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INTRODUCTION

Compressed air also called as the fourth utility plays a vital role in the manufacturing process of any industry. The generation of compressed air is one of the major energy consuming activity taking place in any industrial operation. Often 'Compressors' are referred to as 'Power Guzzlers'. An approximate estimate indicates that around 1500 MW, is consumed nationwide, just to compress air in industry. Moreover, the use of compressed air is increasing linearly with our industrial growth. This presents a worthy target for the application of energy conservation (Encon) technologies. Many energy conscious engineers exposed to factory environments believe that, atleast 10% of this can be saved. Therefore, it is in the national interest that compressed air be generated and used with efficiency & economy, wherever possible. This not only results in energy savings, but also a saving in rupees.

Types of Air Compressors

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# Positive displacement type air compressors :Positive displacement compressors mechanically displace a fixed volume of air into a reduced volume. They will deliver a nearly constant volume, when operated at a fixed speed; while the discharge pressure is determined by the system load conditions. The different types of positive displacement compressors are as follows:Reciprocating air compressors:Compressed air is generated by the to & fro movement of the piston in the compression chamber (Just like an IC Engine). Each movement compresses a fixed quantity of free air at a specific pressure. According to the type of construction, reciprocating compressors can be further classified as single stage / double stage and single acting / double acting compressors. The vertical type air compressors are suitable for applications ranging between 50 - 150 CFM, and the horizontal balance type is most suited for applications ranging from 200 - 5000 CFM. The schematic representation of a double stage reciprocation is shown in figure. Double Stage Reciprocating Compressor: Rotary type air compressors:Air is compressed by two rotating, intermeshing rotors (in some cases one rotor is kept stationery and the other rotates). The action of the rotary

screw / lobe can be compared to a reciprocating compressor. The different types of rotary type air compressors are schematically given:Rotary Screw Compressor Rotary Vane Compressor Some Types of Rotary Compresors Dynamic type air compressors: Dynamic compressors mechanically impart a velocity to the air, through the use of impellers rotating at high speed, in an enclosed housing. The air is forced into a progressively reduced volume. The volumetric flow will vary inversely with the differential pressure across the compressor. The dynamic type of air compressors are classified into Centrifugal air compressors: The centrifugal air compressor consists of an impeller, mounted on a shaft and positioned within a housing, consisting of an inlet duct, a volute and a diffuser. The impeller rotates at high speed and imparts a velocity to the air. The diffuser surrounds the impeller and acts to convert the kinetic energy of the air into potential energy at a higher-pressure level. These type of compressors are best suited for applications requiring more than 5000 CFM. Centrifugal Compressor: Axial flow air compressors:The axial flow type air compressor is essentially a large capacity, high-speed machine, with characteristics quite different from the centrifugal. Each stage consists of two row of blades, one row rotating and the next row stationery. The rotor blades impart velocity and pressure to the gas as the motor turns, the velocity being converted to pressure in the stationery blades. Roots compressors (Roots Bolwer):This is really a blower and is generally limited to a pressure of 1 bar in single stage and a pressure of 2.2 bar in two stage combination. Selection of air compressors 'Choices are Many, so is the case with compressors. This makes the decision of the factory manager on the selection, tougher. He has to select the right compressors for his manufacturing process, so as to be cost competitive. For this, the emphasis should be on energy efficiency (low life cycle cost or operating cost) and minimum maintenance (high reliability). As a first step towards compressor selection, the factory manager should know the quantity

of compressed air required for his plant. To estimate this quantity, the following should be determined. Maximum compressed air consumption Maximum compressed air consumption is the total quantity of compressed air required by all the pneumatic equipments connected in the plant, operating in full load condition. To estimate this compressed air consumption, the air consumption per unit depending on the equipment connected should be considered. Wherever process air is used due consideration has to be given. Utilisation factor (Use factor or Load factor) Use factor is the ratio of total output over a period, to total output when compressor operates at full load continuously, over that period. In any industry, where a large number of pneumatic tools / application is involved, all may not be operating simultaneously. In these cases, the use factor is of immense help to the factory manager, to determine the approximate average compressed air consumption. This use factor can be determined with the help of work-study people. In cases where use factor for each class of machines cannot be estimated, it is a common practice to use an overall factor of 50%, of the total consumption of all machines in the plant. Average consumption of air Average consumption of air can be estimated, considering both the maximum air consumption and the utilisation factor. A provision of 5% of the total average capacity requirement should be made to cover leakage losses. Also a provison of 10% of the total average capacity requirement should be given for unaccounted usage and future expansion. The effect of altitude should also be given due consideration during the estimation (eg. For compressors installed at 60m above sea level and at a temperature of 500 Deg C, the efficiency drop will be around 15%). The estimated air consumption should be 115% of the calculated average air consumption.

Selection of compressors Having calculated the total average capacity requirement, the factory manager can select the type of compressors required. Rotary Sliding -----------Vane ---------

Rotary Screw Piston Liquid Rotary Lobe Centrifugal Reciprocating (Single or Two Stage) Reciprocating (More than two stage)

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Chart to guide selection of air compressors (Source Indian Standards IS 6206 - 1985) The chart has the capacity (calculated average air consumption) across the X axis and pressure across the Y axis. Having known the pressure requirement and the average air consumption, the type of compressor best suited can be selected from the given curves. The graph is self-explanatory. While selecting the compressors, the following points should be kept in view a) As a first step, identify the base load and fluctuating load. b) For base (Steady) loads Select centrifugal compressors (best for very high capacity) or screw compressors. c) For fluctuating loads Select screw compressor with built-in VFD (the best option) or reciprocating compressors. Selection of compressed air layout Compressed air system layout, is the process of geometrically locating the air compressor, air piping and work-stations for maximum plant efficiency and economy. Other factors like production variables, maintenance, location, capacity of utilities and energy consumption should also be considered. Compressor locations should be selected, so as to minimise the length of piping between the air compressor and the largest user of compressed air user. In systems with a large distribution network, it is preferable to have compressor centrally located, to minimise the length of piping between the compressor and the farthest end in the plant. Some common types used are a) Loop b) Unit Loop

c) Grid d) Unit Grid Different compressed air layouts Out of these four headers, loop header is the most desired and energy efficient. In some cases, where there is a minimal usage of compressed air at farthest ends, separate compressed air systems can be installed. For this, the requirement of compressed air has to be estimated, considering load fluctuations. When multiple pressures are required for different plant operations, consideration should be given to separate distribution systems and compressors. The other important considerations are a) Adequate space between compressors for regular inspection & maintenance b) Proper ventilation c) Optimised cooling arrangements. Compressed air piping Having seen the compressed air layout, the next important thing to be considered is the compressed air piping system. The following points should be kept in view, while designing the piping, for maximum economy, reliability and high efficiency. This subdivision intends to address primarily the Encon aspects to be considered, while designing the compressed air piping system. Minimum pressure drop - 0.3 bar between the compressor plant and the farthest end of compressed air consumption. Depending on the length of the pipeline, the airflow speed should be kept between 6 - 10 m/s to achieve moderate pressure drop. Pressure drop can be readily obtained from the figure. Pressure drop in pipeline (Source Indian Standards IS 6206 - 1985) High degree of condensate separation throughout the system While laying the pipelines, adequate water separators (like traps etc.,) should be provided at suitable points, to drain condensate. The water separators should be placed in between long straight pipes, with a slight slope to facilitate easy water flow towards the separators. Minimum number of joints, bends and fittings in pipeline Further to minimising the joints, it should be ensured that joints are welded,

instead of flexible or screwed joints wherever possible. This facilitates in minimising the leakages and pressure drop.

Compressed air conditioning Compressed air needs to be treated to various levels depending on the application. The treatment involves removal of dust, oil and moisture. The removal of dust, oil & moisture is achievedby filters and dryers. Filters Filters are used to remove contaminants, especially dust (Solids), oil & moisture. Solids Solid dust is found in compressed air because of Suction air quality Dessicant, activated carbon provided in dryers Pipeline rust and scale Burnt compressor lubricating oil It is preferable to remove dust to the extent required at the point of use. Filters should have a low pressure drop, as the energy loss across the filter is in the form of pressure drop. A surface filter like pleated paper, ceramic or sintered bronze filter can be used for dust removal. Pleated paper / cellulose are best suited, as they offer very low pressure drop and can handle high dust loads without significant pressure drop. A pressure drop of 0.3 to 1.0 is allowable. Hence, it is recommended to use a pleated paper, ceramic or sintered bronze filter for dust removal and maintain a pressure drop between 0.3 to 1.0 psi. (14.22 psi = 1 kg/cm2 ) Oil Oil from the compressor comes as vapour and liquid aerosol. The vapour cools and becomes liquid in the line. For most industrial applications only the liquid oil need to be removed and is done by a coalescing filter. Coalescers are depth filters and the most energy efficient. Eg., a wet 0.01 micron @99.999% efficiency has a pressure drop of 6 PSI, while a 0.01 micron @ 99.97% efficiency has a pressure drop of 3 PSI only. Hence it is recommended to install the 99.97 % efficiency, 0.01 micron coalescing filter for all industrial applications at design stage itself.

Oil vapour removal This is required for breathing air and applications where the air is in touch with the product. Oil vapour produces small stain products. Oil vapour is removed by activated carbon filter. The dryer media will have a pressure drop of 0.1 kilogram per square centimetre for a fully saturated wet media. Energy cost in filters It costs 7% of the total energy for 1 kilogram per square centimetre pressure drop at 7-10 ksc operating pressure. This can be higher for higher pressure. Hence, The filters have to be sized properly The filters have to be replaced when the pressure drop is high. It is advisable to change the filters, when the pressure drop reaches 0.5 kilogram per square centimetre. A stand-by filter can also be arranged to facilitate the changing of filters. However, the economics of replacement of a particular filter based on pressure drop can be accurately found from the figure. Filter replacement chart Moisture removal Moisture is found in liquid as well as in suspended form. Moisture in liquid form is called as condensate and the moisture in suspended form is called as aerosol. Aerosol is normally removed using water separators. The common types of water separators are a)Ceramic cartridge b)Baffle plate c)Demister pad type The demister pad type is the most desired and energy efficient water separator, as it is good in removing water droplets and has a lower pressure drop also. Drain valves are required to automatically remove condensates. Water condensates, where there is cooling and settles down in low velocity areas. The areas of removal are inter and after coolers, moisture separators, air receivers, drop legs, dryers and filters. The condensate comes with oil and dust, which is a difficult liquid to drain. Float valves do not work well, when the condensate is dirty.

Timer based drain valve assures positive draining. These valves are reliable. However, they waste energy, as lot of air is purged during drain cycle. The latest technology is to sense condensate electronically. The controller thus discharges the condensate only, thereby saving air. The capacitance sensing works for pure water and oily condensate. These valves have enormous energy saving potential and it is the best solution for condensate draining. Further, the operation is noise free, as no air is vented. It is therefore recommended to install electronic sensing technology for moisture removal at design stage. Dryers:Moisture in vapour phase needs to be removed. If it is not removed, it will condense when it is cooled, i.e, at the point of use. There are two methods of drying Adsorption drying (Dessicant Dryers) Refrigeration Drying The summary of types of dryers and their advantages are Type of Capital Running Dew Pressure Dryer Cost Cost Point oC Drop Dessicant heatless Dessicant heated Dessicant HOC Refrigeration dryer Low High High Medium -40 oC -20 to -40 oC
o

Best Suitable for 150 CFM 100-750 CFM or decided by dew point > 1000 CFM for lubricated Compressors 100 CFM

Medium High

High Medium

Very Low Low

-20o to -40oC +3oC

High Low

Compressor utilities:The compressors can also be classified according to the type of cooling. They are a) Air cooled compressors:-

These compressors use the fan for forced cooling of the compressors. Due to the low cooling efficiency, this type of cooling is mostly used for low capacity compressors having intermittent usage. b) Water cooled compressors:For heavy duty or continuous applications water cooling system is adopted, as the efficiency of cooling is high. The cooling system along with the auxilaries, such as, Cooling towers, Cooling tower fans etc., consume considerable energy. The energy consumption for such utilities, should also be considered at design stage itself, so as to reduce the overall operating cost. The following points are to be kept in view, while designing the compressed air system. Cooling system:Cooling water pumps: The cooling water pumps are designed such that, only one pump caters to a series of compressors. This is a common feature in almost all the industries. The pumps are designed keeping in view that all compressors are operated continuously. But in actual practice, only 50 to 60 % of the compressors are operated. This results in unnecessary pumping of water, leading to a higher power consumption. A VFD for the cooling water pumps can also be considered, wherever dedicated systems are not possible. This will result in considerable amount of power savings, as well as good process control. Alternatively, dedicated cooling water pumps i.e., a separate pump for each compressor can be installed at the design stage itself. This not only saves power, but also increases the flexibility of operation. Moreover, the pump capacities have to match with the heat removal from the compressor. The suggested norms below can be considered for optimising the water & power consumption vis-a-vis the CFM generated. Water consumption/CFM = 350 LPM/1000 CFM (Typical 7.0 kilogram per square centimetre Compressor) Power consumption/CFM = 2.0 kW/1000 CFM (Typical 20 m head pump) Cooling tower Cooling tower is one area where not much importance is given. This also consumes considerable amount of power by way of cooling tower fans. The

cooling tower fans operate continuously throughout the year. The load is less during nights and high in days. This fluctuation has to be kept in view and a temperature indicator controller (TIC) has to be incorporated at design stage itself. This temperature control should automatically cut off cooling tower fan at 300 Deg C and start the cooling tower fan at 320 Deg C (Suggested temperatures are typical desired temperatures). Energy Consumption (Encon) aspects to be considered at design The following Encon aspects have to be considered, while designing the compressed air system. Suction air intake to air compressor The compressors generate heat, due to their continuous operation. This heat gets dissipated inside the compressor room / chamber / leading to hot air feed to the compressor intake. This results in lower volumetric efficiency and higher power consumption. For an approximate 40 Deg C rise in temperature, the power consumption increases by 1% for the same output. Hence, it is recommended to provide a separate suction duct from outside (atmosphere) to the compressor directly. Segregation of HP & LP Compressed air system :Pressure Vs Power Consumption:Higher the pressure, higher is the power consumption. In any industry, the compressed air system is designed for the maximum pressure requirement, even if the requirement is very minimum. While calculating the average compressed air consumption of the plant, the total requirement of Low Pressure (2.5 to 3.5 bar) and High Pressure (above 3.5 bar) compressed air has to be estimated. If any, say LP or HP air constitutes more than 30 % of the average compressed air consumption, then separate compressed air system has to be installed. The advantage of segregating HP & LP compressed air user has many advantages. They are:Reduces the leakages proportionally, as the leakage levels are high at higher pressures. Reduces the overall operating cost. Say a 20 % reduction in pressure results in 20% reduction in power consumption of the compressors. Moreover, the wear & tear of the compressors are less at low pressures. Increases the life of instrument valves, as higher pressure tends to

damage the joints, packings etc., frequently Reduces the investment on pressure reducing valves at design stage itself. It is therefore recommended to segregate the low pressure and high pressure compressed air system at the design stage itself. Install screw compressors with built-in variable frequency drives (VFD) for fluctuating loads. Variable speed drives eg. (variable frequency drives) can be installed for all types of air compressors. However, it is best suited for screw air compressors. The advantages of installing VFD for screw air compressors are : All the compressors connected to a common system operate at a constant pressure. The operating pressure will be lesser than the average operating pressure of loading / unloading system. Hence, energy saving is achieved due to pressure reduction. The compressors need not operate in load / unload condition. This saves the unload power consumption. An air leakage in the compressed air system also comes down since the average operating pressure is less. Generally, high capacity air compressors are operated with loading / unloading control, as in the case of screw & reciprocating compressors and with inlet vane control for centrifugal compressors. In loading / unloading type of control, receiver pressure is sensed and the compressor load / unloads depending on the pressure. Hence a compressor operates within a band of pressure range. Generally air compressors operate with 1 kilogram per square centimetre pressure range. For example, a compressor operates between load pressure of 6 kg/cm2 & unloads at a pressure of 7 kg/cm2; (the average pressure is 6.5 kg/cm2, bandwidth 1 kg/cm2). The power consumption of the compressor operating constantly at 6 kg/cm2 with VFD comes down by 5 to 6 %. By installation of a VFD, it is possible to maintain a bandwidth of 6 kg/cm2 to 6.1 kg/cm2. The major advantage of variable speed drive is that if 4 or 5 compressors are connected to a common header, then by installation of VFD in one compressor, the energy savings achieved due to pressure reduction is cumulative (power consumption comes down in all compressors). Since the average operating pressure with VFD is less (6 ksc instead of 6.5

ksc as per earlier example) the air leakages in the system is also minimised. The installation of VFD facilitates to reduce / increase the speed of the compressor depending on the requirement. This completely avoids unloading and saves unload power consumption, which is normally 25 to 35% of the full load consumption. Recently, screw compressors with built-in variable frequency drives, have been introduced in the Indian market. This system facilitates fine - tuning of the compressor capacity precisely to meet the fluctuating compressed air demand. This leads to precise pressure regulation. It accurately measures the system pressure and adjusts the speed to automatically maintain a constant pressure. Hence it is recommended to install screw compressors with built-in VFD for fluctuating loads, at design stage itself. Minimise leakages by design Quantity of air losses through small holes, cracks, leaky couplings, joints, etc, can add up to a very large value. With proper installation and maintenance, leakage losses should not exceed 3% of the total capacity of the compressor. Keeping this in view, the compressed air system has to be provided with good controls, so as to keep the leakage levels to a bare minimum of 5% of the total compressed air generation. The following should be taken care of at design stage, so as to check and maintain the leakage levels at the optimised levels Welded joints should be used instead of screwed joints as far as possible. Install ball valves at the user ends, to facilitate easy opening & closing of valves. Initiate a system to replace the flexibles, rubber hoses, joints, packings, etc., in regular intervals (Say once in 3 months). The compressors are to be provided with hour meters for measuring the loading / Unloading periods. The increase in the loading period for the same production levels, indicates the increase in leakage levels. Normally, most of the engineering plants operate for two shifts only. However, some units (eg., heat treatment shops, etc.,) have to operate continuously in these plants. In order to support this activity the whole compressed air system has to function continuously. In such large size plants, having many individual work shops and a centralised compressor house, individual shop-wise solenoid control valves

for compressed air lines have to be installed. The solenoid valve helps in cutting the compressed air supply to the individual shop when there is no activity. This minimise the leakage loss and pressure drop to a considerable level, as most of the work shops do not operate continuously. Hence, it is recommended to install individual shop wise solenoid control valves for the compressed air line at design itself, so as to minimise the compressed air consumption during non-active periods.

Substitution of compressed air Compressed air is highly energy intensive and costly. So the factory manager has to think of the possibilities of replacing compressed air, with an equivalent source at design stage. The possible areas for substituting compressed air are:Agitation:Normally compressed air is utilised for agitation purposes in ETP tanks, Pretreatment tanks, etc., For agitation purposes, the quantity of air required is important than the pressure (required only to push through the water column through - a max of 10m (1.0 kg/cm2) height). This can be replaced with a Roots Blower. A high pressure blower, can generate pressures upto 2.0 kg/cm2) agitation, thereby saving enormous power and cost on layout. Cooling Compressed air for cooling is a common practice in engineering, auto component & tyre industry. Cooling also requires large quantity of air at low pressure. Compressed air for cooling purposes can be replaced with a blower cooling. This not only saves power, but also effects a good cooling. Curtain:Compressed air for providing air curtains is also a common practice adopted in many industries. Air curtains are required, so as to avoid heat loss from the ovens, shots from shot blasting machine, etc,. Compressed air for such air curtains can be replaced with a blower. An approximate estimate indicates that a net power saving of 50% is possible by replacing the compressed air with blower air. So it is recommended to substitute compressed air with a suitable equivalent source, say a roots blower, blower etc. Recovery of compressed air:Like substitution, recovery of compressed air is also possible. Recovery of

high pressure compressed air and utilising it for some low pressure noncritical applications has to be thought of at the design stage itself. Incorporating the recovery arrangements at initial stage would reduce the compressed air consumption, thereby resulting in power savings. For example, Heavy Commercial Vehicle like Truck Tyre PCI air (HP 11 kg/cm2) of Tyre curing can be recovered and used for Light Commercial Vehicle Tyre PCI application (LP 5 kg/cm2). Therefore, it is recommended to recover the compressed air and utilise it for some other purpose. Install transvector nozzles for cleaning hoses The use of compressed air for cleaning applications using is one of the common activity in any industry. The cleaning application requires large quantity of air at low pressure (2.5 ksc). Whereas compressed air at 6.0 ksc is used for cleaning applications in almost all the industries. This is mainly due to the usage of centralised compressed air for cleaning applications. As a first step, one should think of operating a separate on/off package air compressor at low pressure for cleaning applications. Wherever such separate compressed air system for cleaning cannot be justified, transvector nozzles can be installed for the compressed air cleaning hoses, to minimise the compressed air consumption. Transvector nozzles are based on the venturi effect - The passing of highpressure air through a constricted hole, creates a vacuum This results in the atmospheric air getting sucked through the circumferential holes provided. The proven results show that almost 30 to 40 % of the atmospheric air is utilised, thereby reducing the compressed air consumption. This offers a good potential to consider installation of transvector nozzles for the cleaning hoses at design stage. Install electrical tools as much as possible, instead of pneumatic tools The replacement of pneumatic tools with electrical tools will result in a power savings of 30%. This is mainly due to the high cost and energy intensiveness of compressed air. Moreover, pneumatic tools are highly leak-prone. This results in unnecessary wastage of compressed air. Previously, the electrical tools had some design problems like overweight, overheating, frequent armature failures, etc,. Now these have been taken care of and a new generation of high frequency electrical tools are also available. So it is recommended to consider electrical tools in place of pneumatic tools at design stage itself.

Install flat belt drives for reciprocating air compressors The V-belt drives are commonly used for the reciprocating type of air compressors. The V belt drives consume more power, due to the 'wedge in' and 'pull out' action of the belt. The present trend is to convert the V-belt drives to flat belt drives, resulting in a power savings of atleast 5%. Nowadays, good quality synthetic flat belts are available to ensure the smooth running of compressors. Therefore it is recommended to install flat belts for the reciprocating air compressors at the design stage itself.

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