powder by drying, crushing and sieving, as described above. The powder must be representative of the aggregate or rock composition or the fines fraction of the soil. The grain size must be less than 63 micrometer. Take a part of the sample, weigh it, and dry it in the oven at 105 degrees Celsius to determine the water content of the sample. (Remember that the MBA test has to be performed at least twice; keep enough undried sample for this purpose). Make a suspension of the undried aggregate powder (the amount should correspond to about 2 g dried aggregate powder) in the Erlenmeyer flask with 30 ml distilled or demineralized water. The crushed rock or soil may come from a small sample or hand specimen. If a representative aggregate sample is available, the following procedure is recommended (Wimpey Laboratories, UK, see Higgs, 1986). To prepare the test sample, riffle the sample of aggregate down to a portion of about 1kg and crush it in a jaw crusher to passing the 6.3mm sieve. Then riffle the portion down to about 100g and, using the jaw crusher, crush it as finely as possible (say passing 0.425 mm). Follow this by grinding it in a mechanical pestle and mortar until nearly all of it passes the 0.063mm sieve. The material retained on the 0.063mm sieve is ground to passing this sieve using a hand agate pestle and mortar. A portion of the sample has to be used for the determination of the water content (see above). Testing From the Methylene Blue solution 0.5 ml is added to the aggregate suspension by means of a 25ml burette. Shaking during the addition is necessary, for which a magnetic stirrer may be used. To perform the titration, add successive volumes of 0.5 ml of the methylene blue solution to the Erlenmeyer flask. After each addition, agitate the flask for 1 min. and remove a drop of the dispersion with the glass rod and dab it carefully on a sheet of filter paper. Initially, a circle of dust is formed which is coloured dark blue and has a distinct edge, and is surrounded by a ring of clear water. When the edge of the dust circle appears fuzzy and/or is surrounding by a narrow light blue halo, agitate the flask for 1 more min. and do another spot test. If the halo has disappeared, add more blue. If there is still a halo, agitate the flask for a further 2min. and do another spot test. Whatever the outcome of this test, add more blue, agitate for 2min. do a spot test, then agitate for a further 2 min. and do another spot test. This sequence, with a total of 4min. of agitation is repeated until there is a definite light blue halo. It is recommended to note down the sample number and the amount of methylene blue added below each spot on the filter paper. To determine the end-point, hold the filter paper up to daylight while it is still damp, and compare the dust circles made after 4 min. of agitation. It should then be possible to see where the halo first appears and thus where the end-point is. The corresponding volume of methylene blue solution added is noted down.
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This procedure is called the 'spot' method. After completing the test, pour the remaining methylene blue solution and the titrated suspension in a chemical waste container, specially determined for this purpose. Calculation of MBA and CEC The Methylene Blue Adsorption value is - in the literature -normally expressed in grams Methylene Blue adsorbent by 100 grams of sample material, given as g% or g/100g. MBA = {(X g / Y ml) x p ml MB} / (A g / 100 g); [g%] It is preferred to express the MBA in milliequivalents adsorbed per 100 grams of sample material. Mf= (100 x n x p ml MB) / A g; [meq/100g] X = weight of dried methylene blue crystals Y = volume of diluted methylene blue solution p = volume of methylene blue solution added A =weight of dry soil or rock powder i.e. a correction for the water content of the sample should be made (see section 4) n = normality of the MB solution (0.0094 meq/l for a 3 g/l methylene blue solution) If a soil sample is tested, the MBA and Mf are determined as follows: When the test is carried out on a (fine) size fraction (o/d), then the Mf of the total soil (o/D) can be found by: Mfo/D = Mfo/d x Cd/100 Cd = the weight percentage of size fraction o/d in the soil with size distribution o/D The Mfo/D or the similarly determined MBAo/D can act as an index, which quantifies the effect of clay present in the soil. Mf can be regarded as a good approximation of cation exchange capacity (CEC).
Reporting At least two determinations of the MBA adsorption value should be done on each sample; the average is reported. The Mf value should be reported; the cation exchange capacity should be given with an accuracy of 0.1 meq/100g. To compare the data with literature also the MBA value should be calculated with an accuracy of 0.1 g/100 g. It is advisable to keep record of - the amount of soil or ground rock used (with 0.01 g accuracy) - the water content of the sample - the amount of methylene blue solution added (with accuracy of 0.5 ml) Together with the result of the calculations, the filter paper, on which the sample number and the amounts of MB (in ml) are noted down, should be kept in the laboratory files. Interpretation of results
69
Limiting values used in the UK (Wimpey Lab., see Higgs, 1986) are 1.0 for basaltic rock and 0.7 for coarse grained sandstone. Cole and Sandy (1980) also give a boundary for unsound basaltic aggregate, which (recalculated) is 1.5 g/100 g MB. That value is also given as a boundary value for rock by Tran Ngog Lan (1985). The values of Wimpey Lab. are given in the following table. Indication of durability Acceptable Marginal Unsound MBA (g/100g) < 0.7 0.7 - 1.0 > 1.0 M (meq/100g)
f
< 1.9 1.9 - 2.7 > 2.7
Some characteristic MBA values for soils and rocks are given in the following table.
Mineral Montmorillonite Bentonites Chlorite Kaolinite Illite Halloysite Palygorskite Ferrihydrite Serpentine Basalt Granite Weathered basalt Bauxite Organic limestone Marble
MBA (g/100g) 19 - 36 5 - 23 0.6 2-5 1.8 - 2.5 1.3 14.6 <0.6 1.2 0.11-0.4 0.11-0.4 18.7 1.2 0.9 <0.6
Mf (meq/100g) 50 - 96 13 - 61 1.6 5 - 13 4.8 - 6.7 3.5 39.0 < 1.6 3.2 0.3 - 1 0.3 - 1 50 3.2 2.4 <1.6
Data from Stapel and Verhoef (1989).
References Cole, W.F. and Sandy, M.J., 1980. "A proposed secondary mineral rating for basalt road aggregate durability". Aust. Road Res., 10(3):27-37. Higgs, N.B., 1986. "Preliminary studies of methylene blue adsorption as a method of evaluating degradable smectite-bearing concrete aggregate sands. Cement and concrete research, vol. 16, pp. 525534. Stapel, E.E. and Verhoef, P.N.W., 1989. "The use of the methylene blue adsorption test in assessing the quality of basaltic tuff rock aggregate." Engineering Geology, 26, pp. 233-246. Tran Ngog Lan, 1985. "Deux nouveaux essais d'identification des sols argileux". Lab. des Ponts et Chaussees. Paris, France. (TropicaLS'85 Congress).
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Verhoef, P.N.W. (1992). "The methylene blue adsorption test applied to geomaterials". Memoirs of the Centre of Engineering Geology in The Netherlands, Delft, 101, pp. 76.
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Appendix I: Rock core preparation

Straightness, perpendicularity, flatness, length/diameter ratio and size of specimens for strength and deformability testing. Rock specimens which are used in the various tests to determine strength (unconfined. triaxial, and indirect tensile) and deformability (modulus of elasticity, poisson ratio, and creep testing) of rock material, must conform to a number of criteria for the accuracy of their form (circular cylinder with flat endfaces, which are perpendicular to the cylinder axis). Other standard criteria are the minimum diameter of the cylinders to be used for the various testing techniques and the ratio of length versus diameter to be used. ISRM and ASTM criteria are not exactly the same. Table 1 and table 2 give the various criteria by ISRM and ASTM with a proposal for the criteria to be used in the rock mechanics laboratory of Delft Engineering Geology, this proposal was followed when compiling the standard test procedures. The procedures for measuring the straightness, flatness and perpendicularity are given in the following sections. Straightness of the cylinder sides Two methods are used for this determination: - Roll the sample on a flat smooth surface and measure the height of the maximum gap between the specimen and the flat surface with a feeler gauge. If this gap exceeds 0.50mm, the specimen does not meet the requirements for straightness and shall not be used for the testing. The surface on which the specimen is rolled shall not depart from a plane by more than 0.013mm. - Place the cylinder on the V-block. Place a dial indicator in contact with the top of the specimen as shown in figure app1.1., move the specimen from one end of the v-block to the other along a straight line. - Record the minimum and maximum readings on the dial gauge and calculate the difference do repeat the same operations by rotating the specimen for every 90, and obtain the difference d90, d180, and d270. The maximum value of these four values shell be less than 0.50mm (0.020in).
figure app1.1.: Assembly for determining the straightness of the cylindrical surface
72
Flatness of the end surfaces The flatness of the end faces is determined by a set up similar to that for the cylindrical surface. The dial gauge, however, is now mounted near the end of the V-block (see figure app1.2.). Move the dial gauge holder horizontally along the end of the V-block, maintaining good contact with the block, and record the dial gauge readings every 3mm across the diameter. Plot the readings on an enlarged scale on mm paper and dram a smooth line through the points. The smoothness criterion is met when the smooth curve so determined does not depart from a visual best fit line by more than the value indicated in the standard test procedure (see also tables 1 and 2). Rotate the specimen 900 around its longitudinal axis and repeat the same operations and tolerance checks for the new diametrical plane. Repeat the same procedure for the other end face.
figure app1.2.: Assembly for determining the perpendicularity of end surfaces to the specimen axis
Perpendicularity of the end faces to the cylinder axis This criterion can be checked using the measurements taken for the determination of the flatness of the end faces. Calculate the difference between the maximum and minimum readings on the dial gauge along each of the 4 diameters (the two lines perpendicular to each other on each end face). These four values of difference should be divided by the specimen diameter and the resulting four values must all be smaller than the ratio indicated in the standard test procedures in this manual (see also tables 1 and 2).
suggested by ISRM Straightness cylinder Flatness of end faces Perpendicu larity table 1 better than 0.3 mm better than 0.02 mm better than 1:1000
standard of ASTM better than 0.5 mm better than 0.015 mm better than 1:200
proposed for DEG better than 0.5 mm better than 0.02 mm better than 1:200
for: unconfined compression, triaxial strength, modules of elasticity, poisson ratio and creep testing
73
suggested by ISRM Straightness cylinder Flatness of end faces Perpendicularity better than 0.025 mm better than 0.25 mm better than 1:200
standard of ASTM better than 0.5 mm no specification better than 1:100
proposed for DEG better than 0.5 mm no specification better than 1:100
table 2. for : Brazilian tensile strength
Size and length/diameter ratio for specimens Also for the specimen size and the specimen length/diameter ratio ASTM and ISRM do not follow the same standards. For the unconfined compressive strength and triaxial strength testing techniques listed in table 1 ASTM sets a standard of a minimum diameter of at least 10 times the largest grain size in the rock, generally 48 mm is enough. ISRM holds also the condition of 10 times the largest grain size and gives as a minimum specimen diameter 54 mm. In the test procedures in this manual the ASTM standard was followed. Minimum specimen diameter indicated in this manual is 54 mm. The length/diameter ratio recommended by ISRM for the strength tests is 2.5 to 3, the ASTM standard, however is 2 to 2.5. The standard proposed in this manual is 2.5, which is not in conflict with ISRM and ASTM. The diameter and length/diameter ratio of specimens for the Brazilian splitting tensile strength test suggested by ISRM are respectively 54 mm and 1:1. For ASTM the standards are 48 mm and 0.5:1 to 1:1. In this manual these values have been chosen as 54 mm and 1:1, so also here there is no conflict with the existing standards. For the deformation tests the standards for diameter and length/diameter are as follows: at least 54 mm and 2.5 to 3.0 for the ISRM against 48 mm and 2.0 to 2.5 for ASTM. Important!!!!!!: If specimens are available which do not confirm with the sizes or ratios indicated in this appendix, the test procedures remain valid. The only consequence is that in the report it must be stated clearly that the tests were done with specimens of sizes other than indicated in the standard test procedures of the laboratory.
74
Appendix 2: Table with indications of strength properties of rock Rock type Dry density Mg/m3 2.3 2.7 2.6 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.0 2.2 2.5 2.3 1.9 Porosity % 4 2 2 1 1 3 20 10 2 12 25 UCS MPa 10-35 15-200 20-80 50-180 60-300 80-350 5-50 50-150 50-140 10-60 5-25 Modulus of Elasticity GPa 15 25 20 70 80 100 20 50 50 15 5 Brazilian Tensile strength MPa 1 8 2 10 15 15 2 5 8 4 .5
Gypsum Slate Schist Marble Granite Basalt Sandstone Triassic Sandstone carboniferous Limestone Carboniferous Limestone Jurassic Chalk
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ROCK And AGGREGATE Test procedures

Rock and aggregate laboratory manual

ISRM: ASTM: BS:

Geotechnical Laboratory DGM, Thimphu Bhutan

Rock and aggregate laboratory manual

Geotechnical laboratory DGM, Thimphu Bhutan

Geotechnical Laboratory DGM, Thimphu Bhutan

Rock and aggregate laboratory manual

dry mass C - A = (in kg/ m3 or g/ cm3 or g/ mm3 ) volume V

Geotechnical Laboratory DGM, Thimphu Bhutan

Rock and aggregate laboratory manual

Msat - Msub water

Geotechnical Laboratory DGM, Thimphu Bhutan

Rock and aggregate laboratory manual

porewatermass BC 100% = 100% grainmass CA

Geotechnical Laboratory DGM, Thimphu Bhutan

Rock and aggregate laboratory manual

Geotechnical Laboratory DGM, Thimphu Bhutan

Rock and aggregate laboratory manual

Geotechnical Laboratory DGM, Thimphu Bhutan

Rock and aggregate laboratory manual

Geotechnical Laboratory DGM, Thimphu Bhutan

Rock and aggregate laboratory manual

Geotechnical Laboratory DGM, Thimphu Bhutan

Rock and aggregate laboratory manual

Geotechnical Laboratory DGM, Thimphu Bhutan

Rock and aggregate laboratory manual

Geotechnical Laboratory DGM, Thimphu Bhutan

Rock and aggregate laboratory manual

2.2: Equotip hardness number

figure 2.2.2.: Using the Equotip impact device

Geotechnical Laboratory DGM, Thimphu Bhutan

Rock and aggregate laboratory manual

estimatedU.C.S.= 4.906 E -7 * L value2.974

Geotechnical Laboratory DGM, Thimphu Bhutan

Rock and aggregate laboratory manual

Geotechnical Laboratory DGM, Thimphu Bhutan

Rock and aggregate laboratory manual

velosity compressio n wave Vp =

velosity shear wave Vs =

Geotechnical Laboratory DGM, Thimphu Bhutan

Rock and aggregate laboratory manual

D * Vs 2 * ( 3Vs 2 - 4 Vs 2 ) (in Mpa ) 2 Vp - Vs 2

Modulus of rigidity G = D x Vs 2 (in Mpa)

Geotechnical Laboratory DGM, Thimphu Bhutan

Rock and aggregate laboratory manual

Geotechnical Laboratory DGM, Thimphu Bhutan

Rock and aggregate laboratory manual

Geotechnical Laboratory DGM, Thimphu Bhutan

Rock and aggregate laboratory manual

Swelling pressure index

Swelling strain index =

Geotechnical Laboratory DGM, Thimphu Bhutan

Rock and aggregate laboratory manual

-D x 100% Slake durability index (ISRM) Id 2 = B 2 A- D -D after n cycles Id n = B n x 100% A- D

Geotechnical Laboratory DGM, Thimphu Bhutan

Rock and aggregate laboratory manual

Geotechnical Laboratory DGM, Thimphu Bhutan

Rock and aggregate laboratory manual

Geotechnical Laboratory DGM, Thimphu Bhutan

Rock and aggregate laboratory manual

Geotechnical Laboratory DGM, Thimphu Bhutan