AP Biology Test Review: Areas of Expertise 1.

Water a substances which not only sustains us but is responsible for a large percentage of our physical makeup is misinterpreted. Due to its isolated studies it is portrayed as deceptively simple when in reality it is a complicated substance composed of many different factors. It begins when two hydrogen bonds are joined to an oxygen atom by single covalent bonds. Due to the oxygens electron negativity the electrons of the polar bond are more attracted to the oxygen atom as opposed to the hydrogen which is less electronegative. Resulting in the oxygen region of the molecule having a slightly negative charge and the hydrogens having a slightly positive charge. These water molecules are shaped somewhat like a V and are put in the category of polar molecules due to there opposite charges. There is an electrical attraction between theses opposite charges and they are held together by hydrogen bonds. These molecules can form hydrogen bonds with a maximum of 4 neighbors. Water contains 4 properties which contribute to the overall fitness of the earth. The first property is water cohesiveness. This cohesiveness helps in the transfer of water against gravity in plants. Adhesion also assists in this process by further countering gravitys pull. Water also posses high surface tension (the measure of how hard it is to break the surface) because of cohesion. The second property is its ability to stabilize temperature by absorbing warm air from the air and releasing cooler air. This is why it is cooler at the beach than it is inland. This ability to change or stabilize temperature is due to waters high specific heat (the amount of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1g of that substance to change its temperature by 1oC). Waters specific heat is 1cal/g/oC

because of this waters temperature will change less when absorbing or losing a specific amount of heat. This high specific heat is do to waters hydrogen bonds because when heat is absorbed its energy is put towards breaking hydrogen bonds this occurs before the water molecules can move fast therefore keeping the temperature relatively stable. Heat is released when hydrogen bonds form. The third property of water is its expansion upon freezing. Because water expands this causes it to float instead of sinking. If it didnt float than oceans, lakes, and pods would freeze solid. The fourth property is its versatility as a solvent. Waters ability as a solvent is due to the polarity of water molecules. Ionic and polar compounds are both soluble in water. Hydrogen molecules are very sensitive to changes in pH. The addition of acids or bases disrupts the equality of concentrations in hydrogen molecules. Acids increase the H+ concentration of a solution and bases reduce the H+ concentration either directly or indirectly. Buffers serve as a defense against changes in pH by minimizing the concentration of H+ and OH in a solution. Buffers accept hydrogen bonds when they are in excess and donate them when they have been depleted. Acid precipitation is a serious threat to water quality. This acidic rain occurs when there is an excess of sulfur and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere increasing the water pH to a level above 5.6. A main cause of the atmospheres excess of gaseous compounds is from the burning of fossil fuels. This rain damages not only lakes and river but serves as a direct threat to the forest as well changing the soil and affecting the solubility of soil minerals. Destroying many forest in Europe and North America.

4. Pant cells are similar to eukaryote cell except they do not have centrioles, lysosomes, intermediate filaments, cilia, and flagella. Instead they have a rigid cell wall, central vacuole, chloroplasts, and plasmodesmata. Plant cells can be divided into two categories: vascular and nonvascular. Vascular plants contain xylem (helps with structural support and water conduction) and phloem (deals with food conduction). They also have roots, stems, and leaves unlike nonvascular plants. Nonvascular plants are for the most part no more than an inch or two tall because they do not have vascular tissues which would serve as support and allow them to grow larger. They also need to be in an environment which retains moisture therefore they usually live in damp, shady areas. The plant cell consists of: mitochondrion, microtubles, microfilaments, chloroplast, plasmodesmata, ribosomes, golgi apparatus, plasmas membrane, cell wall, peroxisome, smooth endoplasmic reticulum, rough endoplasmic reticulum, nucleus, central vacuole, and tonoplast. Each of these parts serves various functions which are

used by the plant cell. The mitochondrion serves as the site for cellular respiration (the catabolic process which creates ATP by extracting energy from sugar, fats, and other fuels. Chloroplast is the site of photosynthesis which is the conversion of solar energy from the sun into chemical energy, supplying food for the plant. Ribosomes are the site where proteins are made within the cell. Smooth ER synthesis lipids, metabolism of carbohydrates, and detoxification of drugs and poisons. The rough ER makes secretory proteins and grows in place by adding proteins and phospholipids. The central vacuole stores various compounds, contributes to the plants structure, and helps the plant grow. Animal cells unlike the plant cell do not posses a cell wall. This lack of a cell wall allows animal cells to develop a greater diversity. Plant and animal cells differ in a few ways. Animal cells contain a flagellum which moves fluid or materials past an immobile cell as well as moving a cell or group of cells, lysosome which break down cellular waste and centiroles which help in the organization of cell division. The flagellum, lysosome and centiroles are components which plant cells do not have. Plant cells do however have a central vacuole, chloroplast, tonoplast, plasmodesmata, and a cell wall, five things which animal cells do not posses. Animal cells are made up of: mitochondrion, flagellum, microtubles, microfilaments, ribosomes, golgi apparatus, plasmas membrane, peroxisome, smooth endoplasmic reticulum, rough endoplasmic reticulum, lysosome, nucleus, and centiroles. The golgi apparatus is the location where products of the ER are modified, stored and than sent to various destinations. Peroxisomes are responsible for transferring hydrogen from different substrates into oxygen resulting in hydrogen peroxide. The Nucleus serves as the information center. It stores DNA and coordinates cell activities like growth,

metabolism, reproduction, and protein synthesis. Microfilaments are solid rods which are structural in purpose and contribute to the cytoskeleton. Microtubules are hollow rods which shape and support the cell and act as tracks. The membrane structure is made out of lipids, staples, and carbohydrates. It is arranged in a fluid mosaic model which depicts protein molecules bobbing in a fluid bilayer of phospholipids. A membrane's molecular organization makes for selective permeability. Materials get across the membrane thru passive transport (the diffusion across), active transport (the pumping of solutes against their gradients), cotransport (when a membrane protein couples the transport of one solute to another), osmosis (the passive transport of water), Exocytosis and endocytosis (transport large molecules). Specific proteins facilitate the passive transport of selected solutes and some ion pumps generate voltage across membranes.

5. Cellular respiration is the most prevalent and efficient catabolic pathway in which oxygen is consumed as a reactant along with organic fuel. Cellular respiration occurs in four stages glycolysis, the oxidation of pyruvate, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain. Glycolysis occurs in the cytosol and begins the degradation by breaking glucose down into two molecules of a compound called pyruvate. Glycolysis produces a net gain of 2 ATP and 2 NADH, an energy-carrying molecule. Water is also released in this reaction. The oxidation of pyruvate is powered by the redox reactions that transfer electrons from food to oxygen. This energy is stored in a form the mitochondrion can use to make ATP. This produces 1 NADH per pyruvate, for a total of 2 NADH per glucose. Carbon dioxide is also released in this reaction. The Krebs cycle takes place within the mitochondrial matrix and decomposes a derivative of pyruvate to carbon

dioxide. The Electron transport chain is a series of molecules embedded in the inner membrane of the mitochondria. 10 NADH molecules and 2 FADH2 are converted to 32 ATP molecules. Oxygen is consumed and water is produced. The metabolism of glucose has several pathways used to complete the oxidation. The first pathway is glycolysis. Glycolysis is the decomposition of glucose to pyruvate. Nine products are than formed. Glycolysis takes 1 glucose and urns it into 2 pyruvate, 2 NADH, and a net of 2 ATP. The reaction in glycolysis, than produces Pyruvate which has two different aerobic reactions depending on the availability of oxygen. The first one is exhibited when you work out and than feel sore after. This is due to the fact that you run out of oxygen when you work out. The oxygen is needed to continue the oxidation of pyruvate to CO2 and H2O in the pathways. So pyruvate and NADH build up in your muscles. You need ATP to keep running so you have to keep glycolysis going, but the oxidizing agent used in glycolysis (NAD+) is converted to NADH. Unlike oxygen, which you constantly breath in, you only have a limited "pool" of NAD+ in your cells. To regenerate it you need to take NADH and reoxidize it back to NAD+. This occurs as whatever oxidizes the NADH is reduced. To get NAD+ regenerated in the absence of oxygen, the enyzme lactate dehydrogenase reduces pyruvate to lactate. So in a nut shell lactate acid builds causing you to feel sore. The other is like a marathon in which 4 more CO2 molecules to produce to fully convert all of the C atoms in Glucose to CO2. Kreb Cycle is the 2 pathway and it is described above. Than the 3rd pathway is the electron transport chain is the system which regenerates NAD+ during aeroboic conditions. This pathway occurs in the mitochondria of the cells. NADH passes two electrons through a series of membrane protein catalyst to

a series of small electron carriers which accept more and more electrons. The process of electron transport is coupled to the synthesis of ATP from ADP and Pi, catalyzed by the membrane protein ATPase. So in the process of reforming NAD+, we make lots of ATP which can be used to power unfavored reactions such as DNA synthesis.

6. Photosynthesis is a key source of nourishment for most of the living world, either directly or indirectly. Plants use autotrophic of heterotrophic nutrition in order to acquire the organic compounds needed for energy. Autotrophs make their organic molecules from inorganic material, making them producers. Plants are photoautotroph to be more specific and use lights an energy source to synthesize carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and other organic substances. Heterotrophs or consumers, live on compounds produced by others. They consume dead organisms and other decomposing material. Leaves are the major site for photosynthesis in plants. Each leaf contains about half a million chloroplast per square millimeter. Chloroplast or the green parts of the plant produce organic material, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water when light is present. 6CO2 + 12H2O + light energy C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O twelve molecules consumed six are formed during photosynthesis. Simplest form: CO2 + H2O CH2O + O2. During photosynthesis hydrogen is extracted from water and incorporated into sugar. Oxygen is photosynthesis waste product which restores the O2 lost during cellular respiration. The energy required to move water to sugar is provided by light. Photosynthesis divides into two processes: light reactions and the Calvin cycle. Light reactions convert solar energy into chemical energy. When light is absorbed a transfer of electrons occurs and hydrogen moves from water to NADP+ which is an acceptor and stores the energized electrons. Light reaction than use solar power to reduce NADP+ to NADPH by adding a H+ and a pair of electrons. ATP is also produced thru photophosphorylation (the addition of a phosphate group to ADP). Calvin Cycle named after Melvin Calvin begins bringing in CO2 from the air into organic molecules in the chloroplast a process known as carbon fixation. The carbon is

than reduced by adding electrons. In order for the Calvin Cycle to make sugar it needs the NADPH and ATP produced by the light reaction. These metabolic steps are called dark or light independent reactions because they do not use direct light. This cycle occurs in the stroma and produces the end product of CH2O. C4 plants use an alternate form of carbon fixation that produces a 4-carbon compound. There are over 8000 species of C4 plants and 18 different families. This plants do well in intense sunlight and high temperatures. In these plants CO2 enters through the stomata and than diffuses into a mesophyll cell. The CO2 is than inserted into a 3-carbon compound called phosphoenolpyruvic acid forming the 4-carbon compound oxaloacetic acid. The oxaloacetic acid is than converted into malic acid which is transported into a bundle sheath cell. In the bundle sheath the 4-carbon compound is broken down into carbon dioxide, which enters the Calvin cycle to form sugars and starch and pyruvic acid which is transported back to a mesophyll cell where it is converted back into phosphoenolpyruvic acid. CAM plants have adapted to harsh conditions by opening there stomata during night and closing them during the day. By closing there stomata during the day these plants are able to store water and keep CO2 from entering the leaves. The mesophyll cells store the organic acids made during the night in their vacuoles and during the day when light reactions can supply NADPH and ATP these plants release CO2 so that way it can be incorporated into sugar in the chloroplast. Examples of these plants include cacti and pineapple.

8. Mendel conducted an experiment in which he crossed two true breeding (when they self pollinate and all there offspring are of the same variety) pea plants, one with white flowers and the other with purple flowers. This monohybrid cross ( a cross that tracks a single inheritance) reveled two key principles: the Law of Segregation and the Law of Independent Assortment. Mendels Law of Segregation sates that allele pairs separate during gamete formation and randomly re-form pairs during the fusion of gametes at fertilization. Mendels second law, the Law of Independent Assortment states that each allele pair segregates independently during gamete formation; applies when genes for two traits are located on different pairs of homologous chromosomes. Dihybrid cross is the mating of parental varieties differing in to characteristics.

16. Monocots and dicots differ in many ways. Monocots contain: one cotyledon, usually parallel veins, vascular bundles which are usually complexly arranged, fibrous root system, and floral plants in multiples of threes. While dicots contain: two cotyledons, usually netlike veins, vascular bundles which are usually arranged in a ring, taproot usually present and floral plants in multiples of fours or fives. Taproots which are usually found in dicots consist of one large ventricle root which has smaller lateral roots coming out of its sides. Taproots serve as a firm anchor which keeps the plant from being pulled up easily. Some taproots have adapted to arid climates by taping into water sources below the ground. While others store large amounts

of food and than use these reserves flower which is why crops are harvested before they flower. Monocots on the other hand have fibrous root systems which have a mat of threadlike roots. This root system gives monocots significant water exposure. However they are not as well rooted in the ground as taproots making them more vulnerable to being pulled out. These plants hold the top layer and help prevent erosion, perhaps the reason behind why grass is so popular in yards. In both monocots and dicots the absorption of water and minerals occurs near the root tips which have root hairs (extensions of individual epidermal cells on the root surface). Stems (an alternating system of nodes, the points at which leaves are attached and internodes, the stem segments between nodes) are either complexly arranged like in a monocot or ring shaped like in a dicot. The differences between monocots and dicots occur in the structure of the epidermis, ground tissue and vascular tissue within a cell. Besides that they are basically the same. In a monocots epidermis the trichomes which is present in the dicot is absent. They do however both contain a cuticle in there epidermis. The dicots ground tissue is differentiated into a cortex, epidermis, pericycle, medullary rays and pith. Whereas the monocots round tissue is undifferentiated. Vascular tissue in a monocot is numerous, irregularly scattered, with a present bundle sheath and an absent bundle cap. While a dicots vascular tissue contains eight, in the form of a ring, with a present bundle cap and an absent bundle sheath. Leaves or the main photosynthetic organ of the plant differ in there arrangement of there veins when referring to monocots and dicots. Monocots have parallel veins which run the length of the leaf blade while dicots have a multi-branched network of veins.

The transportation of water/minerals and sugar in plants occurs in three steps. First the uptake and release of water and minerals from the soil by roots and root hairs, second the short distances transport of substances from one cell to another, third the long distances transport of sap within xylem and phloem at the level of the whole plant.

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