U$IT 19 AIR TRANSPORTATION Objectives S t r cture 19.1 Introduction 19.2 An Overview of Air Transportation 19.2.1 19.2.2 19.2.3 19.2.

4 The Origin of Air Transportation Role of Air Transpo rt International Air Transport Today Air Transport in India 4 I 19.3 19.4 19.5 Aircraft Characteristics Air Traffic Control Airport Planning and Location 19.5.1 TypesofAirports 19.5.2 Complexities of Airport Planning 19.5.3 Elements o f Airport Planning 19.5.4 Airport Master Plan 19.5.5 Site Selection 19.5.6 Airpo rtSizeandCnpacity 19.5.7 ~ i $ o r t ~onstruction Cost 19.5.8 Financial Analysis 19.5.9 Economic Analysis 19.5.10 Environmental impact1 1 IIl I 19.6 19.7 Airport Layout Airport Pavement 19.7.1 19.7.2 19.7.3 19.7.4 19.7.5 19.7.6 19.7.7 19.7.8 19.7.9 Requirements of A irport Pavement Comparison with Highway Pavement Types of Pavement Courses in an Airport Pavement An Overview of Design Methodology Design of Flexible Airport P avement Design of Rigid Pavement for Airports LCN Method of Designs Overlays I 19.8 19.9 . Passenger Terminal Building Airport Facilities, Aids and Controls 19.9.1 19.9.2 19.9.3 19.9.4 19.9.5 19.9.6 19.9.7 Cargo Handling Flight Catering Aircr3ft Maintenance Facilities Fuelling Facilities Air ~ r & c Control Building Airport Lighting Radio Equipment I I I I I I 19.10 Heliports 19.11 STOL Ports 19.12 lllustrative Problems 19.13 Summary 19.14 Keywords 19.15 Answers to SAQs i

II 18.1 INTRODUCTION ( &r transportation is the fastest mode of transport today. It has another desirab le feature: od record of safety. The second half of the twentieth century witnes sed a significant of t h s sector. The planning and designing of airports is a c omparatively new s bject, but has made tremendous strides over the relatively s h d period. It is one ofthe e sential functions of a civil engineer. e civil eng ineering aspects of air transportation cover the location, layout and design irp ort facilities. These include the runways and taxiways, terminal buildings and r ancillaries. Heliports and STOL airports are new subjects that deserve a study. a I -1 I

Objectives The objectives of this Unit are to cover all civil enginecring aspect s of airport planning and design. After studying this unit, you should be able t o: have an overview of air transportation as a backdrop to the sub-iect, underst and the characteristics of modem aircraft, get an idea of how an airport is loca ted and planned, understand how to develop a layout for an airport, know about h ow airport pavements are designed, have a knowledge of pla~lni~lg airport termin al buildings, facilities, aids and controls,and understand how Heliports and STO L ports are planned. -19.2 AN OVERVIEW OF AIR TRANSPORTATION -19.2.1 T h e Origin of ~ i r ' ~ r a n s ~ o r t a t i o n To the Wright brothers goes the record of achievement of flying the first power driven pline in 1903 at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina in U.S.A. The last 90 year pe riod has witnessed a v e k rapid growth of air transport. The early planes were driven by propellers. The Dakota, the workhorse of the Second World War, was an extremely popular plane. The propeller driven planes were replaced by turbo-prop s and later by turbo-jets. The early jets were slim, but the modern jumbo jets a re wide bodied to bring in fuel economy. Boeing 747 and Airbus 300 are wide-bodi ed jets capable of carrying more than 300 passengers. Speeds have also increased ; whereas the Dakotas travelled at 258 to 300 knl per hour, modem aircraft can t ravel at a speed of about 1000 km per hour. Supersonic aircraft fly at speeds gr eater than that of sound. For example, Concord travels at 2300 km per hour. 19.2.2 Role of A i r T r a n s p o r t Air transport has Illany advantages to its credit: I) Speed: High speed is its greatest advantage. Modern jets can travel at 1000 krn per hour. Advantage of speed is sometimes lost in time taken to reach an airport and to reach destination from airport. Speed has caused the world to shrink. En courages Tourism: International and domestic tourism has grown at a high rate be cause of air transport. Gives Fillip to Trade and Business: Air transport has gi ven a fillip to business and trade. Because of its speed, a good proportion bf h igh valued goods and perishables are tr<ansportedby air. Ability to Serve Remote and Inaccessible Areas: Air transport is able to reach renlote and inaccessible areas. Ladakh in Jarnmu and Kashmir is a good exan~ple. Military Use: The use o f air transport for military purpose is well known. Relief and Rescue Operations : In times of calamities like flood and earthquakes, when land communications ar e disrupted, air transport becomes handy for body text relief and rescue operati ons. photography. Aerial Photography: Air transport is used for aerial n~apping Agricultural Spraying: Spraying pcsticides and insecticides is facilitated by ai r transport. 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8)

9) Safety: Contrary to popular belief, air transport is very safe. There are rigid regulations for licensing of pilots and planes and modem technology has provided good navigation and control aids. In 1997, about 1330 fatalities took place, th e world over. High Cost: Air transport is the costliest mode. In India it is 20 times as costly as a bus journey. Noise Pollution: Aircraft generates high level of noise. This is particularly true of supersonic jets. The areas near airports and the path of landing and take off of pla~es suffer from serious noise pollut ion. High Energy Consumption: An aircraft may consume per passenger about ten ti mes he1 that is needed for travel in a bus. Air Transportant rhere are a few disadvantages of air transport: 1) 2) 3) 19.2.3 International Air Transport Today [t is estimated that every day, the world's air services fly more than 16 millio n aircraft tilometres and earn around US $ 400 million of revenue from 3 million passenger ourneys and the carriage of 30,000 tonnes of cargo and mail. It provi des direct work for nore than 2 million men and women. Air traffic has grown glo bally at around 5 to 8 2ercent per annum. In many countries airlines are governm ent owned but there is now a visible desire to privatise. The privatisation of B ritish airways may be the forerunner to nany more yet to come. India has also ta ken the route to deregulation and privatisation. Passenger traffic predominates, taking a share of 76 percent. rhere are many problems that face the sector toda y:- he1 shortages, congestion in :ontrolled air space, inadequate airport capaci ties, noisy aircrafts, replacement of aged iircrafts and low profit margins. Tec hnological changes in the manufacture of aircrafts lave been swift. Llost of the countries have three levels of airlines: 1) 2) 3) International. Domestic, trun k route service. Domestic, feeder service. 19.2.4 Air Transport in India 4ir transport began in India in 1911 when some exp erimental flights were made by nilitary officers. The same year a French aviator flew air mail between Allahabad and Vaini. J.R.D. Tata's solo flight in 1932 fr om Karachi to Bombay in a single engined Puss Uoth is now part of history. India now has three levels of airlines: 1) 2) 3) Air-India, the international carrier Indian Airlines, the domestic trunk service and Alliance Airlines Vayudoot, the domestic feeder service .n addition there is a Helicopter corporation, Pavan Hans. 411 the above airline s are government owned. There are some private domestic airlines I'he growth of Air-India and Indian Airlines can be appreciated from figures in Table 19.1. f i e average annual rate of growth of international passenger traffic tolfrom Indi a in the lecade 1974-84 was 16 percent. The domestic air traffic during the same decade grew at 12 percent per annum. t is expected that international air traff ic may grow till the end of the century at 6 percent )er annum. where as domesti c air traffic may grow at a higher rate of 11 to 12 percent.

\.ir. V ater Transports dt ( )~IIPI. ?>stems Table 19.1: Growth of Air-India and Indian Airlines II II 2. Revenue Tonne-kin. (million) Indian Airlines Fleet strength B 1. 2 I 1 88 I1 54 1 Revenue Tome-kin (million) 100.0 765.2 I 1 Major problems facing the airlines today are need for replacement of old aircraf ts, congestion at airports, inadequacy of ground infrastructure and shortage of trained personnel. Terrorism has created new problems of security. Air transport is being deregulated world over, and I n h a has also followed suit. i 19.3 AIRCRAFT CHARACTERISTICS 19.3.1 Rapidly Changing Technology A civil engineer specialising in transportation has to plan and design facilitie s for handling aircraft in airports. Aircrafts are of various types and an impor tant feature of the aircraft industry is its rapidly changing technology. In a s pan of less than 100 years, aircraft designs have undergone dramatic transformat ions. The craving for speed, the highly competitive conditions under which aircr aft manufacturing takes place, the impact of the fuel crisis and the growing con cern for preservation of the environment have influenced aircraft characteristic s enormously. As a result, the civil engineer has to match his designs and upgra de them constantly. The airports of yesterdays are no longer suitable for aircra ft of today and much less for tomorrow. The aircraft planner has to have knowled ge of the trends in aircraft de&n in the foreseeable future. 19.3.2 Aircraft Characteristics that Govern Airport Design Aircraft characteristics, which govern design of airport, can be discussed under the following heads: 1) 2) 3) Speed Size and dimensions. Weight, landing gear a nd tyre pressure Speed The attraction of air travel is speed. Whereas the Dakota (DC-3) of the 1940s co uld cruise at around 300 kmh, modern wide bodied jets (Boeing 747, airbus 306 fo

r example) can run at 10001an/h. The Concord cruises at 2750 kmlh, much faster t han sound. It is doubtful whether such supersonic aircraft will become common in future. What is important to an air planner, however, is that having achieved h igh speeds in the air, the airport and interface facilities must match the high speeds. Size and Dimension The size and dimensions of aircraft depends upon the number of passengers carrie d and I ~erange of operations (short, medium, long). A long range 747 jumbo jet can ca rry up to $110passengers. The Airbus A-300, a typical wide-bodied medium range aircraft ca n carry up to 350 passengers. A 737 Boeing, ideal for short-range operations, ha s a passenger capacity of around 150 passengers. For very short-range operations , typical

lird level carriers, a seat capacity in the range 20 to 50 is common. Passenger ity of 800 with a two-deck arrangement is being talked about, but it may take a long dimensions of aircraft govern airport planing. Figure 19.1 gives a typical sketch of ircraft showing the controlling dimensions. k ~ e n g t ---4 h y v g G F i g h t Air 'Trunspurtation ~ i n $Pg Nose Gear Landing Gear (Main) I Maximum Turning Radius Path of Main Gea Figure 19.1: Aircraft Dimensions mensions of a few common aircrafi types are given in Table 19.2. ( Table 19.2: Principal Dimensions and Characteristics of Aircraft aft e 1 Sg; 1 I Wing Length (m) Maximum Weight at Take Off (kg) 1 Wheel Track'm) Wheel 7:; 1 Height Cruising Speed 04 850 weigh4 Landing Gear and Tyre Pressure mum weight of an aircraft is when it is loaded with fuel and is at take-off. Tab le the maximum weights of some aircraft. of the aircraft is transmitted to the a irport pavement by wheels conforming to onfigurations. This is dealt with in sec tion 19.7 ures are h g h In aircraft. Typical values are as under: Aircraft Type Boeing 747 Boeing 737 Tyre Pressure (M Pa)

1.43 1.04 The man b e s are in the vicinity of 50 x 16 sire. The nose wheels are in the vi cinlty of .< ..

.\,I.. \\ :,tel~~l'l.all\port\ & oth~,r 19.4 AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL - Aircraft manoeuvres like take-off. landing and over-flying involves conflicts in tl~ght path and can result in serioi~s accidents unless the movements are very strictl!. controlled. kgorous control of air traffic is an important part of ~ll odern airport operations. The typc of air traffic control to be installed govern s the planning of an airport. The capacit!. of an airport is to a large extent d etermined by the air traffic control system installed in the airport. 19.4.1 Flight Rules In earlier days, alr traffic used to be governed by V~sualFlight Rule (VFR). \\~ h~ch implies that aircraft can maintain safe separation vertically and laterally by v isual means A requiremcnt for VFR is that the weather conditiorls are clear and there is good visibility. Modern airports have to deal with high-speed jets in l arge numbers. VFR is totally inadequate for handling this kind of traffic. The m odern system of c o ~ ~ t r obased ls on Instn~nier~t Flight Rules (IFR), under which the air traffic controllers take over the responsibility of safe separatio n of aircraft. Under present day requirements, it is mandator). for the pilot to file with the air traffic control a "flight plan" indicating the following: 1) 2) 3) destination proposed routes desired altitudes IS The flight plan continuously revicwed and updated during the course of a flight. 19.4.2 Flight Routes Each countryhas ccrtain designated routes, which must be followed b\, all aircra ft. In India. control of routes is provided by Air Route Traffic Centers (ARTC). located at Mumbai. Chennai. Calcutta, Nagpur, Ahmedabad, Allahabad, Dclhi. and Jodhpur. E ~ c h of these centers controls a certain geographical area. covering the entire area of the country. As the aircraft crosses the boundary of the are a col~trolled by a particular centre. the control of the moveniellt is taken ove r by the next contiguous ARTC. Tllc 111ghtplan given by the pilot is considered by the ARTC and a decision is given about the altitude at which the aircraft mus t fly to ensure a safe separation from other aircraft. 19.4.3 Aircraft Separation Rules When radar facilities are not available. aircraft are separated by a distance eq

uivalent to I0 minutes run when flying at the same altitude. If radar facilities are available. the niinimurn separation betwcen aircraft operating along a desi gnated airway route is 8 nautical miles for altit'udes bclo\v 18,000 feet and 20 nautical miles for altitudes above 18,000 feet. When the aircraft nears an airp ort. the ARTC bands over the aircl-aft to the control tower located in the airpo rt. When traffic is heavy at an airport, the aircraft are detained at a place ca lled a holding fix and are required to keep moving with a vertical separation of 300 m. They are then ordered to land one after the other. Jn air routes, the mi nimum vertical sepnrnt~orl when the aircraft are operat~llg upto 2C).000 feet ab ove Mean Sea Level (MSL) is 100 fect (300 m). Above 29,000 fcct altitude. the 1l li111nlunl vertical separat~on 1s 200 feet (600 111). 19.4.4 Lateral Separation of Runways An airport may have Inore than one runway. The lateral scparation'between runway s is governed by the conditions \vhctlier VFR or IFR prevails and if \Tortices a re not a factor. If vortices are not a hctor and VFR prevails. thc nlininlu~i~ s eparation between rullwnys tbr simultaneous usc by arriving or departing aircraf ts is 700 feet. If IFR prevails. the sc1,nrntinn for c i r m t ! l t n n ~ m ~ r nf t l - 0 c-- rl,\---.-+..-.--.-A +1.,Ilr,r n f ' n n r > mnr*rr--..

for a~rivals is 3500 feet if the tl~resholds of the t\vo runways arc even w ~ t h each . If thc thl-csholds are staggered. the separation may he increased or de creased bj. ct f'or each 500 feet staggcr. This is explained in Figure 19.2. \if. I ~ ~ l t t ~ p ~ ~ ~ ~ t ~ , t ; ~ ~ l l Arrival ---+ [ A Departure -_+ Figrrrc 19.2: Srparatiott Between ParaUr.1 Runways I 19.4.p &;irigatiosal Aids flight of aircraft is highly depeildent on n~odenl navigational aids. Ver?; higl i ! :Omni-range equipnient (VOR) is commonly used for facilitating navigation of stations A VOR receiver is installed in the cockpit of an aircraft. VOR gr0~111d aircraft. Their range is about 200 nautical nliles. These stations send out rad io all directions. Each signal is referrcd to as a radial. A pilot can select a radial and control the movement of thc aircraft rclative to the selected radial by a Positioil Deviation Indicator (PDI) i~lstalled in the cockpit coiltrol panc l. ons also have Distailcc Measuring Equipment (DME) which gives thc airline etw cen the VOR and the aircraft in nautical miles. toner of ~mportant airports has Airport Surveillnnce Radar (ASR) nhich 360" It g lves r~lfonllation of all movenlents wlthin the airspace 19.5 \AIRPORT PLANNING AND LOCATION 19.5.1 Types of Airports To bcg a few definitions ~vill help in clari@ing the subject of airport planning . 4 with. daj s of a\ lation. the term "aerodrome" was popular An aerodrolllc 1 IS ( n area including tht: buildings. it~stallations and equipment. intcnded to be ar t-ival. departure and movemcrlt of aircraft. The term aerodron~c is now rsedcd b y the tern] "airport" IT is a facility. consistii~g of civil works. building. installat~ons and equipn ient. to bc: used for thc arrival. departure and movement of aircnft. A~rl>ortsare of tv o types. viz.. 1) 2) \ ~ i l i t a ~airports. -y serving defence needs The Civ' ia11 Airports can be of three types, viz,. ') I I I

Civil a~rports. serving the scheduled airlines and all phases of gencral aviatio n ir carrier airports, which serve scheduled air carriers. Exanlple: Pala111Airpor t. bellli. neral ~~vintion airports. \vllich cater to business and csccutivc tly ing. air taxi erations. Flying clubs, aerial sowing1medical serviccs. firc fight ing. forcst twl ctc. Esampl~: Sufdacjung Airport, Delhi.

Air. \\ .11c1 1 r.~llapurts& 1,tht.r h>slt.ma 3) A mixture of the above two,.cntering to both scheduled air camels c i ~ n i lgcn cral aviation. Exanple.. Ludhialla Airport, which allo\<s lai~ding b ! , Va!arlo ot :~nrl at the same time allows use by a flying club. Airports can be classified as under according to the t j ~ of e air travel cater ed to: 1) International Airport: an internatioilal airport is one which is designated as a port of entry or departure for iilternational flights and which has facilities for inspection by custolns a i d immigration. 2) National or Domestic: An air port catering to doinestic services The followin g types of airports indicate the type of landing or takc off: 1) STOL: Short T,?ke-Off and Landing, having runways of less than 600 1 1 1 ill Icn gth and catering to special aircraft which requires only short takc-off and land ing runway len$h. VTOL: Vertical Take-Off and Landing, designed for lift-off and landing vertically. A Heliport is a VTOL facility. CTOL: Convelltional Take-Off and Landing Airport. RTOL: Reduced T&C-Off aid Landing, catering to aircraft ac coinnlodating up to 150 passengers which can take off and land in a nmway 100- 1 200 111 long. 2) 3) 4) 19.5.2 Complexities of Airport Planning Airports. like highways. railways and ports, are a11important elelllent of the t ransport infrastructure of a couiitry. The location, size and nature of airports influence regional development. Airport planning is a complex subject mainly be kause of the uncertainties associated with forecast of demand and rapidly changi ng technology. Luckily a vast amount of standard procedures and manuals have bee n published by international agencies. based of the past esperiences and hture e xpectations. 19.5.3 Elements of Airport Planning An exercise in airport planniog consists of the followiilg steps: 1) Enunciation of goals and policies. Inventory of Existing facilities Denland Forecast Select ion of alternative sites and engineering desigils Estimation of costs Economic a nd Financial Analysis Environmental Impact Assessment 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) These are now discussed in detail. 19.5.4 Airport Master Plan Goals and Objectives Airport Planning has to address clearly defined goals and objectives. The develo

pment of airports is but a small part of the overall process of develop~nent of air transport To extend it further, the development of air transport 1s part of a country's overall strategy for development transport. trade and touris111 Airp ort planning has to take ~ t place s 111 thc overall scheme the country has chos en for the development of its economy and ~ t s transport infrastructure and the role air transport is assigned to play Levels of Airport Plans Airport planning may take place at a various levels: 1) A long tern1 plan for the development of all airports in a country

2) 3) A long term plan for a new airport being planned A long term plan for the Improvement of an existing airport. ng term plans are comnlonly knowll as Master Plans. I ventory of Existing Facilities 1 tclear understandillg of the nature and,scale of facilities already available wi ll form the 1) b sis of assessing the dcficicncies in the system and 'designing for their remov al. The ii \/cntory should include details of the following: Runways. their number, length, configuration Taxiways Apron Pavenlent thickness and condition Terminal building and facilities Apronlgate transfer arrangement P assenger facilities Cargo handling facilities Air Traffic Control Aids 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) Airport lighting 11) Scrviccs like electricity, water. sewers and telephones 12) Safety provisions 13) Fuelliilg facilities 14) Hangars 15) Traffic handled in terms of passengers. cargoes, aeroplane landings and takeoffs, aircraft delay s analysis 16) E~~vironmental 17) Airport access faciiities 18) Facilities for p arking 111andForecast IC key to the fornlulation of a good airport plan lies in nuking a reasonably accur ate forecast. The period of forecast should be quite long such that the facility does not me congested too soon after it is commissioned. A period of 15 to 20 y ears after nissio~liilg of the project is almost a minimum for planning purposes . Delnaild forecast based on historical trends. Demand forecast based on econoin etric models ds based on historical trends establish the past growth rate of pas sengers handled, andled, aircraft landing and take-off. Data for the past 10 to 20 years are ed and a regression curve of the following form .is fitted: De land forecasts are made by various methods. Some of them are: 1) I 2) where. T,, = Trafiic in the nthyear 7;, = Traffic in the base year, n=O

n= r= ~lu~llber of years annual rate of growth of traffic, expressed in decimals One nlethod is to extrapolate the future design year traffic assuming traffic to grow at the same rate as in the past. If there are reasons to believe that the fiiture growth rate 1s likely to be different from the past (based on the judgem ent of professionals), suitable moderation in growth rate is carried out. Econom etric method relates air traffic to various economic and social factors. based o f study of past data on these. Ecoliomic and social factors such as GNP, per cap ita incomc. population urban population, industrial production and so on can be used as the explanatory variables. The models can be of various types. A multipl e regression iiiodel can incorporate nlaly variables, and can be of the followin g form: AT = Ao + AlX, +A,&? where, + A3X3 AT = Air traffic in terms of passengers, passenger-km, tonlies of cargo. tonne-km of carg o etc. Constant A. = Regression = A,, Rz, A3 X l , XI, X3 Log, AT Regression Coefficient variables selected = Independent The following formula iilcorporates the elasticity of demand: = A. + Al log, GNFJ In the above equation the coefficient A, gives the elasticity of air trafic (AT) with respect to gross national product (GNP). The elasticity Al directly gives the ratio between the percent change in traffic and growth of GNP. Thus for each 1 percent growth of C;NP, AT is expected to grow at Al percent. This formulatio n becomes convenient, because the planners generally know at what rate the econo my and other key variables are likely to grow in future. Gravity models.relating the passenger flows or cargo flows between a pair of two cities to the economic activities in the cities or population of the cities and incorporating ail impedance factor (generally the distance between the cities) are commonly employed. Thus. in a simple form, AT, = where, PIP,

4," ATii = air traffic between i and j Pi, Pi = population of cities i and j dii n .= distance between cities i and j constant to be calibrated =a Technological forecasting can be conveniently applied to air travel demand forec asting, particularly as air transport technology is an area of rapid transformat ion. High cost of jet fuel and its future availability can influence air travel over the long run. 19.5.5 Site Selection The selection of site for an airport is governed by many factors listed below:

Economic Factors I) The area served by the airport must be able to generate and attract the estimated passenger and cargo tiaffic. The airport location is there fore governed by the population of the area it serves, the pattern and the growt h of the cities serviced and the location of the industrial centres. play must b e clearly recognised. Is the new airport going to function as a satellite to a m ajor airport already existing'? eteorologicnl Factors 1) Air Transportation 2 ) The existence of airports nearby and the role the groposed airport is expect ed to Wind velocity, direction, frequency, turbulence and gusts have a major influence on the airport operations and safety. Crosswiilds are very crucial siilce they inay prevent the safe usage of the runway. Runway orientation is so selected tha t crosswind components are minimal. A study of wind duration, speed and directio n over a period of years helps to determine the best orientation of the runway. The altitude above mean sea level influences runway length. Other things being e qual, a longer runway is required at higher altitudes. Roughly, the runway lengt h needs to be increased by about 7% for every 300-m altitude. Average temperatur e of the hottest month also influences the runway length. The higher the tempera ture the longer the runway. Visibility conditions, particularly frequency of low visibility conditions due to fog, mist, rain, smoke, low clouds, dust storms et c., can affect aircraft landings and take-off significantly. These conditions mu st be studied in advance and unfavourable sites must be eliminated. Icing record . 2) 3) 4) 5) hysical and Engineering Factors 1) The site.selected should have a fairly level area with gentle contours. This will minimise the cost of earthwork for levellin g and keep the runway length to the minimum. Every 1% increase in the average lo ngitudinal slope of the country causes 10% increase in the runway length. 2) The site selected should permit easy acquisition of land needed for the runway, apr on and terminal. For a small airport, 20 to 40 hectares of land may be adequate. But large airports consume as much as 6,000 to 15,000 hectares. Site should per mit fbture expansion if need arises. The prksence of built up properties, indust rial establishments, hills, rivers, harbours, etc., hinders future expansion. It is always prudent to anticipate the future land needs and acquire it at the ini tial stage. If this is not pbssible due to resource constraint, the future land needs must be identified and land should be protected from uncontrolled growth b y zoning laws. An elevated site is ideal from many considerations: it is usually free from obstructions in the approach zone, it is easy to drain and often it i s less prone to fog and adverse wind conditions. Soil conditions must be favoura ble. A good subgrade soil with high supporting strength can reduce the airfield pavement thickness considerably. A drainable soil enhances the performance of pa vements. Frost susceptibility must be evaluated and guarded against. A good site is one, which has natural drainage. Floodability of the area must be carehlly s tudied and the site should be free from it. A high water table can reduce subgra de's bearing power. 3) 4)

5) i 1 i 6)

7) Airport approaches must be clear of all obstructions. In particular, the planner should look for hills, tall buildings, towers, chimneys, and transmission lincs and avoid them. Thc location of a new airport must not hinder the traffic flow in the airports nearby. There should be enough airspace available for the safe l anding and takeoff of aircraft in the new facility, without interfering with the operations in the nearby existing facilities. The site should be easily accessi ble form the nearby residential. industrial and commercial areas. A good system should be available so that time loss is avoided. Otherwise the very advantage o f airport is lost. 8) 9) 10) The location of towns and villages nearby should be studied, particularly wi th reference to any adverse impact due to noise. The maximum noisc level is gene rally set at 85 dBA in a daytime and 75 dBA at night for populated loCalities ne arby. 11) Thc site should have essential services like electricity, gas, water, sewerage, and telephone. 12) Construction materials, particularly stone aggregat es should be available at eco~~omical leads. 13) The site should be free from fe atures that attract birds. which cause bird hits. In particular, slaughterhouses and refuse dumps should not be present near the proposed airport location. 19.5.6 Airport Size and Capacity The efficiency of an airport is measured in terms of minimisation of delay in la ndings, take-off, and handling of passengers and cargo at the terminal. The airp ort size and capacity are deterinined with this objective in mind. The term "cap acity" can be defined by various ways but one common definition is that the capa city is the number of aircraft operations during a specified interval of time co rresponding to a tolerable level of delay. Various factors affect the cap'acity of airports. Somc of them are: 1) The number of runways and whether they are used for both arrivals and take-off o r separately for arrivals and takeoffs. Orientation and configuration of runways . The taxiway Apron layout Weather conditions The mix of aircraft using airport The efficiency of navigational aids The efficiency of traffic control facilities Passenger and cargo handling systems 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) A single runway, used both for arrival and departure, can have an annual capacit y of 170.000 to 2 15,000 aircraft operations. This m g e corresponds roughly 40 to I00 operations per hour, depending upon aircraft mix and flight rules (instru mented or visual). 19.5.7 Airport Construction Cost Costing of an airport project includes the following iterils: A) Construction Cost 1)

Planning

a) Preliminary planning b) Detailed planning c) Preparation of Master Plan Air Transportation d) The fees of Consultants Acquisition of Land Civil Works a) Preparatioil of si te Gradlng Fill Cutting Soil compaction Drainage b) Runways Paving Lighting c) Taxi ways Paving Lighting d) Apron areas Paving Lighting e) T erminal Building f) @ Utilities Power Water Gas Sewer Telephone g) Roadways Paving Lighting h) Parking Paving Lighting i) j) Landscaping Pavemen t marking of runways, taxi ways, aprons, roadways and parking areas. Other Works a) Passenger Baggage handling b) Passenger movement (lifts, escalators)

.Air, Water 'l'ransports & Other Syste~ns c) Aproi~ terminal interface (passenger bus. aerobridge. mobile lounge. stairs) d) Cargo handling e) Vehicles f) Air Traffic Controls ' g) Fire fighting h) Fuelling 19.5.8 Financial Analysis The financial analysis of a11 airport takes into account the expenses incurred o n construction. operation and maintenance of the airport and the revenue derived . Cost Head Revenue Items Constructio~l cost Interest on borrowed capital Maintenance of buildings, paveme nts, utilities, equipments, furniture etc Cost of security amngeineilt Cost of p ersonnel COGof fire services Rental income frotn office area leased to Airlines, Posts and Telegraph departme nt Rent from concessions granted to restaurants, bookstalls, duty free shops etc . Lease of car-parking lots Lease of space for aircraft parking . ! + Rates and fees from aircraft landing Fuel service fees 19.5.9 Economic Analysis The benefit from airport project includes the following: 5) 6) Reduction in delay Savings in fuel consumption Savings in time Increased economi c activity k s e in employment 7) 8) 9) 10) Increased land value The cost includes the cost of construction and maintenance of the airport over a period of time. All costs and benefits are "economic" cost, net of taxes and su bsidies. 19.5.10 Enviranmental Impact Airports adversely affect the environmental quality of the area around. This 1s particularly tnre of noise. Other pollution effects are air and water. The airpo rt may destroy areas of scenic beauty or natural landscape. It can cause displac en~ent of people. All these effects must be studied and included in the Environm ental Impact Assessment Statement that should accompany a Project Report. SAQ 1 a) b) c) d) What are the speeds of modern aircraft? What is the role of air transport in the modern \vorld4? What are the disadvantages of air transport? What are the three levels ofairlines in countries'?

1 i 11

e) f) What are the government airlines in India? What are some of the problems facing air transport today? Air Transportatior~ g) What are the principal dimensions and characteristics of modern aircraft? Wha t is the tyre pressure on some of the modern aircraft? Why is it necessary to ha ve a good air traffic control systems in an airport? What is VFR? What is IFR? H ow is the flight route of an aircraft controlled'? What are the aircraft route s eparation rules? What are the criteria for separation of runways? What is a VOR station? What is PDI? What is ASR? What are the common types of Airports? What i s STOL? What is VTOL? What is CTOL'? What is RTOL? are the steps of Airport Plan ning? w) Wl~at x) y) I What is the information to be collected in an inventory of existing facilities? Demand Forecast made for an Airport'? How is Traff~c z ) What is a Gravity Model? aa) What considerations govern the selection of sit e for an airport? bb) What factors influence airport capacity? cc) What are the elements of the cost of , a n Airport pro-ject? dd) What are the cost and revenu e stream in a Financial Analysis of an Airport Project? ee) How is the Economic Analysis of an Airport Project camed out? ff) How is Environmental Impact import ant in an Airport Project? 19.81 AIRPORT LAYOUT 19.6 1 Airport Layout Components The ain components of an airport layout are: ) tI Airfield, consisting of the following: a) Landing strip, consisting of a runway, shoulders and stop-ways. b) Taxiways

Air, Water Transports & Other Sy5tetns c) Apron 2) Terminal area, consisting of the following: d) Gates e) Terminal bui lding f) Aircraft service facilities 3) Flight support area, consisting of structures and facilities for air traffic con trol, navigational aids, fbelling the aircraft etc. The runway is a strip provided specifically for landing and take-off. It is gene rally paved. Shoulders are provided on either side of a runway t o serve as safe ty zones should an aircraft go off the runway sideways during landing or take-of f. They are generally unpaved. Stop-ways are provided at the ends of a runway, a gain for safety. to accommodate an aircraft that overshoots or undershoots a run way dur~ng landing or has an aborted take-off. A taxiway is a strip (usually paved) connecting runway with one another and with the aircraft-parking apron. The apron is the hard-standing area where aircraft are parked. Passengers enplan e 1 deplane here and cargo is loadedlunloaded here. Fuelling and other servicing is also carried out here. A holding apron (also called a run-up area) is that portion provided near the en ds of a runway for engine run-up and for hitching or unhitching vehicles towing the aircraft. They also serve as area for aircraft waiting for take-off. The gate is the opening in the terminal building through which passengers enterl leave the terminal building on arrivalldeparture from an aircraft parked in the apron. The transfer of passengers from the gate to the aircraft is accomplished by various svstems. y .'. . . IArrival / Departure Airspace ''. , .'.'.' .' .Figure 19.3: Typical Layout oTAirport The terminal building is designed for handling ofpassengers, cargo and airmail f rom ground to air. Hangars are buildings where aircraft are serviced. Flight sup port area consists of a number of structures and facilities for air traffic cont ro, navigational aids and fbelling the aircraft. 19.6.2 Obstruction Criteria Landing and take-off of aircraft requires that the zones at either ends of the r unway be clear of obstructions. In order to achieve this the dimensions and shap es of obstacle surfaces have been standardised. ICAO recommendaticns for approac h runways and take-off runways are given in Tables 19.3 and 19.4 respectively.

Table 19.3: ICAO Standards for Approach Runways Air Trs~~spvrc.tri,~t~ Visual Runways Instrumentation I surface is one which is longitudinally centred on a runway and which beyond each end of t l ~ e nmway. rizontal surface is one which is a horizolltal plane 45 m above the established elevation and is a circle whose centre is at the airport reference point (geographic f the airport) and whose radius varies froin 2000 to 4000 m.

.\ir, \\ nter' Tla~lspur't\8r <)ther Sjsterns The conical surface extends outwards and upwards from the periphet? of the lior~ zontal surface at a slope of 20 to 1. The approach surface is one longitudinally centred on estended runway centre line. The approach surface slopes at an angle to the horizontal, which is known as the approach angle. A slope of 20: 1 is co nlnlonly adopted for visual runway. Figure 19.4 explains the above terms her T a k eO f f Runw 1;igul.e 19.4: Pe~spective View of Imngb~aly Surtkres 19.6.3 Configuration of Runways Basic configuration of runways cominollly used is one of the following types: 1) Single runway, the simplest type. Intersecting runways, used wherc strong winds blow in nlore than one direction necessitating two runways intersecting at an .a ngle. Open- V runways. aligned in different directions. each runways being used when the wind conditions dictate. 2 ) Parallel runways, which add to the capacity of single runways 3) 4) The configurations are shown in Figure 19.5. cl===X I Single Runway Parallel Runway 19.6.4 Runway Orientatio~r The orie~ltation of the runway is selected after a careful nnnlvsis of wind velo city, direction and duration over the past years. It often happens that the cros sw~nds co~liponent nlay prevent the safe usage of a runway. 1 1 1 such situation s, the alignnlent is

ed that the crosswind components are minimised. A comnlon guideline is that a ! land at least 95% of the time with cross wind components not exceeding 25 per ho ur, which is considered to be the safe limit for light and inediuin weighi is li mit is not relevant for modem heavy jets. To meet the above-mentioned ts. the or ientation is decided on the basis of past data on the occurrence of entation sho uld be parallel.to the city border so that flights do not occur over reas causin g noise nuisance. Air Tra~~sportntion nway Dimensions that influence runway lengtll are: 1) Type of the aircraft, its take-off and lan ding characteristics Elel~ation of the airport Gradient of the runway Pn\~ement conditions Tempcrat~ires of the arca e critical conditions are examined based on aircraft characteristics: I) 2) 3) 4) 5) Thc runway length should be sufficient for the aircraft to accelerate to the poi nt of take-off and then in case of failure of the critical engilies the aircraft be braked and brought to a stop within the lin~its of the runway or useable lan ding strip (aborted t'ake-oft). Jf the fail~~re of critical engine occurs at a point of take-off. the aircraft s hould be c:lpablc of take-off on the operating engine (or engines). The aircraft powered b \ reciprocating engines must be able to clear the runway by 15 n1 and those powered by turbine engines at an elevation of 11 in. In Innding: the airc raft should clear the end of the nlnway by 15 n1 and be landed and brought to ha lt within 60% of the available runway length. The latter provision ensures that even if the aircraft lands at a speed exceeding the design value, there'is sufic ient length to take care of the landing. p of the above criteria, it is theoreti cally possible to calculate the ninway knowing the take-off and landing-characte risticsof the aircraft. Another chis to use experinlental data on aircraft perfo rmance during landing and take-off dardised by various authorities. American pra ctice (Federal marised in Table 19.5. Typical nmway lengths of different 10.7 su mmarises another feature of runway such as width. gradient ctc. as per ay showin g typical features is given in Figure 19.6. way affects the performance of the a ircraft. &sing r take-off, and downward gradients need more braking ed for com~n ercial use, a maximum gradient of 1.5% is ients can be slightly increased to 2%. be avoided. When they are unavoidable. they should ical curves. The minimum len gth of the vertical curve r carrier airports and 90 m for utility airports. ) )

i;.. \\ atcr Transp IIIL,I. Systems Shoulder Paved Runway Shoulder Figure 19.6: Runway I 'ross-srctio~~ Table 19.5: FAA Standards for Physical Characteristics of Airpot.ts (Dimensions in feet) Runway Length Runway Width Landing Strip Width Taxiway Widtli Minimum Distance Between -Centre lines of parallel niliways -Centre lines of runway and Centre lines of t asiway -Centre line of nlllway and aircraft parking area -Centre line of tasiway and aircratl parking apron -Centre lines of parallel taxiways -Centre line of r unway to building lines or obstn~ctiolls -Centre line of tasiway to obstn~ctions Effective Loligitliciillal Transverse 300 150 300 150 200 200 50 50 100 100 200 200 50 50 Marimun runway grades, "/o I1 if I1 1 .O

::: 1.5

Typical Runway Lengths for Various Types of Aircraft Normal Mar Temp. of Hottest Month ("F) 100 Sea Level 10,500 Table 19.7: ICAO Standards for Runways ICAO Airport Code Designation 1 between centre

Air, Water Transports & Other Systems 19.6.6 Taxiways Since aircraft travels at a much-reduced speed on taxiways. their dimensional re quirements are lower than for runways. ICAO standards for &xiway dimensions are given in Table 1.9.8. Table 19.8: Taxiway Dimensions and Details Items ICAO Airport Designation Width of taxiway (m) Maximum transverse gradient of taxiway (m) Maximum longitud inal gradient of taxiway (m) Width of taxiway margins (m) Width of taxiway strip (taxiway + n p a v e d paved or u 1.5 1.5 10.5 44 1.5 1.5 10.5 44 1.5 3 2 3 2 3 7.5 30 25 22 The exit taxiway from a runway can be either right angled or at some other angle . An angle of about 30" permits aircraft to clear the runway quickly at speeds o f the order of 100 km per hour. Such exit taxiways can be conveniently located a t about 800 m, 1200 m, 1800 m, and 2000 m from the runway threshold such that a variety of aircraft can be served. Taxiways exit details are given in Figures 19 .7 and 19.8. ---- _ _ C , Runway - ,i _ . . ---. ...J, - .'..\- - - - - - - - - - -.- - -- Taxiway . . C Figure 19.7: Taxiway Exit Details 1400-170Om Light Turbojet Narrow Body 550-800m Small Propeller Aircraft t 2000-2200m Heavy Widebodied Jets

e' Figure 19.8: Taxiway Exit Details for Various Types of ALrcnft 19.6.7 Clearances For safety of operations during taxiing, separation clearance is needed. Table 1 9.9 gives the clearances for various airport designations.

Air Table 19.9: Separation Clearances ICAO Airport Designation Item precision instrument runway lion-precision instrument runway 19.6.b Holding Apron y airports, aircraftshave to line up for take-off. Storage areas are provided fo r aircraft and these are called holding aprons (or run-up pads or holding bays) 19.6.1 Apron is the area adjacent to the terminal building intended for loading and aeroplane s. The number of spaces intended for aeroplanes depend upon the ircraft expected to use the apron at one time and the time of occupancy. The upancy is more at t erminal airports than for en-route stops. The time required and unloading varies from 20 to 45 minutes, depending upon the aircraft size g equipments. The gradi ent of the apron should be adequate to drain the off but not in excess of 1.0 pe r cent. 19.6. 0 Hangar t ar is a covered area intended for the purpose of repair and servicing of aircr aft. e of hangars depends upon the dimensions of the aircraft they serve. 19.7 # AIRPORT PAVEMENT 19.7.1 Requirements of Airport Pavement Airpo pavements must meet the following requirements: 1) 2) 1They must have adequate strength to withstand the heavy loads imposed by modern aircrafts. They must take care of the repetition of loads over the design life of the pavement. Because of the high speeds at which aircrafts land and ta ke-off, the pavement must take care of the interaction of vehicle response and p avement surface. For this purpose, the surface should be sufficiently smooth. 3) 4)1 The surface should be anti-skid. 5)1 The pavement should be dust free and take care of jet blast. 611 The inaintenance needs of the pavement should be minimal. 7) 831 The cost of the pavement should be economical.. These re hiscussed in detail. I

The pavement should withstand the detrimental effect caused by fuel and oil spil lage. I

Air, Water Transports & Other Systems Ability to Withstand Heavy Loads of Aircraft and High Tyre Pressure Modern aircr afts are giant in size and are very heavy. The present generation of a~rcrafts h ave a weight of 350 tonnes. The Boeing 747, for example, has a take-off weight o f 35 1.1tonnes. A weight of 500 toniles may be well within the realms of possibi lity in the foreseeable future. In contrast a heavily loaded truck trailer combi nation has a weight of 50 tonnes. Such heavy loads are transmitted by landing ge ar tyres to the pavement. The landing gear assembly consists of a number of tyre s arranged in various configurations. Some are shown in Figure 19.9. The B-747 h as 16 tyres in the landing gear and tw7o in the nose gear. Landing Wheel< N O " Wheel 0 0 0 0 Twin Tandem Landing Gear co 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -*Double Twin Tandem Landing Gear (Boeing 747) Figure 19.9: Landing Gear Configurations 0 0 0 0 0 High tyre pressures are associated with modern aircraft. The B-747 landing gear tyre pressure is 1.43 MPa. In comparison, a heavily loaded truck has a tyre pres sure of only 0.8 MPa. Take-off weight is higher than the touchdown weight becaus e of the fuel stored at the Qke-off. Thus, repetitions of take-off are more seve re than touchdown. Ability to Withstand Load Repetitions Though there is a desig nated area for touchdown of aircraft in the runway (around 300 to . 400 m from t he threshold), there is a lot of variation in the landing position both transver sely and longitudinally. Bascd on observed distribution of touchdowns, it has be en roughly computed that for B-747 aircraft, the probability of a load occurring at the same location is 0.0038 per landing. This implies that one load repetiti on takes place per 265 landings. Compare this with highway loading where it is a ssumed that every vehicle contributes to one repetition. For a busy highway. 50 million repetitions of standard load of 8.16 tonnes are quite often met with. Bu t for runway pavements, with around 200,000 landings m d take-off per year (a no rmal figure for a very busy airport runway), the load repetitions at the touchdo wn condition is only 400 per year. For design life of 20 years, the coverage wit h touchdown.impact works out to only 8000. The number of repetitions of loads on taxiways and other portions of runways, (away from the touchdown zone) would, o f course, be higher. These can be calculated from the' aircraft wander, which is

the lateral shift in movement of aircraft. The effect of aircraft wander is to reduce the number of load repetitions. The actual reduction depends upon the typ e of the aircraft. Aircraft - Pavement Interaction Modern a~rcraft travel at hig h speeds on the runways. Speeds between 150 and 250 km/h are common at take-off and touchdown. On taxiways, speeds are in the range of 60 to 100 k d . The surfa ce evenness of the pavement becomes extremely important at such speeds. Vibratio ns are set up in the aircraft travelling at high speeds on rough surfaces These vibrations not only cause discomfort to passengers, but also affect the pilot's

o control the aircraft. Thus the safety of operation is also involved. Modern av ements are, therefore, designed and constructed to give a smooth surface, its th e dynamic response at the interface of landing gear and pavement. The h of surfa ce roughness becomes a significant factor of design. This is often by specificat ions laying down the permissible irregularity in surface when y a straight edge. ~ k i d e e s i s t a n Surface t surfBce becomes sntooth and wet, the friction al resistance offered at the tyre nt interface comes down significantly. If ther e is a film of water at the surface, of an aircraft travelling at htgh speeds ma y entirely lose its contact with road , creating a hazardous condition known as hydroplaning (ar aquaplaning). The loses its steerability and may go off the'run way. It may also over-shoot the Pavements are therefore made with a good texture and a proper cross slope for r to quickly run off. When pavements lose their te xture, they can be grooved. provides quick outlets to water. of Jet Blast rtant consideration in airport pavements is the need to allow for the effect of jet en gines can be easily damaged by particles sucked into the air intake. ~ 6 i s nec essary for the pavement to be dust free and free from particles that may be Effe + ~ e a s Maintenance ( Option nts deteriorate due to traffic and require maintena nce. Maintenance operations c dislocations, which can be very severe in airports and cannot be tolerated. rence is given to'those designs that result in pavemen ts needing the least e. Runway and taxiway pavements are critical in this regard whereas apron an tolerate some dislocation caused by maintenance. el and Oil Sp illage f fuel and oil fall on the pavement from the aircraft. These can dissolve the surface and cause its early disintegration. This is especially true of bitu minous ecause bitumen gets dissolved in petroleum products. Cement concrete ~con (mica1 Cost st of an airport pavement is high. Economy can be achieved by selecting the riat e materials which are locally available and which have the requisite strength. so be achieved by designing airport pavements considering the variation porti'on s of runways and taxiways experience different loading. Loading is very a fully loaded plane takes bff or touches down. During engine run up at the ,full static load plus stresses induced by vibrations become critical ements. Slow moving tr affic on the taxiway also results in high stresses. The channelisation is severe for taxiway and runway ends. s economical to design pavements at different sect ions of runways and taxiways of expected load coverage. on to find the end 10 pe r cent of the runway provided with a thicker section. central portion is often m ade thicker to account for channelisation effect 19.7. Comparison with Highway Pavement t ce, a highway pavement and an airport pavement are similar to each other. Both oads from rubber tyred vehicles trAvelling at htgh speeds. Both are built-up of concrete, stone aggregates and bitumen-bound layers. Both rest

4ir. \Vater Transports & Otlier Systems Pavement Thickness . < <! 10% of Runway Length with Thicker Pavement > Width of Runway > I < J Thickened Central Width > Figure 19.10: Thickened Portions of Hunwny Pa\enynt There are some differences between airport and highway pavements. Firstly, Airpo rt loading are very high when compared to highway loading. Tyre pressures of air craft are also higher than highway tyre pressures. The impact of aircraft on lan ding is very high. For ensuring smooth flow at very high speeds, runways surface s need to be built to a very high degree of finish, free from bumps. Skidding be comes a serious problem at the very high speeds of the aircraft and extra care h as to be exercised to prevent hydroplaning. 19.7.3 Types of Pavement Airport pavements are of two types: 1) Flexible pavements Rigid pavements 2) A flexible pavement is made up of one or more layers of materials, the highest q uality' material is positioned on top. Loads are transmitted through the layers. The material forming each layer and the thickness of each layer are so chosen t hat the stresses in each layer are within the permissible value. The total thick ness provided ensures that the stress on the sub-grade is within its bearing pow er. The load carrying capacity of the flexible pavement is derived from the load distribution property and not from its flexural or bending strength. Because of its poor flexural strength, the pavement depends upon the load bearing property of the subgrade soil to a substantial degree. A rigid pavement (constructed wit h cement concrete) depends upon the flexural strength or beam action of the slab for supporting the wheel load. Thus, a major contributor to the load bearing ca pacity is the slab itself. Slab strength plays an important role, the subgrade s upport contributing a relatively small part. The slab can in fact bridge across weak spots or minor variations in soil sub-grades. A flexible pavement, having b ituminous wearing surfaces, is very smooth and is highly suitable for the high l

anding and take-off speeds af modern aircraft. Its disadvantage is that it is af fected by fuel and oil spillage and jet blast because bitumen gets dissolved in petroleum products. The concrete pavements can withstand jet blast and are unaff ected by spillage of fuel and oil. They require practically no maintenance. But they have to be constructed with joints, and the minor surface level difference at joints can affect smooth riding. 19.7.4 Courses in an Airport Pavement The pavement courses in the two types of pavements are indicated in Figure 19.11 . 3 9.7.5 An Overview of Iledgn Methodology Airport pavement design is essentially an attempt to relate the aircraA wheel lo ad to the subgrade soil support value by an appropriate procedure. In doing so, the strength characteristics of the pavement itself are also considered. Further , the effect of load

rer loa is to be allowed because of the fatigue behaviour of materials under repeated Air Transportation Bituminous Wearing Surface Bituminous Base Lower Base. Course Concrete Slab Sub Base Subgrade Sub Base Subgrade I Figure 19.11: Pavement C:ourses In e early days, when the aircraft loads were small, the design of aiqort paveme nts was an extension of the principles of highway pavement design. In fact, the widely see knl n Corps of Engineering method of airport pavement design is deriv ed from the which were originally developed for highway pavements. But as the co mplexities CUI of rcrafi grew, and particularly as speeds and loads increased, t he design methodology ha! ndergone a process of constant evolution. It cannot be said, though, that a perfectly ry method has now emerged. The search is still o n. sat Es; s ntially, the design methodologies can be broadly grouped under: tI I) Empirical methods Analytical methods 12) En irical methods are based on a study of observed performance of airfield pavem ents 0v1 a period and are purely based on experience. Typical of this group is t he Corps of method based on CBR values. En An1 lytical methods utilise the stress strain behaviour of pavements under loads and have at' oretical basis. Westerguard's analysis of stresses in a rigid pave ment and Bu inster's layer theory are typical examples. T h advent of computers has rendered the use of analytical methods easier. 19.!.6 Design of Flexible Airport Pavement U. Corps of Engineers Method Th ineer s,hho, were involved in the construction of many military t e( 4. a.ir str gi~ rld War 11, has developed their own design methodology. The soil n terms of CBR values. The early curves developed by them are ArI lysing &e performance of various airfield pavements, the following mathemati cal ex1p ession was evolved:

t where, t = pavement thickness, in inches P = Single wheel load, in lb. A = Tyre contact area, in sq.fet.

Air, Water Transports Other Systems Subgrade Strength, CBR Figure 19.12: Corps of Engineers Curves for &rport Pavement Design for Different Wheel Loads A set of curves for 200 psi tyre pressure is given in Figure 19.13. Subgrade Strength, CBR Figure 19.13: Corps of Engineers C:urves for Airport Pavement Design for M e r e n t Wheel Loads for 200 psi Tyre Pressure Since different aircrafts had different wheel configurations, the concept of Equ ivalent Single Wheel Load (ESWL) was devel6ped. ESWL for a p&ticular wheel assem bly is that single load which produces the same strain in the founhtion as the m ultiple wheel load. ESWL can be computed by using Boussinesq's theory. If ESWL i s considered Equation above gets modified as under: where, = factor for adjusting design thickness for wheel load coverage C = coverage (su fficient wheel passes to cover every point of traffic lane once) ESWL = equivale nt single wheel load f

t h s procedure: Corps of Engineers have developed design curves for typical erc ial aircraft. The curves are given in Figure 19.14. Air Transportalion Subgrade Strength, CBR . , Figure 19.14: Corps of Engineers Thickness Design Chart for Selected Aircraft ,-.

.\ir, \\'atrr Tranbports & Otl~rr Systems percent to take care of curling stresses, load repetitions and other cont~ngenci es. The ncl load (= 0.75P x 1.33 = 0.98P) is used for designs. Federal dviation Agency Method The typical FAA rigid pavement design chart is given in Figurel9.16. The chart gi 1) 2) Aircraft weight Annual departures Modulus of Subgrade Reactio n Concrete Flexural strength 3) 4) General Features of Airport Rigid Pavements Transverse contractio~l jolnts are provided at longer spacing than in highways T ypical range is 4 to 8 m Transverse expansion joints are not generally used exce pt at intersections Dowels are used where load transfer occurs. A sub-base is ge neral11 provided to givc a firm support. Reinforcement is desirable for controll ing cracks. 19.7.8 LCN Method of Designs Tile Load Classification Number (LCN) is a method of aircraft evaluation and pav einelit design first used by the Air mil list^. 1JK Vie method espresses the sup porting capacity coatrct~in2=ESWL/TyIC~ I.igure 19.17: L( 'N C'urve

Air Transportation area of the aircraft in use when the LCN method was devised. a smooth curve awl1 (Figure 19.1.7). \ W,, W2 = failure loads, lb A,, Az = load areas, sq. in. he curve that was developed is given in Figure 19.18. Figure 19.18: Failure Load I Contact Area Relationship EquivalentSingle Whal Load, loo0 Ib. Figure 19.19: LC.3, Load, l y r e Fressurc, tYortact .\re*~elati;nshipv fnr GI-n'hlp and Ridd Pavements

Air, Water ~ r a n s ~ o & ks Other Systems The LCN curve and failure load curve were then combined to produce a chart glven in Figure 19.19 using the following procedure: 1) The tyre contact area lines w ere drawn from th; relationship 2) 3) load Contact Area = Tyre . pres.suru One point on each LVN line comes directly from the standard load classification curve. Other points were calculated using the equation given above. Dotted lines are tentative extension of the LCN system to accommodate contact areas less tha n 20 sq. m. 4) 5) ACN-PCN System The ~ C A 0 ' h adevelopcd s an airport pavement classification system for repor ting pavemcnt strength. The system. known as ACN-PCN, reports a pavemcnt classif ication 'number (PCN) which indicates that an aircraft with an aircraft classifi cation number (CAN) equal to or less than the PCN can operate on the pavement su bject to any limitations on the tyre pressure. A given aircraft will have a diff erent CAN dependent upon the pavement on which it operates, whether flcxible (F) or rigid (R) and the subgrade strength. lCAO permits some overloading of the,pa vement by aircraft with ACNs slightly larger .than the reportcd PCN. 19.7.9 Overlays When an existing pavement deteriorates structurally and fi~nctionally, an overla y is provided. Overlay can be rigid overlays or flexible overlays. The following equation is recommended by US Corps of Engineers for a-flexibleoverlay on a rig id pavement: t = 2.5(Fhd -Chh) where, t = overlay (flexible ) thickness, (inches) hd = thickness of cyment concrete pavement assuming that the existing pavement d id'not exist, (inches) h = thickness of existing pavement, (inches) F = a factor having values in the range of 0.6 to 1 .O, which can be determined from a chart if the Modulus of Subgrade Reaction and the number of annual depart ures are known. Cb= a condition factor for existing pavement, having values in the rangelof0.75 to 1.0. The following formuliis-rec.ommended by Corps of Engineers and Federal Aviation Agency for determining the thicknessof concrete overlays: where, h, = thickness of overlay (inches) h, = thickness of existing slab (inches)

subgrade with a working stress equal to that of the overlay slab, (inches) C = a coefficient having the following values : C = 1.0, if the existing pavement is good C = 0.75, if the slab has initial come r cracks, but no progressive cracks ( I = 0.35, if the slab is badly cracked U!re of Geo-synthetics use of geo-synthetics is becoming popular in bituminous overlays. Geo-synthetics be in the form of geo-fabrics or geo-grids. The introduction of a mat of these helps to ent reflective cracks appearing on the overlay and to add additional st rength. a) What are the components of an Airport? b) Define the following: Airfield Term inal area Flight support area Runway Taxiway Apron Holding apron Gate Terminal b uilding Hangars c) d) e) f) What are the various obstruction criteria for airport? What are the common confi gurations possible for runways? How is the runway orientation decided? 'What are the factors that govem the dimensions of a runway? Give the runway length and w idth required by Boeing 747 aircraft? What are the standard dimensions of a runw ay? Give a dimensioned sketch of a runway cross-section. Give typical dimensions of a taxiway. Give sketches of taxiway exit details. g) h) i) j) k) 1 1) What are the clearance required for runways and taxiways? m) What are holding aprons? n) What is an apron? o) What is a hangar? I p) What are the requirement that must be fulfilled by an airfield pavement? q) W hat are the common values of tyre pressure met with in airfield pavements?

a What are the qualities in a pavement surface that are needed for an airficld pav ement? Why is jet blast an ilnportant consideration in airficld pavement design' ? Why is the effect of fuel and oil spillage an i~nportant consideration in airc raft pavements'? Give a cross-section of a nln\vay pavement. Compare an airficld pavement and a highway pavement. What are the features that distinguish a flexi ble pavement fro111a rigid pavement? Give a sketch of the co'urses in an airfiel d pavement of the tlexible and rigid type. What are the empirical and analytical methods of pavement design? Describe the US Corps of Engineers method of dcsign of flexible airfield pavement. Describe the Federal Aviation Administration met hod of design of flexible airfield pavement. Describe the US corps of Engineers method of rigid pavement design for airfields Describe the Federal Aviation Agen cy method of rigid pavement dcsign for airfields. What is LCN'? Give the formula e for rigid and flexible overlays over a rigid airfield pavement. How are geo-sy nthetics used in overlays for airfield pavements'? 1 9 3 PASSENGER TERMINAL BUILDING 19.8.1 Function The passenger terminal building 1s the hub of activities in an airport. It acts as the interface between the passenger and the aircraft. It receives the passeng ers from the city who are outward bound, processes them and their baggage and tr ansfers them to the outgoing aircraft. S~milarly, it rec,eives the inward bound passengers from the incoming aircraft, processes their baggage and enables them to continue their journey to the city. It p r o v u h various types of fac~lit~e s for passengers. 19.8.2 Design Requirements The desigh requirement of the passenger terminal building are given below :Passe nger Re(luirements 1) The functional areas should be adequate to handle the passengers and visitors wi thin minimum time. The terminal bullding should take care of the comfurt and con venience of passengers Adcquatc protection should be given to the passengers fro m exposure to weather blast. noise, h m e s and ground service vehicles. All Iar qe 2)

and illedium sized airports now provide covered loading bridges facilitating dir ect passenger emplaning and deplaning and weather protection. 3) 4) i) There should be adequate curb space for all automotive vehicles for emplaning an d arriving passengers, together with parking for rental cars and taxi queues. ' 1 Adequate and convenient parking should be provided for motor vehicles close to t hc terminal building. The arrival and departure zones should be separated so as to avoid conflict. A simple, clear and concise sign system should be provided to direct both autolnotive and pedestrian movements around the vicinity ,of the te rminal areas. A good and easily understandable flight information system should be installed, providing information about airline arrivals and departures and th is should be capable of periodic updating. 6) 7) 8) A \yell designed public address system should be provided for informational The tern~inal building design should permit direct passenger flow routes, avoidi ng confusion and involving mininluin changes in levels and direction. 9) 10) The terminal should provide for secure, rapid and efficient handling of bagg age. Flow of baggage should not conflict with flow of passengers. 11) For the convenience of passengers, there should be facilities like toilets, restaurants, bookstalls. shops, retiring rooms, telephone, postal services, bank Airlines Requirements 1) There may be one or more airlines operating their serv ices. Each of them must have adequate space for ticketing, passenger check-ins a nd functional areas for their staff. 2) 3) There should be adequate security arrangements. Functional areas should be set a part for security staff. The facilities must be compatible with the aircraft usi ng the airport. e expansion, both vertically and Airport Management Requirements 2) 3) The space must permit locating adequate number of concessionaires who cater to t he various needs of the passengers who are a source of revenue. The mechanical e quipment that handles the passengers and cargo should be sturdy and easily maint ainable. Com~nunity Requirements 1) ~ j l ternlinal e must be close to the community it serves and be easily accessi ble. There should be a good surface transportation. The environmental impact sho

uld be minimum. The terminal should be functional in design ar;ld not an archite ctural monument. 2) 3) 4) 19.8.3 Components of a Terminal Building Thc three main components of a terminal building are: 1) 2) 3) Passenger access interface The processing system The flight interface.

The passenger access consists of the roads, curbs and parking facilities. Thc pr ocessing system consists of airline ticketing and check-in facilities. flight in formation. passenger arrangements, security area. customs area, imlnigration are a and airport nlanagenicnt staff area. The flight interface consists of the depa rture lounge arid gate-al~ronintcrhcc. Passenger Access Interface ah l o ~ ~be l d eastly approachable by roads havl~lg adcquate capnc~t?'The curb The t e r ~ n ~ ns length should be adequate for loading and unloading of passengers There sl lould be road space for queuing taxies and a~rport buses The parking may be surf ace pnrkln!: or 111111t1storey parking. The space between the curb and terminal b u ~ l d ~ n should g be I\ lde cnough and covered to protect from elements Pas senger Processing System arc As so011 as the passenger enters the terminal building, he enters a foycr. a round ivl~ich located various airline offices. check-in countcrs and facilities. counter. check-~n countcr and The airlines functional areas are occupied by the ticket~ng the baggage coilve)ra~ce system Additional space is needed for the air lunes staff The check-m counter should permit space for the expected queues. Thc h y e r contai~ls adequate scat~ng space for passengers and enough clrculatl on areas Passengers nced various types of fncilit~es herc such as I) Toilets Restaurant and snack bars Shops Book stalls Telephone facilities Postal facilities Bank Information on hotels 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) The entrance foyer and departure foyers are generally separated to avoid conflic t m movement. Restaurants can be located in the upper floor. Retiring rooms for short-term stay of bonafide passengers can also be provided on the uppcr floor. Security arrangements are now an unavoidable feature of passenger processing. Xray devices for baggage checking are common. Adequatc space is nelded for the se curity personnel. Customs and immigration checks are needed for international fl ights both at the embarkation end and at the arrival end. Incotn~ng baggage is c onveniently handled through conveyor system For arr~vnls. baggage handling IS do ne through conveyors. Sufflcicnt movement space IS needed around baggage claim a rea for manoeuvring the luggage trolleys. The Flight Interface For departing passengers, the flight interface consists of a departure lounge. a n emplan~ng gate and an aircraft boarding system. For miving passengers. the sam c system works, but there is no need for a lou~i~ge. Passenger lounges must have adequate seating capacity. 80 to 90 percent of tlic aircraft seatlng capacity i s a reasonable estimate of passenger lounge seating requirement. Duty-free shops are provided for international passengers near the passenger lounge.

~411. Transportation 1) lnteniatiorial traffic Domestic arrival Domestic departure 2) 3) departures! separate buildings may be earnlarked for different Airlines. (Exampl e: rate building for-departureof Indian Airlines and Private Airlines in De'lhi airport for 11 airports the terminal building houses almost all the activities connected wit h an . These include passenger processing, aero~lautical engii~eering services, control Passenger Lodmg Bridge b w e r Road Level Figure 19.20: Three C!oncepts o f Levels for Terminal ~ u i l k i n Design ~

1 Air., Water. 'Trailsports & Other Systems 4) The passengers ark conveyed in mobile lounges. The parking of aircraft in the apron for loading and unloading can take place under three schemes (Figure 19.2 1 ): Terminal Building .f. 4 Frontal Parking , Satqhte Layout 5l Pier Layout Uigurv 19.21:zGrcfi~l't l'arku12 ~ J S ~ C I I I ~ 1) 2) Frontal parking Pier layout with right angle or angled Satellite layout. 3) Pier and satellite layouts enable the aircraft to be parked very near to the ter minal building. Most modern airports adopt these arrangements. 19.9 AIRPORT FACILITIES, AIDS AND CONTROLS Apart from the handling of passengers and their baggage. an airport has to h a ~ ~ dcargo le and mail. It has to have facilities for flight catering, aircraft m aintenance and fuelling. For controlling air traffic it has to have various a d s like radio equipment and lighting. This section deals with these aspects. 19.9.1 Cargo Handiing Air freight, both import and export, is expanding at a high rate. This calls for mechanised and automated cargo handling facilities. ~ i r f r e i ~is h tcarrie d in exclusive cargo planes or passenger planes or combi-planes (combination of passenger and freight). Facilities that are needed are: 1) Cargo shed where the consignors deliver their cargo for transhipment and where consignees take delive ry of freight. 2) Cargo warehouses where the cargo is temporarily stored sorted out and processed for distribution among various flights. 3) Cargo apron for loading the freight to the aircraft. Cargo is handled in vari ous forms. It can be palletised, or containerised. or can be handled as a bulk c ornnlodity or in units. Mechanical handling by forklift trucks, cranes or convey ors IS usually preferred. Handling of mail is done in a similar manner. There should be a separate office for receiving and sorting outward mail and delivering inward nlail to tn~cks.

a I9 ,2 Flight Catering t catering is done by various hotels. They have flight kit chen in the city where meals ~oked and packed. They are brought to the aircraft in catering vans and loaded to the ~ fwith t the help of mechanical loaders. Fli ght kitchens may also be located in the rt itself. FII arc alr air 19 ,3 Aircraft Maintenance Facilities Ai prc rc1. pa Tb M c aft needs exhaustive checks and maintenance. Maintenance i s of various foril~s: :ntive maintenance, routinc maintenance and scheduled main tenance. In addition. a r of damaged aircraft is necessarq. Some of these can be done in the apron and ng areas and some other are carried out in the aeronautic al engineering base. leronautical engineering base and repair facilities must be located close to the apron. :ment of aircraft needing reliairs should not undul y interfere with movement of aircraft. The base should be so planned that future expansion requirements are kept :w. There should be adequate supply of fuel, el ectricity. compressed air, water etc. lgar is a building where aircraft can be p arked for maintenance and repairs. The ler and size of hangars are chosen accord ifig to the type of the aircraft and their rer. fl I! in Al nu 1 1 u 19 4 Fuelling Facilities A 11 sport must have the system of supplying fuel to the aircraft and the repair s base. F11 is received 111 truck n~ounted tanks and transferred to bulk storage tanks. Fuel is then Sill icd to the aircraft either through truck mouilted tank ers or through a system of fuel P'F Tll .apacity of the fuelling system must be determined from the number of aircraft to be fuc :d and the fuel intake of the a ircraft. While small aircraft may take only 5 T of fuel, lar ones may need upto 150 T. 19 5 Ail- Traffic Control Building Ail 'raffic Control aids are located in a building, which may be a part of the m ain tcr nal bullding for small airports or may be a separate unit in case of lar ge airports. Th ~ullding should have space for administrative staff, a control t ower, a weather station an( radio centre. When it is constructed as a separate u nit. it is located about 50 to 100 m , ny from the main terminal building, almos t near the airfield bounda~y, such that all pa1 of the airport are clearly visib le. 19 6 Airport Lighting B11 airports work round the clock. Flight takes-off and land at night as well as daytime. Ail )st lighting provides illun~ination to achieve this. ' co1 ing is provided at the approach so as to enable the pilot to pick up the landing e. Thc Calvert system is generally used. It consists of six transverse crossbar s of llgl placed at right angles to the pro-jected centre line of the runway. Th

e crossbars are sp: d at 150 m. They extend to a total distance of 900 111 from the runway end. Foi Vl! at l or ba~ tlia ligl 0th ssisting pilots to select prop er glide slopes during descent, a system known as tl Approach Slope Indicator (V ASI) has been developed. It consists of bars of light s~de of runway, set to sho w the pilot if he is below the glide path (undershooting), le is correctly estab lished or if he is too high (overshooting). In one form of VASI, )f red lights a nd white lights on each side of the runway are so beamed by reflectors hen the p ilot is too low, he sees all red lights. If he is too hlgh. he sees all whltc . 01114 mhen lie is on correct approach he sees red and white bars one above the Thl ~seshold of a runway is lighted distinctly by a complete line of lights, gen erally g1-c

Air, Water l'ransports & Other Systems Runway lighting takes two forms: c,,lge lighting and centre line lights. The edg e lights are spaced at 60 m and centre line light, are spaced at 12.5 m or 15 in . Edge lights a i d centre lights are generally white except for certain zones. Taxiway lights consist of edge light and centre line lights. The spacing of edge lights is at 60 In and that of centre line lights is 15 m. The edge lights are blue'and centre line lights are green. A schematic diagram of the lighting syste m is given in Figure 19.22. Approach Lights Threshold Runway Edge Lights -, / / Runwav Centre Line ? ................................. . . . . .. . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 : I Lights liigure 19.22: Schematic Diagram of Airport Liyl~tu~:: 19.9.7 Radio Equipment Extensive use of radio and radar is made in controlliilg air traffic. These inst ruments are used for air surveillance, weather observation, monitoring of take-o ff and landings. guidance to aircraft to reach the terminal area and for facilit ating iiistnlinent approach. These have been described earlier in section 19.4. 19.10 HELIPORTS 19.10.1 Role of Helicopters Helicopters are v.ersatile class of aircraft which can take-off or lald in nearl y vertical position. They find extensive use in military operations. For civilia n use, they find application in relief and rescue operations. police patrolling, and transportatioil of men and materials over short hauls (less than 80 km). Fo r example. between Cochin and Lakshadweep, there is a helicopter surface. There is a public sector Helicopter Corporation in India known as Pavan Hans. One of i ts uses is for passenger transport for oil exploration. In America, helicopters are used for passenger trailsport in metropolitan regibns. 19.10.2 Size of Helicopters Helicopters come in various sizes and seating capacities. Small ones are usually 1 to 3 seaters and weigh 2 to 5 tonnes. Medium ones can seat 10 to 30 passenger s and weigh 5 to 10 tonnes. Very large ones can seat upto 50 passengers and weig h above 13 tonnes. They can travel at 150 to 200 kmlh. Most of them are operated by single rotor though designs with two rotors are also found. The rotor diamet ers are in the range of 10 to 20 m. Ths overall length is in the range of : 10 t o 25 m. The height is in the range of 2.5 to 7.5 m. The landing gear consists of rubber tyred wheels or skids or pontoons (for landings on water). 19.10.3 Selection of Site for Heliports Factors that govern the site selection are:

Avoidrmce of conflict with other air traffic Good potential for air traffic Good coilnectivity with other transport modes Avoidance of a residential area, which may suffer from noise caused by l~elicopters. ters call land on ground, on top of buildings .or on the sea (pontoon type landing Air Transpurt;ction Layout of a Heliports Landing strip. taxiways Parking areas Loading aprons Teln~iiial bbuding with app roach road and parking facility. 1rt layout has the followiilg components: d layout is given in Figure 19.23. Road - 1 r Auto Parking Building an ding! and Takeoff Area Figure 19.23: Hellport Layout ,metric design standards are given in Table below, which can be read along with 19.24. The approach standards are given in Figure 19.24. -1 lSOm AFigure 19.24: Heliport Dimensions

Heliport Design Standards Heliport Class 1 11.5A Dimensions I Private 1I Small Public 1 11.51 90m 1 I 60 m 1 1.5A 2.0A 1901n 9Om ) Large Public [Note:A is the overall Ic~lgth of helicopter; c is the reconimended distance pri or to bzgim~ing of curved path] 19.11 STOL PORTS 19.11.1 STOL Aircraft Chal-acteristics STOL signifies short take-off and landing. Such aircraft can operate on short nm ways. generally less than 600 m long. Their climb is steep, at an angle of about 6" ( as against the usual 3" needed by the conventional aircraft). They are nlo re cost effective than helicopters. Flying at a low speed, they have considerabl e manoeuvrability in congested space. ' 19.11.2 STOL Port Features Since the aircraft can take-off within a short length, the STOL port dimensions are aircrafts. The ICAO recolnmendatio~ls are considerably less than those of co ~lventional glven in the Table 19.10. Table 19.10: STOL Port Dimensions I Lengtl~ of nmway Width of runway Length of stop way Item I

Dim~nsion 1 Length of landing strip Width of landing strip Width of shoulder Width of taxiwa y Distance Between centreline of nlnway and parallel taxiway From centre line of runway to parked aircraft From centre line of runway to stop line From centre l ine of runway to building line From centre linc of taxiway to fixed obstruction SAQ 3 a) What is the hnction of a passenger terminal buildins in a n airport?

b) What are the requirements of the following at the passenger terminal'? . i) P assengers; ii) Airlines; iii) Airport management; iv) Community. c) What are the components of a terminal building'? d) Give sketches of a terminal building with one-level or two-level operations. Air Transportation e) What are the arrangements possible for parking of aircraft near a terminal? f) What are the facilities needed for cargo handling in an airport? g) How is flight catering handled in an airport? h) What are "hangars"? i) Describe the facilities needed for aircraft maintenanc e in an airport. j) What are the fuelling facilities needed at an airport? k) What is an h r Traffic Control? 1) Describe the features of airport lighting. m) What is the role of heliports i n air transport'? n) Describe some essential features of helicopters. o) What ar e the requirements of a site for a heliport? p) What are the components of a hel iport'? q) Give a layout for a heliport. r) What are the characteristics of STOL aircraft? s) What are the main dimension s of a STOL port? Prc Ca: Lo; e the thickness of an airport flexible pavement for an equivalent Si ngle Wheel 40 kN. The subgrade has a CBR of 5. The tyre pressure is 1.4 MN/m2 Sol Usc t = thickness in inches P = load in lb. A = contact area in sq. in In i P = 4 0 x 100 x 0.2204 Tyre Pressure = 1.4 MN/m2 1.4 x 145 = 203 psi. =

I I Air ,Water.Trnnspoh & Other Systems =14.3 in. =36 cm Problem 2 Determine the thickness of concrete overlay as per the US Corp of Engineers meth od over an existing concrete pavement 15 cm thick which is in a good condition. It has been found that a new slab of 20 cm is needed. Also calculate the overlay thickness if the slab is badly cracked. Solution: Use the formula: I In this case, C = 1.0 for good condition of existing pavement h =15cm t? h = 20cm For a badly cracked slab, C I = 0.35 19.13 SUMMARY In this wit, you have been introduced to civil engineering aspects of air transp ortation. An overview of air transportation has been provided in the beginning o f this unit. You have been exposed to the characteristics of modern aircraft tha t arc needed for designing airports and facilities in them. You have been given an idea of the studies made for planning and location of an airport. You have al so been provided knowledge& developing the airport layout. You have been explain ed with the methods of designing

rt pavemems. You have also been given an idea of planning airport terminal ings, facilities, aids and controls. Finally, : m insight has been given as how and S TOL ports are planned. the knowledge gained from this unit, you will be able to carryout the services o f a engineer in planning, construction and maintenance of air transport hcilitie s. 19JI14KEY WORDS Airport that serves the scheduled airlines. Airport that serve the defence needs . The number of aircraft operations during a specified interval of time correspo nding to a tolerable level of delay. R nway T, iway /I I The strip of pavement provided for landing and take-off of aircraft. Shoulders a re provided on either side of the runway to serve as safety zones. The strip of pavement connecting the runway and the aircraft parking area. The area whcre the aircraft is parked The building where passengers, cargo and airmail are handled . The opening through which thc passengers entcr the terminal building on arriva l from an aircraft and leave on departure. The building where the aircraft is se rviced. Load Classification Number method of airport pavement design. An airport pavement classification system developed by ICAO. Visual Approach Slope Indicat or. consisting of bars of light at the side of runway. for guiding the pilot to maintain the correct gliding path. Facility for helicopter transport. Facility f or transport by short take-off and landing aircraft. Gr A N-PCN Lr H ngars 19 15 ANSWERS TO SAQS I a) Refer sectioin 19.2.1 and Table 19.2 b) Refer section 19.2.2. c) Refer sectio n 19.2.2. d) Refer section 19.2.3. e) Refer section 19.2.4. f) sj Refer section 19.2.4. Rcfcl- Table 10 2 Refer section 19.4.1. h) Rcfer sect~onL9.3.2. i)

' Air. Water Transports & Othcr Systems j) Refer section 19.4.2. k) Refer section 19.4.2. 1) Refer section 19.4.3. m) Refer section 19.4.4. n) Refer section 19.4.5. o) Refer section 19.4.6. p) Refer section 19.4.6. q) Refer section 19.4.6. r) Refer section 19.5.1. s) .Refer section 19.5.1. t) R efer section 19.5.1. u) Refer section 19.5.1. v) Refer section 19.5.1. w) Refer section 19.5.3. x) Refer section 19.5.4. y) Refersection 19.5.4. z ) Refer section 19.5.4. aa) Refer section 19.5.5. bb) Refer section 19.5.6. cc) Refer section 19.5.7. dd) Refer section 19.5.8. ee ) Refer section 19.5.9. ff) Refer section 19.5.10. a) Refer section 19.6.1. b) Refer section 19.6.1. c) Refer section 19.6.2. d) Refer section 19.6.3. e) Re fer section 19.6.4. f) Refer section 19.6.5. g) ReferTable 19.5, 19.6. h) Refer Table 19.7. i) j) Refer Figure 19.6. ReferTable 19.8. Refersection 19.6.7. k) Refer Figures 19.7 and I) m) Refer section 19.6.8. n) Refer section 19.6.9. o) Refer section 19.6 10 p) Refer wctinn 19 7 1 1

y) Kerer sect~on 19.7.1.2. r) Refer section 19.7.1.4and 19.7.1.5 s) Refer section 19.7.1.6. t) Refer sectio n 1 9.7.1 7 u) Refer Figure 19.10. v) Refersection 19.7.2. w) Refer section 19.7.3. x) Refer section 19.7.4. y) Refer section 19.7.5. z) Refer section 19.7.6. aa) Refer section 19.7.6. bb) Refer section 19.7.7. cc) Refer section 19.7.7. dd) Refer section 19.7.8. ee ) Refer section 19.7.9. ff) Refer section 19.7.9. a) Refer section 19.8.1. b) Re fer section 19.8.2. c) Refer section 19.8.3. d) Refer Fig 19.20. e) ReferFig 19.21. f) Refersection 19.9.2. g) Refer section 19.9.3. h) Refer section 19.9.4. i) j) Refer section 19.9.4. Refer section 19.9.5. Refer section 19.9.7. k) Refer section 19.9.6. 1) 111) Refer section 19.10.1. 11) Refer section 19.10.2 o) Refersection 19.10.3. p) Refer section 19.10.4. q) ~eferkigure 19.23. r) Refer section 19.11.1. s) Refer Table 19.10.