SEMICONDUCTOR

Semiconductors may be defined as the element whose conductivity is between the conductors and the insulators. Or in other words we can define the semiconductors as a materials for which the width of forbidden energy region is relatively small approximately 1.1 Ev is called semiconductors. The most important practical semiconductor materials are germanium and silicon which have the values of Eg of 0.3ev and 0.7 Ev respectively at 0 k. In these the valence band remains full and the conduction band empty.The conductivity increases with increase in temperature.

How conductivity increases with increase in temperature?

As the temperature increases, some of the electrons acquires thermal energy greater than eg, and hence move into the conduction band. The empty space created due to the movement of the electrons from valence band to the conduction band is called the holes. TWO TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTORS:Intrinsic semiconductors:- a pure semiconductors which is free from every impurity is called the intrinsic semiconductor. Germanium and silicon are the example of intrinsic semiconductors. Extrinsic semiconductors:- the semiconductor when doped with the impurities is called the extrinsic semiconductor. DOPING is is the process in which a intrinsic semiconductor is doped with the trivalent or pentavalent impurities like boron and phosphorus respectively. When the intrinsic semiconductor is doped with trivalent impurity i.e. boron then it p-type semiconductor and when it is doped with pentavalent i.e. Phosphorus then it is n-type semiconductor.

Fig: Doping in Semiconductor P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR:- A P-type semiconductor (P for Positive) is obtained by carrying out a process of doping that is, adding a certain type of atoms to the semiconductor in order to increase the number of free charge carriers. When the doping material is added, it takes away (accepts) weakly bound outer electrons from the semiconductor atoms. This type of doping agent is also known as an acceptor material and the vacancy left behind by the electron is known as a hole. In this majority carriers are holes and minority carriers are electrons.

Fig: P Type Semiconductor N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR:- N-type semiconductors are a type of extrinsic semiconductor where the dopant atoms are capable of providing extra conduction electrons to the host material (e.g. phosphorus in silicon). This creates an excess of negative (n-type) electron charge carriers. In this majority carrier are electrons and minority carriers are holes.

Fig: N Type Semiconductor

ENERGY BANDS When atoms are brought together as in a solid, the energy levels splitting is negligibly small, which leads to a continuum of energy levels, called the energy bands. According to Bohrs atomic spectra theory in an isolated atom there are well defined energy levels of electrons. To form a crystal, many atoms are brought nearer to each other. Due to this there is interatomic interaction between atoms. Valence electrons are shared by more than one atom in the crystal.

Fig: Energy Band

FERMI ENERGY
It is the maximum possible energy possess by the free electron of a metal at absolute zero temperature i.e. 0 K. ENERGY BANDS IN METALS:- The energy band diagram for metals is such that either the conduction band is partially filled with the electrons or the valence band partially overlap each other and there is no forbidden energy gap in between.

Fig: Energy Bands in Conductors

ENERGY BAND IN INSULATOR:- In insulator the valence band is completely filled and conduction band is empty and forbidden energy gap is quite large. Forbidden energy gap is of 6 eV.

Fig: Energy Bands in Insulators

ENERGY BAND IN SEMICONDUCTORS: - In semiconductors valence band is totally filled and conduction band is empty. Forbidden gap is quite small between valence band and conduction band. Forbidden energy gap is of 1.1 eV.

Fig: Energy Bands in Semiconductors

DIRECT BAND GAP

In a DIRECT BAND GAP semiconductor, the top of the valence band and the bottom of the conduction band occur at the same value of momentum.

Fig: Direct Band Gap

INDIRECT BAND GAP

In an Indirect Band gap semiconductor, the maximum energy of the valence band occurs at a different value of momentum to the minimum of the conduction band energy.

Fig: Indirect Band Gap

TYPES OF DIODES
1. ZENER DIODE:-It is specially designed, heavily doped silicon or germanium pn junction diode with high power rating, which can operate continuously, without being damaged in the region of reverse breakdown voltage.

Fig: Zener diode

2. PHOTO DIODE:-Its working is based on photo-conduction from light. A photo

diode is a semiconductor made of photosensitive semiconductor material. In such a diode a provision is made to allow the light of suitable frequency to fall on it. The conductivity of photodiode increases with the increase in the intensity of light falling on it. It can be used in demodulator, photo detection for optical signals.

Fig: Photodiode 3. LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED):-It is the forward biased p-n junction diode which emits light when recombination of electrons and holes takes place at the junction. Led is made up of materials like Gallium Arsenide (GaAs), Gallium phosphide (GaP), Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP). The colour of the light emitting diode depends upon the type of the material used in making the semiconductor diode as given below:-Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) Infrared radiation -Gallium Phosphide (GaP) - Red or Green light. -Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP) Red or Yellow light.

Fig: LED

4. Laser Diode :- Laser diode is typically a p-n junction diode made up of Gallium
Arsenide (GaAs). The two sides of the junction diode perpendicular to the plane of the junction are made parallel and polished in such a way that one side acts as a full mirrorand the other side acts as partially reflecting surface. These are low powered laser. They are used in optical communication.

Fig: Laser Diode

5. TUNNEL DIODE:-A tunnel diode is a p-n junction diode has an impurity

concentration of about 1 parts in 108. With this amount of doping, the width of the depletion layer, which constitutes a potential barrier at the junction, is of the order of a micron.

Fig: Tunnel Diode 6. Avalanche diodes: Diodes that conduct in the reverse direction when the reverse bias voltage exceeds the breakdown voltage. These are electrically very similar to Zener diodes, and are often mistakenly called Zener diodes, but break down by a different mechanism, the avalanche effect.

Fig: Avalanche Diode 7. Cats whisker or crystal diodes: These are a type of point-contact diode. The cats whisker diode consists of a thin or sharpened metal wire pressed against a semiconducting crystal, typically galena or a piece of coal.

8. Thermal diodes: This term is used both for conventional PN diodes used to
monitor temperature due to their varying forward voltage with temperature, and for Peltier heat pumps for thermoelectric heating and cooling.

9. PIN diodes: A PIN diode has a central un-doped, or intrinsic, layer, forming a ptype/intrinsic/n-type structure.They are used as radio frequency switches and attenuators. They are also used as large volume ionizing radiation detectors and as photodetectors

10.Schottky diodes: Schottky diodes are constructed from a metal to semiconductor

contact. They have a lower forward voltage drop than p-n junction diodes. Their forward voltage drop at forward currents of about 1 mA is in the range 0.15 V to 0.45 V, which makes them useful in voltage clamping applications and prevention of transistor saturation.

Fig: Schottky Diode

11.Varicap or Varactor diodes: These are used as voltage-controlled capacitors.

These are important in PLL (phase-locked loop) and FLL (frequency-locked loop) circuits, allowing tuning circuits, such as those in television receivers, to lock quickly, replacing older designs that took a long time to warm up and lock.

Fig: Varactor Diod

PROCESS FOR DIODE FABRICATION

1. CLEANING PROCESS
In this process we clean the silicon wafer. In this process we remove grease, dust particles, organic matters, ionic matters and heavy particles. TO REMOVE GREASE AND WET IMPURITY i) ii) Boil the silicon wafer in trichloroethylene for 2-3 minutes at 80C. Put the wafer in ultrasonic process for 2 minutes. In ultrasonic process when water present in the instrument vibrates, it also vibrates the solution present in the beaker. Due to which the dust particles from the wafer falls down. iii) After ultrasonic process, boil the wafer in the ACETONE. Acetone is so used because trichloroethylene is miscible in it. iv) v) Again put the wafer for the ultrasonic process. After ultrasonic process, boil the wafer in the methanol. Methanol is so used because trichloroethylene is highly miscible in it. vi) vii) Again put the wafer for the ultrasonic process. Rinse with DI water. DI water is pure H2O, which is free from all ions and minerals. It is not suitable for drinking purpose. TO REMOVE ORGANIC / IONIC MATTERS. i) Prepare 5:1:1 H20:NH4:H2O2 Boil the wafer in the prepared solution. Rinse the wafer with DI water 2-3 times.

TO REMOVE HEAVY METALS i) Prepare 6:1:1 H2O:H2O2:HCL -Boil the wafer in the prepared solution. - Rinse the wafer with DI water 2-3 times. -Dry the wafer in the oven.

Fig: Cleaning process

2. OXIDATION PROCESS
-In this process a layer of oxide is grown on the silicon wafer at 1050 c. -wafer is put in the oxidation furnace an following three process is followed DRY PROCESS:- This process is of 20 minutes in which dry oxygen is passed over the silicon wafer. WET PROCESS:- This process of 60 minutes in which oxygen is passed through the boiling water, over the silicon wafer. DRY PROCESS:- this process is of 20 minutes in which dry oxygen is passed over the silicon wafer.

STEPS FOR THE OXIDATION PROCESS

Furnace temperature is set at 1050C. Oxygen gas is started to flow in the tube. Cleaned silicon wafer is loaded on the quartz boat at the end of the tube and slowly pushed in the centre of the tube. The wafer is subjected to dry oxygen ambient for 20 minutes (dry oxidation). Water of the oxidation flak is heated to about 80-90C. Now oxygen flow is switched through hot water and maintained for about 60 minutes (wet oxidation).

After wet oxidation, dry oxidation is switched on into the furnace for 20 minutes. Now wafer boat is pulled out slowly at the end of the tube and left there 0for some time to cool. Oxidised wafer is taken out of the furnaces.

Layer so formed from dry oxidation is of good quality and from wet oxidation is porous.

3. PHOTOLITHOGRAPHY
Photolithography is the process in which silicon wafer is introduces to the photosensitive material and then exposed to the ultra violet rays.

STEPS FOR PHOTOLITHOGRAPHY PROCESS

Dried wafer is put on spinner. Few drops of positive photoresist is dropped on the wafer. Start the spinner(3000-5000 rpm). Due to this a uniform layer of the photoresist is formed on the wafer surface.

Fig: Spinner Photoresist Coater Put this wafer in the oven at 90C for 20 minutes. This step is called pre-bake. The baked wafer is put on the mask aligner to expose the wafer to the ULTRA-VIOLET rays. U.V light through an appropriate photomask for a pre determined time approx. 2minutes 40 sec.

Fig: Photomask After exposer, the wafer is developed in an appropriate time approx. 1 minute, followed by dip in DI water. Observe the wafer under the microscope for the pattern of the mask transferred in the photoresist. Put the developed wafer in the oven at 120C for 40 minutes. This step is called post-bake. POSITIVE PHOTORESIST is of SHIPLEY-USA MICROPOSIT 1813.

4.OXIDE ETCHING
o Oxide etching is the process in which we etch the oxide from the silicon wafer.

STEPS FOR OXIDE ETCHING

Post baked wafer is put in the buffer HF solution for 2-5 minutes to etch the silicon oxide. After etching the wafer is thoroughly cleaned in the DI water. Removal of photoresist:- water cleaned wafer is boiled in acetone two times to completely remove the photoresist from the wafer surface. Wafer is cleaned in di water. Dry the wafer.

5. DIFFUSION
o Difusssion is the process in which n-type silicon wafer is diffused with p type material.

STEPS FOR DIFFUSION

Put the dried wafer in the quartz boat and is loaded in the furnace. Wafer is placed between the wafer made up of BORON NITRATE. On the diffused side of the wafer we observe a glass coat. Put a layer of photoresist on the glass side of the wafer. Now we etch the oxide of the back side of the wafer by dipping the wafer in the buffer HF solution. Now put the wafer in the Acetone solution and boil it two times. Now put the wafer in the glass etchant to etch the glass. Before going for the Metallurgical process, wafer are dipped in the solution which is the mixture of the DI water with 2-3 drops of HF.

6. THIN FILM METAL DEPOSITION

In this process a layer of aluminium is deposited on the surface of the wafer. This process is also called as Metallurgical Process. The machine consists of a Rotary Pump, Cooler, Pirani Gauge, and Panning Gauge. In this process aluminium wires are evaporated and evaporated aluminium falls on the surface of the wafer. This way the thin film of aluminium metal is deposited on the surface of the wafer. The wafer is put in the oven .

7. PHOTOLITHOGRAPHY
We put a layer of photoresist on the surface where the thin film of metal is deposited.

Put the wafer in the oven. In this time we use the negative photolithography process. After drying, put the wafer on the MASK ALIGNER for the exposer with Ultra Violet rays. Use the Mask 2 for this process. We align the mask grid with the pattern formed on the wafer. Give the exposer up to 2 minutes 35 sec. Put the exposed wafer in the Developer for 1 minutes.

In negative photolithography, where the ultra violet rays falls, from that place photoresist becomes hard.

8. METAL ETCHING
Dip the developed wafer in the ORTHOPHOPHORIC ACID. This leads the removal of the photoresist from the surface of the surface of the wafer. Dip the wafer in DI water and observe under the microscope.

9. TESTING
Test each and every diode for the V-I characteristics of a diode.