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Building and Environment 40 (2005) 353366 www.elsevier.com/locate/buildenv

Performance characteristics and practical applications of common building thermal insulation materials
Dr. Mohammad S. Al-Homoud
Architectural Engineering Department, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia Received 29 January 2004; received in revised form 21 May 2004; accepted 31 May 2004

Abstract Buildings are large consumers of energy in all countries. In regions with harsh climatic conditions, a substantial share of energy goes to heat and cool buildings. This heating and air-conditioning load can be reduced through many means; notable among them is the proper design and selection of building envelope and its components. The proper use of thermal insulation in buildings does not only contribute in reducing the required air-conditioning system size but also in reducing the annual energy cost. Additionally, it helps in extending the periods of thermal comfort without reliance on mechanical air-conditioning especially during inter-seasons periods. The magnitude of energy savings as a result of using thermal insulation vary according to the building type, the climatic conditions at which the building is located as well as the type of the insulating material used. The question now in the minds of many building owners is no longer should insulation be used but rather which type, how, and how much. The objective of this paper is to present an overview of the basic principles of thermal insulation and to survey the most commonly used building insulation materials, their performance characteristics and proper applications. r 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Buildings; Thermal insulation; Reective insulation; Thermal mass; Vapor retarder; Moisture control

1. Introduction As climate modiers, buildings are usually designed to shelter occupants and achieve thermal comfort in the occupied space backed up by mechanical heating and air-conditioning systems as necessary. Signicant energy savings could be realized in buildings if they are properly designed and operated. As a least cost energy strategy, conservation should be supported in the energy future. For every unit of energy saved by a given measure of technology, resources will be saved, and the annual operating costs associated with producing that unit of energy will be reduced/eliminated. Therefore, building designers can contribute to solving the energy problem if proper early design decisions are made regarding the selection and integration of building components.
E-mail address: alhomoud@kfupm.edu.sa (M.S. Al-Homoud). 0360-1323/$ - see front matter r 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2004.05.013

Thermal insulation is a major contributor and obvious practical and logical rst step towards achieving energy efciency especially in envelope-load dominated buildings located in sites with harsh climatic conditions. Space air-conditioning can have a big share of energy used to operate buildings. In the average American home, for example, space heating and cooling account for 5070% of its energy use [1]. This percentage could be higher in other parts of the world with more harsh climatic conditions and less energy efcient buildings. The amount of energy required to cool/heat a building depends on how well the envelope of that building is treated thermally, especially in envelope-dominated structures such as residences. The thermal performance of building envelope is determined by the thermal properties of the materials used in its construction characterized by its ability to absorb or emit solar heat in addition to the overall U-value of the corresponding

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component including insulation. The placement of insulation material within the building component can affect its performance under transient heat ow. The best performance can be achieved by placing the insulating material close to the point of entry of heat ow. This means placement of insulation to the inside for climatic regions where winter heating is dominant and to the outside where summer cooling is dominant. However, for practicality it is common to use insulation to the inside or between wall cavities. Massing of the enclosing envelope is a parameter that is mostly related to the thickness and type of the construction material used and its ability to delay heat transfer through the building structure over a period of time. It is another important parameter in determining thermal performance of the building and hence the energy required to provide thermal comfort in the occupied space. Insulation materials can be made in different forms including loose-ll form, blanket batt or roll form, rigid form, foamed in place, or reective form. The choice of the proper insulation materials type and form depends on the type of application as well as the desired materials physical, thermal and other properties. Because most thermal insulation materials exhibit heat ows by a combination of modes (i.e., conduction, radiation, and convection) resulting in property variation with material thickness, or surface emittance, the premise of a pure conduction mode is not valid, therefore, the term apparent is implicit in the term thermal conductivity of insulating materials [24]. Published thermal conductivity values and those reported by manufacturers are normally evaluated at laboratory standard conditions of temperature and humidity to allow comparative evaluation of thermal performance. Thermal insulation materials like other natural or man-made materials exhibit temperature dependent properties that vary with the nature of the material and the inuencing temperature range. The impact of operating temperature on the thermal performance of insulation materials has been the subject of many studies. Results indicate that insulation materials subject to high temperature have higher thermal conductivity and therefore higher envelope cooling load with varying degrees depending on the type of insulation material [5]. In addition to the operating temperature, the material moisture content is another major factor affecting the thermal conductivity of insulation materials. The higher the material moisture content, the higher the thermal conductivity. In buildings, insulation materials used in walls and roofs normally exhibit higher moisture content when compared to test conditions. The ambient air humidity and indoor conditions, as well as the envelope system moisture characteristics, play an important role in determining the moisture status of the insulation material. When conditions are favorable,

condensation can occur within the insulation material. Studies on the impact of moisture content on insulation thermal performance concluded that the effectiveness of insulating materials at higher moisture content is reduced in proportion to the moisture content level. Higher thermal conductivity is obtained due to increased energy transfer by conduction and, under certain conditions, by the evaporationcondensation process, in which moisture moves from warm to cold regions [5]. Insulating the building very well is not enough if it is not airtight. Inltration can have signicant contribution to energy waste especially in residences with loose construction. Insulation applied on cracks and small openings can hide them without preventing air inltration. Inltration is dependent on the tightness of the building construction, exterior shielding, temperature differences, wind velocity, and building height. Therefore, it is important to seal and caulk all cracks and penetrations, such as electrical outlets and light switches that could be a source of uncontrolled air leakage into or out of the conditioned space. A tight, well-sealed residence is more energy efcient and requires less insulation to achieve thermal comfort. Air retarders can also be used to minimize air inltration by preventing heated or air-conditioned indoor air from escaping the building through its shell. The air retarder should block air only, not moisture and, therefore, should have high perm rating (5.0 or higher) to allow the escape of moisture that might have migrated into the building component [6]. To avoid problems associated with well insulated tight buildings such as poor indoor air quality and moisture accumulation, it is important to provide adequate ventilation. Ventilation air helps avoid the build up of stale air and air pollutants in the conditioned space and prevents elevated moisture levels which can cause moisture condensation on window surfaces as well as concealed condensation within walls and roofs during heating season.

2. Thermal insulation 2.1. What is thermal insulation? Thermal insulation is a material or combination of materials, that, when properly applied, retard the rate of heat ow by conduction, convection, and radiation. It retards heat ow into or out of a building due to its high thermal resistance [3]. 2.2. What is thermal conductivity? Thermal conductivity is the time rate of steady state heat ow (W) through a unit area of 1 m thick

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homogeneous material in a direction perpendicular to isothermal planes, induced by a unit (1 K) temperature difference across the sample [2]. Thermal conductivity, k-value, is expressed in W/m-K (Btu/h-ft-F or Btu-in/hrft2-F). It is a function of material mean temperature and moisture content. Thermal conductivity is a measure of the effectiveness of a material in conducting heat. Hence, knowledge of the thermal conductivity values allows quantitative comparison to be made between the effectiveness of different thermal insulation materials. 2.3. What is thermal resistance? Thermal resistance is a measure of the resistance (opposition) of heat ow as a result of suppressing conduction, convection and radiation. It is a function of material thermal conductivity, thickness and density. Thermal resistance, R-value, is expressed in m2-K/W (h-ft2-F/Btu). 2.4. What is thermal conductance? Thermal conductance is the rate of heat ow (W) through a unit surface area of a component with unit (1 K) temperature difference between the surfaces of the two sides of the component. It is the reciprocal of the sum of the resistances of all layers composing that component without the inside and outside air lms resistances. It is similar to thermal conductivity except it refers to a particular thickness of material. Thermal conductance, C-value, is expressed in W/m2-K (Btu/h-ft2-F). 2.5. What is thermal transmittance? Thermal transmittance is the rate of heat ow through a unit surface area of a component with unit (1 K) temperature difference between the surfaces of the two sides of the component. It is the reciprocal of the sum of the resistances of all layers composing that component plus the inside and outside air lms resistances. It is often called the Overall Heat Transfer Coefcient, Uvalue, and is expressed in W/m2-K (Btu/h-ft2-F). 2.6. How does thermal insulation work? Thermal insulating materials resist heat ow as a result of the countless microscopic dead air-cells, which suppress (by preventing air from moving) convective heat transfer. It is the air entrapped within the insulation, which provides the thermal resistance, not the insulation material. Creating small cells (closed cell structure) within thermal insulation across which the temperature difference is not large also reduces radiation effects. It causes radiation paths to be broken into small distances where

the long-wave infrared radiation is absorbed and/or scattered by the insulation material (low-e materials can also be used to minimize radiation effects). However, conduction usually increases as the cell size decreases (the density increases). Typically, air-based insulation materials cannot exceed the R-value of still air. However, plastic foam insulations (e.g., polystyrene and polyurethane) use uorocarbon gas (heavier than air) instead of air within the insulation cells, which gives higher R-value. Therefore, the interaction of the three modes of heat transfer of convection, radiation, and conduction determines the overall effectiveness of insulation and is represented by what is called the apparent thermal conductivity which indicates the lack of pure conduction especially at high temperatures. Both vapor passage and moisture absorption are more critical in open cell structure insulation as compared to closed cell structure. Vapor retarders are commonly used to prevent moisture penetration into low-temperature insulation. Vapor retarders are used to the inside of insulation in cold climates and to the outside of insulation in hot and humid climates (allowing moisture escape from the other side). Vapor retarders placement, however, is a challenge in mixed climates. 2.7. What are the benets of using thermal insulation? There are many benets for using thermal insulation in buildings, which can be summarized as follows: 1. A matter of principle: Using thermal insulation in buildings helps in reducing the reliance on mechanical/electrical systems to operate buildings comfortably and, therefore, conserves energy and the associated natural resources. This matter of conserving natural resources is a common principle in all religions and human values. 2. Economic benets: An energy cost is an operating cost, and great energy savings can be achieved by using thermal insulation with little capital expenditure (only about 5% of the building construction cost). This does not only reduce operating cost, but also reduces HVAC equipment initial cost due to reduced equipment size required. 3. Environmental benets: The use of thermal insulation not only saves energy operating cost, but also results in environmental benets as reliance upon mechanical means with the associated emitted pollutants are reduced. 4. Customer satisfaction and national good: Increased use of thermal insulation in buildings will result in energy savings which will lead to:  Making energy available to others.  Decreased customer costs.

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5.

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 Fewer interruptions of energy services (better service).  Reduction in the cost of installing new power generating plants required in meeting increased demands of electricity.  An extension of the life of nite energy resources.  Conservation of resources for future generations. Thermally comfortable buildings: The use of thermal insulation in buildings does not only reduce the reliance upon mechanical air-conditioning systems, but also extends the periods of indoor thermal comfort especially in between seasons. Reduced noise levels: The use of thermal insulation can reduce disturbing noise from neighboring spaces or from outside. This will enhance the acoustical comfort of insulated buildings. Building structural integrity: High temperature changes may cause undesirable thermal movements, which could damage building structure and contents. Keeping buildings with minimum temperature uctuations helps in preserving the integrity of building structures and contents. This can be achieved through the use of proper thermal insulation, which also helps in increasing the lifetime of building structures. Vapor condensation prevention: Proper design and installation of thermal insulation helps in preventing vapor condensation on building surfaces. However, care must be given to avoid adverse effects of damaging building structure, which can result from improper insulation material installation and/or poor design. Vapor barriers are usually used to prevent moisture penetration into low-temperature insulation. Fire protection: If the suitable insulation material is selected and properly installed, it can help in retarding heat and preventing ame immigration into building in case of re.

 Metallic or metallized reective membranes. These must face an air-lled, gas-lled, or evacuated space to be effective. Accordingly, insulating materials are produced in different forms as follows:

       

Mineral ber blankets: batts and rolls (berglass and rock wool). Loose ll that can be blown-in (berglass, rock wool), poured-in, or mixed with concrete (cellulose, perlite, vermiculite). Rigid boards (polystyrene, polyurethane, polyisocyanurate, and berglass). Foamed or sprayed in-place (polyurethane and polyisocyanurate). Boards or blocks (perlite and vermiculite). Insulated concrete blocks. Insulated concrete form. Reective materials (aluminum foil, ceramic coatings).

Fig. 1 shows a graphical comparison of the thermal resistances of 5 cm thickness for common building insulation materials. Concrete block is not considered as an insulating material. However, it was included in the gure as a reference (no insulation case) for comparison purposes only.

3. Reective insulation 3.1. What is reective insulation? Most insulating materials work by creating miniature air spaces. Reective insulation, on the other hand, uses larger air spaces faced with foil on one or both sides. If one single reective surface is used facing an open space, it is called radiant barrier. The performance of reective insulation depends on a number of factors [3,6]:

2.8. What are the available types of thermal insulation? Many types of building thermal insulation are available which fall under the following basic materials and composites [3]:  Inorganic Materials  Fibrous materials such as glass, rock, and slag wool.  Cellular materials such as calcium silicate, bonded perlite, vermiculite, and ceramic products.  Organic Materials  Fibrous materials such as cellulose, cotton, wood, pulp, cane, or synthetic bers.  Cellular materials such as cork, foamed rubber, polystyrene, polyethylene, polyurethane, polyisocyanurate and other polymers.

   

The radiation angle of incidence on the reective surface. The best performance of reective insulation is achieved when radiation falls at a right angle of incidence on the reective surface (perpendicular to the surface). The temperature difference between the spaces on both sides of the reective material. The greater the temperature difference, the greater the benets of the reective insulation. The emissivity of the material. The lower the emissivity (the higher the reectance) the better. The thickness of the air space facing the reective material. Air space must exist on at least one side of the reective insulation. The orientation of the air space. The direction of heat ow.

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Material

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1.8

2.2

2.4

R-Value (m .K/W)

Fig. 1. Thermal resistance (per 5 cm thickness) of common building insulation materials (Concrete block is added in the gure as a reference for comparison purposes).

3.2. How does reective insulation work? Reective insulation reduces heat transfer by radiation. Materials react to radiant energy falling on them through the following [3]:

 

  

Absorptance a: fraction of incident radiation absorbed through the material. Transmittance t: fraction of incident radiation transmitted through the material. Reectance r: fraction of incident radiation reected by the material.

Additional layers of reective insulation create additional air spaces that reduce convection heat ow. Although radiation is independent of orientation, convective heat ow depends greatly on both the orientation of the air space and the direction of heat ow. The resistance of air spaces and reective insulation varies with their location in the structure and the time of the year (direction of heat ow).

White color is also effective in minimizing heat transfer into buildings in hot climates because it is not only a poor absorber of energy but also a good emitter. 3.3. When and where to use reective insulation? Reective insulation comes as rolled foil (usually aluminum), reective paint, reective metal shingles, or foil-faced plywood sheathing. It is most effective in hot climates with predominant cooling requirements.

Therefore, atr1 For opaque surfaces, t 0 and a r 1: For a black surface t 0; r 0 and a 1: Reective (polished) surfaces are characterized by high reectance and, therefore, low emittance ; materials ability to diffuse radiant energy  a; for gray surfaces), which makes them effective in reducing radiant heat transfer in buildings especially in hot climates. The emittance is a function of the material, and the condition and temperature of its surface. The reective insulation works as follows [1,7,8]:

 

 

Heat from hot surfaces radiates in a straight line to other cooler surfaces surrounding them. The reective insulation (radiant barrier) reduces radiant heat transfer from such hot surfaces (e.g., roof or wall) to cooler spaces (e.g., attic or living space). The reective insulation must be both a poor emitter (p0:1 emittance) and a poor absorber (good reector, X0:9 reectance) of thermal radiation. The rst layer of reective insulation is the most effective (stops about 95% of radiant heat ow).

The best application of a radiation barrier is in hot climates just under the roof to reduce radiant heat gain from the sun. It is also benecial in walls receiving direct sun radiation such as west walls. Reective insulation is of minimum benets in surfaces that are heavily shaded and/or well insulated. Reective insulation is not economic in cold climates with predominate heating requirements. It further might have adverse effects where the roof (attic) is kept cooler when the winter heat gain from the sun is reduced due to the use of reective insulation allowing more heat loss from the heated space below it. Therefore, it is more cost effective to use more thermal insulation rather than using reective insulation in such climates [6]. The reective foil can be installed to create two air spaces each facing a reective insulator.

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The reective insulation should be placed to avoid dust accumulation (e.g., foil face down in the roof). It is not recommended to install reective insulation on the top of roof (attic oor) insulation where it might act as a vapor barrier and trap moisture in the insulation during cold weather. The reective foil conducts electricity; therefore, it should not be installed in contact with bare electrical wiring. In addition to the reective performance characteristics of reective materials, other characteristics such as strength, ammability, availability, and cost should be considered. Reective foils come with different treatments against tearing such as laminated woven mesh or bubble-pack between two foil sheets.

3.4. How thick should the air space be? The resistance of air space is a function of its thickness. Thinner air spaces have less resistance due to greater conduction. Thicker air spaces, on the other hand, have less resistance due to heat transfer from convection currents. Therefore, the optimum air space thickness should be used $ 20 mm [7].

4. Thermal mass 4.1. What is the insulating effect from thermal mass? Massing of the building structure is inuenced by the seasonal and daily temperature variations, which determine the need for thermal resistance and mass of the building structure. Insulation is more critical in climates with extreme seasonal variations and small daily variations while thermal mass of the building plays a more signicant role in balancing the indoor temperatures in hot-dry climates with large diurnal ranges. However, in order to balance the thermal effects of the outdoor temperatures on the indoor environment, different exposures might require different time lag values. Details can be summarized as follows [8]:  Thermal mass reduces heat gain in the structure by delaying the entry of heat into the building (until the sun has set).  Internal mass stores excess heat, whether from the sun or from internal loads of the building, for release during unoccupied and cooler periods.  Material thermal mass is characterized by its time lag which is the length of time from when the outdoor temperature reaches its peak until the indoor temperature reaches its peak.  The time lag required for each wall orientation and roof is different as each peak heat gain occurs at a different time.

 North has little need for time lag (small heat gain).  East morning load should not be delayed to the afternoon. Use either:  Very long time lag 14 h: However, mass with long time lag is expensive and not recommended on the east; or  Very short time lag. No mass at all on the east or at least no mass on the outside of the east insulation.  South mid-day heat can be delayed until sunset by using mass with medium time lag ($ 8 h).  West orientation can also sufce with 8 h time lag as the number of hours between peak west sun and sunset is very short.  The roof requires a very long time lag as it receives sunlight most of the day. However, since it is both expensive and not practical to place heavy mass on the roof, additional insulation rather than mass is usually recommended for roofs.  Mass time lag largely postpones heat gain. Colors, on the other hand, signicantly reduce heat gain.  Building thermal mass plays a more signicant role in dry climates with:  High daily summer temperatures.  Large diurnal (daily) ranges.  Insulation is more critical than thermal mass in humid climates with:  High summer temperatures and humidity.  Small daily variations.

5. Moisture control 5.1. How does moisture migrate through building structure? Moisture transfers into the building structure from many sources. If enough quantities of moisture accumulates in the building envelope and cannot escape, it becomes a good environment for mold, mildew, and other moisture-related problems. Different materials have different moisture storage capacity which is a function of time, temperature, and material properties. If moisture penetrates into building thermal insulation it will cause it physical damage and will adversely impact its performance by increasing its thermal conductivity. Four conditions are necessary for moisture to accumulate in a building component and pose a source of problems. These include a moisture source, a moisture route for travel, a driving force, and a material susceptible to moisture damage. Moisture can ideally be controlled if one of these conditions is eliminated. The most practical approach to controlling moisture in buildings is through careful design and material selection [9].

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There are different sources and transport mechanisms of moisture into building assemblies including [1,9]:

building is designed, its thermal systems, and consider the following:

 

 

 

Liquid water ow from rain and plumbing leaks. Rain can penetrate through leaks around doors, windows and other cracks in the building envelope. Water vapor convection from air inltration through openings and cracks in the building envelope. This is a major cause of interstitial condensation in the building envelope. Water vapor from internal sources such as people, cooking, shower, laundry, and indoor plants. Water vapor diffusion from parts with higher moisture levels (higher vapor pressure) to other parts with lower moisture levels. From warm places (warm inside air in cold winter or hot humid outside air in summer) to cold places as warm air usually contains more moisture than cold air. Liquid water movement due to capillarity from the ground through porous materials in the basement, foundation, ground oor slab and walls. Released moisture which was previously stored in the building structure during slow air drying construction process. This normally plays a role only in the rst few years after building construction.

   

Select proper building materials and construction methods. Prevent rain water penetration into the building envelope by proper roong and caulking around all penetrations and cracks. Control inltration by sealing all air leakage pathways around the building envelope. Use proper ventilation and dehumidication. However, in humid climates make sure that the incoming ventilation air is not a moisture source where it might be more humid than the inside air. Use and properly locate vapor retarder in the building envelope when applicable.

6. Vapor retarders 6.1. What is a vapor retarder? A vapor retarder is a special material (treated papers, paints, plastic sheets, and metallic foils) that reduces the passage of water vapor. A material permeability (or perm) determines the extent to which water vapor can pass through it. The lower the permeability, the better the material is as vapor retarder. Materials can be classied based on their permeability as follows [10]:

In reality, multiple moisture sources and transport mechanisms normally act together at one time. Every moisture transport mechanism can cause moisture problems and can help dry building materials and alleviate such problems as well. Therefore, it is not always the best approach to prevent moisture transport mechanisms but rather to control moisture sources, control moisture transport and accumulation mechanisms, and encourage moisture removal (drying) in a building assembly [9]. 5.2. What are the factors that impact moisture problems? Many factors impact the seriousness of moisture problems in buildings. These include:

  

   

Local climate at the building site. The difference between the indoor and outdoor climate. The type and quality of construction. Different materials will hold and transport moisture differently. For example, concrete will allow more moisture to pass and be stored more than wood or aluminum. The amount of moisture generated indoors. The ventilation process. The type and position of the insulation used. The use and location of vapor retarder.

Vapor barriers which are very impermeable to water vapor (p1 perm). These include polyethylene lms, aluminum foils, oil-based paints, vinyl wall coverings, sheet metal, foil-faced insulation, glass, rubber membranes. Vapor retarders which are semi-vapor permeable to water vapor (1o10 perms) and include plywood, unfaced expanded polystyrene, paper and bitumen facing on berglass insulation, most latex-based paints. Breathable materials which are permeable to water vapor (X10 perms) such as unpainted gypsum board, un-faced berglass insulation, cellulose insulation, cement, and other similar building materials.

6.2. Why use a vapor retarder? When there is high level of moisture in the air of a living space it can cause a lot of problems. When such moist air touches a cold surface with a temperature that is below or equal to the dew point of that air, condensation will start to occur on that surface which could accumulate and create problems. If this moisture penetrates to the wall or the ceiling it could create an environment for mold and mildew growth resulting in health problems and damaging building materials. If it

5.3. How to control moisture problems in buildings? In order to control moisture in buildings, it is important to understand the climate at which the

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gets into the insulation material, it will adversely impact its performance. Thermal insulation can help cure or complicate moisture problems. The temperature inside an insulated component is changed and the new temperature prole can either prevent condensation or make a surface inside that component colder during winter than it would be if un-insulated. Therefore, water vapor traveling through that component can condense and cause problems. 6.3. Where to use a vapor retarder? The type and location of the vapor retarder to be used in a building depends greatly on the prevailing climatic conditions and whether moisture is expected to move more into or out of the building. For example:

the choice of insulating materials can be summarized as follows: 1. Thermal performance  Thermal resistance  High R-value insulation material (e.g., berglass, rock wool, polystyrene, polyethylene, polyurethane, ...).  Material thickness vs. thermal resistance.  Material density vs. thermal resistance.  Operating temperature range vs. thermal resistance.  Thermal bridging  Continuity of thermal insulation around walls/ roof.  No/minimum framing.  Thermal storage  Thermal storage benets from massive walls (e.g., concrete, adobe).  Time lag capabilities. Cost  Extra cost of insulation (cost per R-value).  Extra cost of quality materials and workmanship.  Impact on labor cost.  Impact on air-conditioning equipment size and initial cost.  Impact on energy/operating cost. Ease of construction  Impact on workmanship requirements.  Impact on ease/speed of construction.  Impact on ease of operation, maintenance and replacement. Building codes requirements (safety and health issues)  Fire resistance capabilities.  Health hazards (toxic or irritating fumes).  Structural stability (load bearing vs. non load bearing, compressive strength).  Odor and skin/eye irritation. Durability  R-value change over time (e.g., foams lled with gases heavier than air, that diffuse over time).  Water and moisture effects (absorption and permeability).  Dimensional stability (thermal expansion and contraction).  Settling over time.  Strength (compressive, exural, and tensile).  Chemicals and other corroding agents.  Biological agents (dry rot and fungal growths). Acoustical performance  Sound absorption.  Sound insulation. Air tightness  Vapor/inltration barrier.  Wall/roof construction quality.

In regions with prevailing cold climate, moisture tends to diffuse through building envelope from warmer and more humid inside air to colder and drier outside air. Therefore, vapor retarder should be placed towards the inside warm surface of insulation. The exterior surfaces should be permeable to allow drying towards the outdoors. In regions with prevailing hot and humid conditions, on the other hand, moisture is expected to diffuse through the building envelope from outside warmer and humid air to the colder and drier inside conditioned air. Therefore, vapor retarder should generally be placed towards the outside surface of insulation. In mixed climates, where moisture is expected to move both into and out of the space without predominance of either, it is better not to use vapor retarder at all and allow water vapor by diffusion to ow through the building envelope into and out of the space without accumulation. Rigid foam insulation boards do not require added vapor retarder treatment when placed to the interior of masonry walls.

2.

3.

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5.

7. Thermal insulation selection 7.1. What are the selection criteria for building thermal insulation? Many parameters should be considered when selecting thermal insulation, including durability, cost, compressive strength, water vapor absorption and transmission, re resistance, ease of application, and thermal conductivity. However, the thermal resistance of insulation materials is the most important property that is of interest when considering thermal performance and energy conservation issues. The factors that impact

6.

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 Sealed penetrations.  No cracks.  Good weather stripping. 8. Environmental impact 9. Availability Thermal insulation material selection procedure is summarized in the selection chart of Fig. 2. Performance characteristics of common building insulation materials are shown in Table 1.

cycle cost (LCC) analysis, as illustrated in Fig. 3, which is a function of the following:

     

7.2. What is the optimum economic thickness of thermal insulation? The more insulation does not necessarily mean the better. Optimum economic thickness of insulation can be dened as the thickness of insulation for which the cost of the added increment of insulation is just balanced by increased energy savings over the life of the project (principle of diminishing returns). Thermal insulation does not always have the same effectiveness for all types of buildings. Its effectiveness and economic value can best be determined through life

 

The building type, function, size, shape, and construction. The building component to be insulated (wall, roof, etc.). The local climatic conditions at the building site. The type of insulation used. The cost of insulation (material and installation costs). The type and efciency of the air-conditioning system used. The type and cost of energy used (the value of energy saved). Maintenance cost.

Some insulating materials might require higher thickness to be installed to make up for expected settling (e.g., blanket type of insulation) over time and/or to get the rated thermal resistance under varying operating temperatures.

8. Thermal insulation applications 8.1. What is the best location of insulation with respect to thermal mass?

Determine the required application (building type and location)

Prioritize your selection criteria (k-value, cost, fire, acoustical, etc.)

Identify available insulation materials

The location of thermal insulation with respect to mass is not critical from thermal resistance point of view. Any building component will have the same overall thermal resistance for the same insulation type and thickness regardless of its placement within the assembly. However, there are other thermal and practical considerations for insulation placement as follows: 1. Insulation placement to the inside  Protected by mass against outside environment and damage. However, the structure will be closer to the outdoor temperature.  Expansion/contraction becomes more important.  More thermal bridges due to the unavoidable crossings and penetrations. Therefore, all penetrations and joints must be tightly sealed.  Minimized potential heating benets from the mass of the building structure. 2. Insulation placement to the outside  Support for summer convective cooling and winter passive solar heating.  Allows mass to store excess solar and internal gains. However, less durability due to the exposure to outside environmental and damage effects. 3. Insulation placement in the middle  Provides even distribution of the insulation in the component.

Eliminate unsuitable materials

Specify all related costs (initial, operating, maintenance ,etc.)

Determine insulation thickness

Perform economic evaluation among potential systems

Select the most attractive system

Fig. 2. Thermal insulation selection procedure.

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Table 1 Performance characteristics of common building insulation materials

Form Material Densitya (Kg/m3) Thermal conductivity (W/m-K) Fire resistance Effect as vapor barrier (% water absorption) Effect as inltration barrier Resistance to direct sunlight Maximum service temperature C 42601 Durability Sound Cost per R- Potential health risks absorption (%) value Typical applications

Blankets: Batts Fiberglass (sand 1256 or Rolls & recycled glass)

0.040.033

Good

Poor fair (with facing)

Poor fair (with facing)

Excellent

Compression reduces R-value

High

Low

Rockwool (natural rocks)

40200

0.037

Excellent

Poor

Poor fair (with facing)

Excellent

2408001

Compression reduces R-value

V. high

Low

Polyethylene

3540

0.041

Poor

Good

Good

Good

40901

R-value decreases w/time

Low

Frame wall or ceiling, Inorganic (organic binders), Irritating dust partitions, prefabricated houses, irregularly during installation shaped surfaces, ducts, and pipes. Settling is expected. Frame wall or ceiling, Inorganic (organic binders), Irritating dust partitions, prefabricated houses, irregularly during installation shaped surfaces, ducts, and pipes. Settling is expected. Organic. (off-gassing, Ceilings, hangers, toxic smoke) wrapping, carpet underlay, expansion joints. Cavities and around Inorganic (organic binders). Irritating dust obstructions. Added adhesive provides more during installation resistance to air inltration. Cavities. Inorganic (organic bonds). Irritating dust during installation Organic. Irritating dust Blown into small during installation cavities. Inorganic Fill or mixed withPortland cement for walls, roofs, and oors, plastering. Poured into ceilings, cavity walls, and cores of hollow core blocks. Cavity walls, roofs, and prefabricated structures.

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Loose-ll blown-in or poured-in

Fiberglass (open cell structure)

1048

0.0380.030

V. good

Poor (1% of weight) Poor

Excellent

42601

Comp.& moisture degrade R-value

High

Low

Rockwool (open cell structure) 2436 Cellulose (ground-up waste paper) Perlite (natural 32176 glassy volcanic rock) Vermiculite 64130

0.040

Excellent

Poor (1% of weight) Poor

Excellent

2408001

Comp.& moisture degrade R-value Comp.& moisture degrade R-value Good

V. high

Low

0.0540.046

0.060.04

V. good (added Poor (5% to 20% of Poor weight) re resisting chemicals) Excellent Fair Good

Good

801

Low

Low

Good

7601

Low

High

0.0680.063

Excellent

Poor (dries slowly)

Good

Good

13151

Good

Low

High

Inorganic

Rigid Board

Fiberglass (open cell structure) Expanded Polystyrene (closed cell foam) Extruded Polystyrene (closed cell foam)

24112

0.0350.032

Good

Good 0.2%

Good

Excellent

43501

More rigid than batts R-value decreases w/time

Medium

Medium

Inorganic (organic bonds)

1635

0.0380.037

Poor

Good (1.02.5%)

Good

Poor

1001

Low

Lowest of Organic (uses pentane rigid board gas as the expanding agent, toxic) types High

2645

0.0320.030

Poor

Excellent (0.21.0%)

V. good

Poor

1001

R-value decreases w/time

Low

Polyurethane & Low High Organic (uses CFC or CO2 gases as the expanding agent, toxic fumes) Walls and roofs. Must be covered inside for re and against outside weather.

Polyisocyanurate (closed cell foam)

4055

0.023

Poor

Good (0.51.5%)

Excellent

Poor

Walls, roofs, and oors. Must be covered inside for re and against outside weather. Organic (uses HCFC or Walls, roofs, oors, perimeter, basements, CFC gases as the expanding agent, toxic and foundations. Must be covered inside for re fumes) and against outside weather. 951 R-value decreases w/time

Perlite (natural 32176 glassy volcanic rock) Vermiculite (natural mineral) Sprayed-inPlace 64130

0.060.04

Excellent

Fair

Excellent

Good

7601

High

Low

High

Inorganic

0.0680.063

Excellent

Good

Excellent

Good

13151

V. high

Low

High

Inorganic

Blocks (industrial / commercial insulation), light weight insulating concrete. Not in houses (heavy weight).

Cellulose (waste 2436 paper)

0.0540.046

V. good

Poor

V. good (added Good adhesives)

801

re retardant chemical may corrode metals

Low

High

Organic. Requires protection against inhaling ne particles

Attics retrotting, wood frame sidewalls (experienced help needed). Needs time to dry before enclosing to avoid moisture problems.

Foamed-inPlace Low

Polyurethane & High Organic (toxic smoke, offgassing from aging plastics) Roofs, cavities, irregular and rough surfaces (experienced help needed). Hard to control quality and thickness on site. Needs time to dry before enclosing to avoid moisture problems. Reduces only radiant heat transferc Good

Polyisocyanurate (closed cell foam)

4055

0.023

Poor

Good

Excellent

Poor

951

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Reective Systems

Aluminized thin sheets (Reective foil, separated by airspaces)b

Excellent

Excellent

Excellent

High

1.25 Ceramic Coatings (acrylic paint lled with ceramic micro spheres - brush, roller or spray)

Radiation control

V. good

Excellent (seamless water proong)

Excellent

Excellent

High

High (Rust proong)

Ceilings, walls, and oors. Most effective in reducing downward heat ow (i.e., summer heat gain in cooling dominated climates, usually installed directly under the roof). Fabricated in a variety of packings include kraft paper, plastic lm, cardboard, or polyethylene bubbles. Metal roofs, built-up Requires protective roong, walls, storage clothing and eye protection when applied systems. Ducts and pipes.

Note : a Thermal conductivity varies with material density and thickness as well as temperature and moisture content. b If one single reective surface is used facing an open space, it is called Radiant Barrier. c The effectiveness of resistance to heat ow depends on spacing, airspace orientation and heat ow direction. Must have low emittance p0:1 and high reectance X0:9: d Foil must face air space with face down to prevent dust accumulation.

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Cost

Optimum Level

Total Cost(A+B)


Insulation Cost(A) Energy Cost(B)


Insulation Thickness
Fig. 3. Economic thickness.


 Can achieve a trade-off between the benets of the above two arrangements. 8.2. What are the practical installation methods for insulating buildings? Insulation installation depends on the type of structure, the type of insulating material used, and its location in the structure. For walls, the insulation can be placed to the inside, to the outside or in between (sandwich wall). The advantages and disadvantages of each location are as discussed above. For roofs, the insulation can be placed on top of the slab, beneath it or on top of a suspended ceiling. There are different methods of using/xing the insulating material with the most common methods for concrete structures summarized as follows [3,6,11]: 8.2.1. Walls, roofs, and oors

ness of the surface and compatibility of the selected adhesive with the insulation used must be insured. Hangers to carry batt insulation on top of suspended ceilings. All ceiling surfaces and penetrations (e.g., light xtures) should be tightly sealed to prevent air inltration. Foamed-in-place polyurethane or polyisocyanurate insulation which can take the shape of the structure its applied to. This is suitable for irregularly shaped surfaces. However, it is hard to control thickness and R-value of the foamed-in-place insulation. Insulated concrete blocks cores lled with insulation poured-in, blown-in or foamed-in, or using concrete blocks with insulating material in the concrete mix. Insulating concrete forms either cast-in-place or precast concrete with a rigid insulation foam (polystyrene, polyurethane, or polyisocyanurate) placed in the core (sandwich panel), or on one or both sides of the concrete panel and held by plastic or steel rods and ties. This system offers better and uniform insulation, more airtight envelope, and faster construction. However, it costs more than other construction systems.

Gypsum board nish (at least 1.3 cm thick) should be placed over interior surfaces of plastic foam insulation (e.g., polystyrene and polyurethane) for re safety. Typical insulation installation methods for concrete and masonry structures (walls, roofs and oors, and slabs-on-grade) are illustrated in the following Figs. 46. 8.2.2. Cavities The most economical and practical way of insulating closed cavities in existing wall systems is with blown-in insulation (e.g., berglass, rockwool, or cellulose) applied with pneumatic equipment or with foamed-inplace polyurethane insulation. 8.2.3. Slab-on-grade For slab oors, the perimeter of the slab is more critical than the oor and its insulation is important for thermal comfort and energy conservation purposes (especially in cold climates). The total heat loss is nearly proportional to the perimeter length than to the oor area [2]. Therefore, it is more practical to insulate the edges of the slab rather than the whole slab area. Insulation can be placed in two ways as follows [3,6]:

Double wall system with the insulating material placed in between. This method allows the insulation to be evenly distributed and is common although it costs more in constructing the double wall system. It can be applied to newly constructed buildings; however, it is neither practical nor economical for application in existing structures. Nails driven to the concrete surface by special gun. The nail should be of enough length to penetrate the insulation (normally rigid foam) thickness and hold it into the concrete surface. Washers are also used to hold metal lath to the insulation that allows plastering over the insulation. For outside surface applications, additional metal siding or stucco covering is used on top of the metal lath to provide protection to the insulation from weather conditions. Furring (Z-channels, T-channel metal furring or wood furring) that is usually applied at the joints of each two insulation rigid boards. The furring can be nailed or fastened into the concrete to hold the insulation in place. Adhesives to x insulation rigid boards to the wall surface (full adhesive bed is recommended). Cleanli-

Over the exterior of the slab/footing edge. This reduces heat loss through both the slab and the foundation. However, the insulation needs to be protected from insects and outside damage. Polyethylene plastic (0.15 mm) is used as a moisture retarder beneath the insulation. A well designed drainage system under the slab is important to avoid water accumulation and the associated problems.

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Exterior layer Thermal insulation Water proofing Concrete slab
Thermal insulation Concrete block Outside plaster

365

Inside plaster (gypsum board) Metal lath (support)

(a)

Inside Plaster

Exterior layer

(a)

Water proofing Concrete slab Air space Thermal insulation Suspended ceiling Hangers
Thermal insulation Metal lath Outside plaster

Inside plaster Concrete block

(b)

Concrete block wall

Lighting fixture

(b)
Concrete slab

Exterior layer Water proofing Reflective insulation

(aluminum foil)
Inside plaster Metal lath Concrete block Thermal insulation

Air space Suspended ceiling Hangers

(c)
Concrete block Outside plaster

Concrete block wall

Lighting fixture

(c)
Fig. 4. Wall insulation placement methods. (a) Insulation placement inside mass, (b) Insulation placement outside mass, (c) Insulation placement in the middle.

Fig. 5. Roof insulation placement methods. (a) Concrete roof insulation, (b) Thermal insulation of a suspended ceiling, (c) Reective insulation of a suspended ceiling.

more cost effective to insulate to the inside of the foundation [6].

Between the slab and the interior of the footing. This protects insulation against insects and damage. The insulation should be extended to about 0.6 m beneath the slab to increase the path of heat loss to the outside.

9. Conclusions and recommendations Building type has its role in determining the effectiveness of envelope thermal insulation on the thermal performance of buildings. The use of more thermal insulation is more critical in the envelope-load dominated buildings compared to those buildings with more internal-load dominance. Although wall and roof insulation are important, roof insulation is generally more critical than walls as it is continuously exposed to the direct summer solar radiation during daylight hours. This paper presented an overview of the performance characteristics and the main features of common building thermal insulating materials and their applications into concrete building structures in a comprehensive and practical way for the practicing engineer and/or

8.2.4. Foundation walls It is important to keep basements dry in order to avoid moisture intrusion and condensation problems that could cause physical damage as well as health problems. For new construction, in cold climates, it is recommended to insulate the outside of the exterior walls using rigid berglass insulation with a dampproong coating under the insulation over the entire foundation supported by good perimeter drainage system and a waterproof paint on the room side of the foundation wall. However, for existing buildings, it is

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366 M.S. Al-Homoud / Building and Environment 40 (2005) 353366

Inside plaster (gypsum board)

Thermal insulation

Concrete wall

Slab-on-grade

Water proofing

Concrete foundation

Insulation is extended about 0.6 m below the slab floor all around the exterior perimeter.

(a)

Inside plaster Concrete wall

tion over time. Therefore, it is important to control moisture in buildings through adequate ventilation, inltration control and the proper use and location of moister retarders in the building envelope. 4. Inltration is the most difcult variable to measure and its losses are the most difcult to control. Additionally, due to frequent opening of doors and windows in residences, inltration rates are expected to be generally higher than anticipated. Therefore, careful treatment of cracks and leaks should be implemented. 5. It is important to provide adequate ventilation in order to insure proper indoor air quality and moisture control, especially in well-insulated tight buildings.

Slab-on-grade Thermal insulation Water proofing

Concrete foundation

Acknowledgements The author would like to acknowledge the support and facilities provided by King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals (KFUPM), which made this research possible. References
[1] The US Department of Energy. Insulation fact sheet with addendum on moisture control, DOE/CE-0180, USA, 2002. [2] ASTM Standard C 168-97. Terminology relating to thermal insulating materials, 1997. [3] American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE). Handbook of Fundamentals, Atlanta, GA, USA, 2001 [Chapter 23]. [4] Peavy BA. A heat transfer note on temperature dependent thermal conductivity. Journal of Thermal Insulation and Building Envelopes 1996;20:7690. [5] Budaiwi IM, Abdou AA, Al-Homoud MS. Variations of thermal conductivity of insulation materials under different operating temperatures: impact on envelope induced cooling load. Journal of Architectural Engineering 2002;8(4):12532. [6] http://www.eere.energy.gov/buildings/components/envelope/ insulation.cfm. [7] Nisson JD, Dutt G. The super insulated home book. New York: Wiley; 1985. [8] Lechner N. Heating, cooling, lighting design methods for architects, 2nd ed. New York: Wiley; 2001. [9] Straube JF. Moisture in buildings. ASHRAE Journal 2002;44(1):159. [10] Lstiburek J. Moisture control for buildings. ASHRAE Journal 2002;44(2):3641. [11] Masonry Council of Canada. Guide to energy efciency in masonry and concrete buildings, Ont., CA, 1982.

(b)
Fig. 6. Concrete foundation/slab-on-grade insulation. (a) Concrete foundation interior insulation, (b) Concrete foundation exterior insulation.

building owner. The recommendations can be summarized as follows: 1. Proper treatment of building envelopes can signicantly improve thermal performance especially for envelope-load dominated buildings, such as residences. Therefore, the proper selection and treatment of the building envelope components can signicantly improve its thermal performance. 2. Wall and roof insulation are recommended for buildings in all climates for more thermally comfortable space and, therefore, less energy requirements. Insulation helps in reducing conduction losses through all components of the building envelope. However, roof insulation is generally more critical than walls and should be given more attention. 3. Moisture penetration and condensation could cause a lot of physical damage and health problems. It could also deteriorate the performance of thermal insula-