Quinta Essentia

QUINTA ESSENTIA
A Practical Guide to Space-Time Engineering
PART 2
ELECTRO-GRAVI-MAGNETICS
(EGM)
To my sister: from Ricc
To Mike: from Geoff
RESEARCH NOTES
Particle-Physics Key Words: Balmer Series, Bohr Radius, Buckingham Theory, Casimir Force,
ElectroMagnetics, equivalence principle, Eulers Constant, Fourier series, Fundamental Particles,
General Relativity, Gravity, Harmonics, Hydrogen Spectrum, Newtonian Mechanics, ParticlePhysics, Physical Modelling, Planck Scale, Polarisable Vacuum, Quantum Mechanics, Zero-PointField.
Cosmology Key Words: Big-Bang, CMBR, Cosmological Evolution / Expansion / History /
Inflation, Dark Energy / Matter, Gravitation, Hubble constant.
2nd Edition
Project Initiated: April 15, 2007
Project Completed: December 3, 2007
Revised: Thursday, 24 November 2011
RICCARDO C. STORTI1 & GEOFFREY S. DIEMER
www.deltagroupengineering.com
1
rstorti@gmail.com
Copyright 2011: Delta Group Engineering (dgE): All rights reserved.
Synopsis
One does not find gold prospecting in a field filled with miners. One must
break new ground, not perpetually overturn familiar soil.
Riccardo C. Storti
Quinta Essentia: A Practical Guide to Space-Time Engineering (the series), describes the
development of a mathematical method termed Electro-Gravi-Magnetics (EGM); so named
because it facilitates the representation of gravitational fields in ElectroMagnetic (EM) terms. EGM
examines, based upon standard engineering principles, whether it might be possible to modify the
gravitational force acting on a test object explicitly utilising EM energy.
The EGM method is rooted within the foundations of General Relativity (GR) and Quantum
Mechanics (QM). GR states that matter generates curvature within the fabric of space-time
surrounding it. As objects pass through regions of curved space, the spatial curvature determines
their motion, resulting in what we perceive to be gravity. However, it must be noted that spacetime curvature is a physically meaningless term. It is a mathematical contrivance acting to
describe (not explain) the physical phenomenon we call gravity.
EGM presumes mass-energy must do work on the space-time manifold in order to
generate curvature, such that instead of being curved, space-time becomes refractive in the
presence of matter. It describes gravity as a by-product of EM exchange2 between matter and the
space-time manifold surrounding it, resulting in the formation of radial energy density gradients.
Objects passing through these gradients behave in precisely the same manner as predicted by GR.
The key difference between GR and EGM, however, is that EGM explicitly describes why spacetime physically becomes refractive in the presence of matter; GR does not.
The EGM construct is an engineering tool producing astonishing results, revealing the EM
architecture of gravitational fields and unveiling a universal principle applicable from the
subatomic scale to the Cosmological. It is the authors sincere hope that the reader will learn and
utilise the EGM method in their own research.
Author contribution,
Geoffrey S. Diemer and Riccardo C. Storti: Synopsis, Preface, Ch. 1-2.6.
Riccardo C. Storti: Ch. 2.7-9 + Appendices.
i.e. in accordance with the principles of QM.

3
Preface
My advice to those who wish to learn the art of scientific prophesy is not to
rely on abstract reason, but to decipher the secret language of Nature from
Natures documents: the facts of experience.
Max Born
Humanity teeters on the brink of profound scientific developments. We approach a level of
technological advancement exposing unexplored opportunities to solve pressing global crises. Our
breadth of knowledge continues to expand; we are explorers evolving beyond our bounds. Our
destiny is amongst the stars and our future depends upon overcoming two formidable technological
hurdles: mastering the force of gravity and surpassing the speed of light.
In 1968, a Russian Physicist and winner of the 1975 Nobel Peace Prize, Andrei Sakharov,
proposed a hypothesis for the Quantum-ElectroMagnetic origin of gravity and inertia3. Similar ideas
introduced by Harold Wilson and Robert Dicke in the 1920s and 1950s respectively, have
spawned a contemporary movement offering an alternative to the apparently insurmountable limits
of interstellar travel. Their ideas rest upon the most fundamental yet ineffable entity in the Universe
(i.e. light).
Light is energy ElectroMagnetic (EM) radiation, which may be partitioned into units
called Photons simultaneously possessing particulate and sinusoidal characteristics. General
Relativity (GR)4 is derived from the manner in which light propagates through space. QuantumElectroDynamics (QED) describes the elegant and indissoluble dance of light and matter defining
the material world. The Photon also establishes the basis for an optical model of gravity, first
described by Sir Isaac Newton centuries ago. This optical model has a contemporary representative;
the Polarisable Vacuum (PV) Representation of GR (i.e. the PV model).
The vacuum of space is an effervescent matrix of energy based upon the principles of
Quantum Mechanics (QM) such that light may be conceptualised as a fluctuation in the fabric of
space-time. When we consider space to be composed of light and not simply a void through which
it transits, it becomes possible to pinpoint the origin of gravitational and inertial forces on matter,
unifying the ostensibly disparate forces of gravity and ElectroMagnetism. QM comes into sharp
focus and the baffling consequences of GR become intuitive and comprehensible. This new
perspective also suggests that the seemingly immutable forces of gravity and inertia might
eventually be subject to manipulation such that supraluminal propulsion systems (i.e. warp-drive)
might be feasible!
Herein describes the development of a mathematical method; Electro-Gravi-Magnetics
(EGM). It provides a framework for representing the PV model in measurable, quantifiable terms,
allowing researchers to perform highly accurate calculations and predictions. It has been applied to
determine experimentally verified properties of matter to a level of accuracy substantially beyond
the capabilities of the Standard Model (SM) of Particle-Physics and Cosmology, yielding
astonishing conclusions.
EGM characterises how energy is distributed throughout the Cosmos in terms of a matterspace-time system. From this perspective, matter is not merely floating inertly in the vacuum of
empty space; rather it exists as an inextricable part of the space it inhabits. When EGM methods are
applied to represent the PV model, it is not only possible to validate GR in a manner fully
incorporating QM and ElectroMagnetism, but also gain a heuristic understanding of what
Relativistic and Quantum Mechanics represent physically.
The Scientists natural ally is reduction; a generalised phenomenon is decomposed into its
basic constituents. An engineers natural ally introduces the opposing perspective by integrating
3
Vacuum quantum fluctuations in curved space and the theory of gravitation. A.D. Sakharov. 1967.
{Reprinted in Sov. Phys. Usp. 34 (1991) 394 [Usp. Fiz. Nauk 161 (1991) No. 5 64-66]}.
4
A geometric interpretation of gravity and space-time.
5
basic principles and formulating a systemic solution congruent with experimental observation.
Utilising engineering logic, matter and space are dynamic, interdependent and function in a
feedback system of interactions such that the phenomenon may be reverse-engineered.
In our era, professional science has been corrupted by conceit and wizardry. We have
developed cumbersome and un-testable theories, conjuring upwards of twenty dimensions and an
infinite array of simultaneous realities in an attempt to explain basic universal principles. Our
conceit grows from the belief that the more baroque and complicated a theory is, the more accurate
it must be.
The hallmark of genius is the ability to make your thoughts reality. This is achieved by the
articulation of unique vision and the implementation of unconventional reasoning in an elegant
manner. Genius cannot be obtained by regurgitation of established doctrine. Sir Isaac Newton and
Albert Einstein laboured great works, not because they recited the toil of those whom preceded
them, but because they presented novel concepts unveiling great truths of Nature.
The famed statistician George Box once wrote: essentially, all models are wrong, but some
are useful5. The guiding principle underlying the work presented herein is a desire to represent
gravity, not only philosophically, intuitively and elegantly, but in useful terms. EGM does not
intend to imply that GR (or any other theory) is wrong, only that there may be an alternative way to
interpret Nature. In order to facilitate technological progress in gravity control or supraluminal
travel, we must reconstruct GR in a format promoting invention. EGM provides a tool to model the
dynamics of matter-space-time interactions solely in the language of EM radiation, offering
engineering potential.
This text, Part Two of the Quinta Essentia series, is a summarised presentation of the key
results and findings of Parts Three and Four. The EGM method generates new predictions and
confirms well-established experimental observations, particularly in the fields of Particle-Physics
and Cosmology. It is our explicit hope that the material presented in the Quinta Essentia series,
will inspire new ideas and experiments dealing directly with matter-space-time modification, by
either applying EGM methods or through the development of ones own approach.
Note: references to Quinta Essentia Part 3 and 4 are denoted by QE3 and QE4 respectively.
Empirical Model-Building and Response Surfaces. Wiley, New York (1987) pp. 424. George E.P.
Box and Norman R. Draper.
6
Scientific Achievements
The physical characteristics reported herein (derived from 1st principles based upon a single
paradigm) may be articulated as follows (many of which are experimentally verified or implied),
Quinta Essentia Part 3 (QE3)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The spectral quantisation of gravity.

The application of the spectral quantisation of gravity to Metric Engineering principles.
The experimentally implicit validation of the Polarisable Vacuum (PV) model of gravity.
The formulation of the Electro-Gravi-Magnetic (EGM) Spectrum.
The experimentally implicit validation of the EGM Spectrum by the calculation of highly
precise physically verified fundamental particle properties.
6. The Quasi-Unification of Particle-Physics illustrating that all fundamental particles may be
described as harmonic multiples of each other.
7. The Zero-Point-Field (ZPF) equilibrium radius.
8. The experimental Root Mean Square (RMS) charge radius of the Proton.
9. The classical RMS charge radius of the Proton.
10. The experimental Proton Electric Radius.
11. The experimental Proton Magnetic Radius.
12. The experimental Mean Square (MS) charge radius of the Neutron.
13. The conversion of the conventional representation of the experimental Neutron MS charge
radius to a more intuitively meaningful positive form.
14. The experimental Neutron Magnetic Radius.
15. The precise experimental graphical properties of the Neutron charge distribution.
16. The experimental mass-energies and radii of all Quarks and Bosons consistent with the
Particle Data Group (PDG) and ZEUS Collaboration (ZC).
17. The charge radii of all Neutrinos, consistent with the interpretation of experimental data
from the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (SNO).
18. The experimental mass-energy of the Top Quark as defined by the D-Zero Collaboration
(D0C) based upon the observation of Top events.
19. The Photon mass-energy threshold consistent with PDG interpretation of experimental
evidence.
20. The Photon and Graviton mass-energies and radii consistent with Quantum Mechanical
(QM) expectations.
21. The derivation of the Fine Structure Constant in terms of Electron and Proton radii.
22. The derivation of in terms of Neutron, Muon and Tau radii.
23. The derivation of the Casimir Force based upon the spectral quantisation of gravity.
24. The optimisation of an energy / gravitational experiment associated with the Casimir Force.
25. An experimentally implicit definition of the Planck Scale.
26. An experimentally implicit definition of the Bohr Radius.
27. The experimental Hydrogen atom emission / absorption spectrum (Balmer Series).
28. The prediction of three new Leptons and associated Neutrino's.
29. The prediction of two new Intermediate Vector Bosons (IVBs).
30. A physically implicit value and limit for at the QM level subject to uncertainty
principles.
31. A physically implicit value and limit for the Euler-Mascheroni Constant at the QM
level subject to uncertainty principles.
32. The formulation of a single mathematical algorithm incorporating (1 - 31).
Astro-Physics
33. Derivation of the minimum physical Schwarzschild-Black-Hole (SBH) mass and radius.
34. Derivation of maximum permissible energy density.
35. Derivation of the harmonic mode and frequency characteristics and profiles of a SBH.
36. Derivation of the SBH singularity radius.
Cosmology
General
37. Derivation of the minimum gravitational lifetime of matter.
38. Derivation of the present Cosmological age.
39. Derivation of the present Cosmological size.
40. Derivation of the total Cosmological mass.
41. Derivation of the present Cosmological mass-density.
Hubble constant
42. Derivation of the Hubble constant at the instant of the Big-Bang.
43. Derivation of the maximum Hubble constant since the Big-Bang.
44. Derivation of the present Hubble constant within experimental tolerance.
45. Derivation of the Hubble constant in the time domain.
46. Derivation of the rates of change of the Hubble constant in the time domain.
Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR) temperature
47. Derivation of the CMBR temperature at the instant of the Big-Bang.
48. Derivation of the maximum Cosmological temperature since the Big-Bang.
49. Derivation of the present CMBR temperature within experimental tolerance.
50. Derivation of the CMBR temperature in the time domain.
51. Derivation of the rates of change of the CMBR temperature in the time domain.
Evolutionary processes
52. Categorisation of the Cosmological evolution process into two regimes: comprised of
four distinct periods.
53. Determination of the impact of Dark Matter / Energy on the Hubble constant and
CMBR temperature.
54. Articulation of the precise history of the Universe.
Cosmological constant
55. Experimentally implicit derivation of the Zero-Point-Field (ZPF) energy density
threshold, yielding an insight into the Cosmological constant.
Particle-Physics
56. Derivation of the Photon and Graviton mass-energies lower limit.
57. Derivation of the Photon and Graviton Root-Mean-Square (RMS) charge radii lower limit.
58. Derivation of the Photon charge threshold.
59. Derivation of the Photon charge upper and lower limits.

60. Derivation of experimentally implicit values of the deceleration parameter and
Cosmological constant.
Note: where possible, calculated results have been compared to physical measurement. Cognisant
of experimental uncertainty, key predictions herein may be considered to be exact.
8
Table of Contents
Synopsis ......................................................................................................................................... 3
Preface ........................................................................................................................................... 5
Scientific Achievements ................................................................................................................ 7
1
Quinta Essentia ................................................................................................................... 23
1.1
The aether ......................................................................................................................... 23
1.1.1
The void ................................................................................................................... 23
1.1.2
The platonic solids.................................................................................................... 24
1.1.3
The laws of motion................................................................................................... 26
1.1.4
The luminiferous aether............................................................................................ 27
1.1.5
Michelson and Morely.............................................................................................. 29
1.1.6
Space-Time .............................................................................................................. 30
1.1.7
The Casimir Effect ................................................................................................... 30
1.2
Inertia................................................................................................................................ 32
1.3
Material waves .................................................................................................................. 33
1.4
Equilibration and virtual reality ......................................................................................... 33
1.5
QVIH ................................................................................................................................ 34
1.6
Bridging the gaps .............................................................................................................. 35
1.7
The Polarisable Vacuum.................................................................................................... 36
1.7.1
Blind-sighted ............................................................................................................ 36
1.7.2
Optical gravity.......................................................................................................... 36
1.7.3
Shaping the lens ....................................................................................................... 37
1.7.4
Asymmetry, equilibrium and KPV.......................................................................... 38
1.7.5
Conflux .................................................................................................................... 38
2
Electro-Gravi-Magnetics (EGM) ........................................................................................ 41
2.1
Introduction....................................................................................................................... 41
2.2
Similitude.......................................................................................................................... 41
2.3
Precepts and principles ...................................................................................................... 42
2.4
Gravity .............................................................................................................................. 43
2.5
Elementary particles .......................................................................................................... 47
2.6
Cosmology ........................................................................................................................ 48
2.7
Technical summary ........................................................................................................... 51
2.7.1
Synopsis ................................................................................................................... 51
2.7.2
The QV spectrum ..................................................................................................... 53
9
2.7.3
2.7.4
2.7.5
2.7.6
2.7.7
2.7.8
2.7.9
2.7.10
2.7.11
2.7.12
2.7.13
2.7.14
2.8
3
The EGM spectrum .................................................................................................. 53

The ZPF spectrum .................................................................................................... 53
The PV spectrum ...................................................................................................... 54
The EGM, PV and ZPF spectra................................................................................. 56
The Casimir Effect ................................................................................................... 56
Comparative spectra ................................................................................................. 57
Characterisation of the gravitational spectrum .......................................................... 61
Derivation of Planck-Particle and Schwarzschild-Black-Hole characteristics ..... 62
Fundamental Cosmology .......................................................................................... 62
Advanced Cosmology............................................................................................... 62
Gravitational Cosmology.......................................................................................... 63
Particle Cosmology .................................................................................................. 63
Key point summary ........................................................................................................... 63

The PV Model of Gravity.................................................................................................... 65
3.1
Synopsis ............................................................................................................................ 65
3.2
Introduction....................................................................................................................... 65
3.3
Precepts and principles ...................................................................................................... 65
3.4
ZPF transformations .......................................................................................................... 66
3.5
PV transformations............................................................................................................ 67
3.6
The Schwarzschild solution ............................................................................................... 69
3.6.1
Special note .............................................................................................................. 69
3.6.2
Abstract.................................................................................................................... 69
3.6.3
Introduction.............................................................................................................. 69
3.6.4
KPV ....................................................................................................................... 69
3.6.5
F(KPV)................................................................................................................... 70
3.6.6
LD(KPV)................................................................................................................. 70
3.6.7
Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 71
3.7
The Reissner-Nordstrom solution ...................................................................................... 71
3.7.1
Special note .............................................................................................................. 71
3.7.2
Abstract.................................................................................................................... 71
3.7.3
LD(KPV)................................................................................................................. 71
3.7.4
1,2........................................................................................................................ 71
3.7.5
Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 72
3.8
The generalised PV equations of motion............................................................................ 73
3.8.1
Special note .............................................................................................................. 73
3.8.2
Abstract.................................................................................................................... 73
3.8.3
Time-independent solutions...................................................................................... 73
3.8.4
Co-ordinate systems ................................................................................................. 73
3.8.4.1 Cartesian................................................................................................................ 73
3.8.4.2 Spherical................................................................................................................ 73
3.8.4.3 Cylindrical ............................................................................................................. 74
3.8.5
KL ......................................................................................................................... 74
3.8.6
Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 74
10
The Natural Philosophy of Fundamental Particles ............................................................ 75
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................ 75
4.1
Harmonic representation of gravitational acceleration........................................................ 76
4.2
Poynting Vector S ........................................................................................................ 78
4.3
The size of the Proton, Neutron and Electron (radii: r, r, r) .................................. 79
4.4
The harmonic representation of fundamental particles ....................................................... 81
4.4.1
Establishing the foundations ..................................................................................... 81
4.4.2
Improving accuracy .................................................................................................. 81
4.4.3
Formulating an hypothesis........................................................................................ 82
4.4.4
Identifying a mathematical pattern............................................................................ 82
4.4.5
Results...................................................................................................................... 83
4.4.5.1 Harmonic evidence of unification .......................................................................... 83
4.4.5.2 Recent developments ............................................................................................. 84
4.4.5.2.1 PDG mass-energy ranges ................................................................................. 84
4.4.5.2.2 Electron Neutrino and Up / Down / Bottom Quark mass................................... 85
4.4.5.2.3 Top Quark mass ............................................................................................... 85
4.4.5.2.3.1 The dilemma ............................................................................................. 85
4.4.5.2.3.2 The resolution ........................................................................................... 85
4.4.6
Discussion ................................................................................................................ 86
4.4.6.1 Experimental evidence of unification ..................................................................... 86
4.4.6.2 The answers to some important questions............................................................... 87
4.4.6.2.1 What causes harmonic patterns to form? .......................................................... 87
4.4.6.2.1.1 ZPF equilibrium ........................................................................................ 87
4.4.6.2.1.2 Inherent quantum characteristics................................................................ 87
4.4.6.2.2 Why havent the new particles been experimentally detected? ...................... 88
4.4.6.2.3 Why can all fundamental particles be described in harmonic terms?................. 88
4.4.6.2.4 Why is EGM a method and not a theory? ......................................................... 89
4.4.6.2.5 What would one need to do, in order to disprove EGM?................................... 89
4.4.6.2.6 Why does EGM produce current and not constituent Quark masses? ................ 89
4.4.6.2.7 Why does EGM yield only the three observed families?................................... 89
4.5
What may the periodic table of elementary particles look like under EGM?....................... 90
4.6
Graphical representation of fundamental particles under EGM .......................................... 91
4.7
Concluding remarks........................................................................................................... 92
The Natural Philosophy of the Cosmos .............................................................................. 93
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................ 93
5.1
Introduction....................................................................................................................... 94
5.2
Objectives and scope ......................................................................................................... 95
5.2.1
What is derived?....................................................................................................... 95
5.2.2
How is it achieved? .................................................................................................. 95
5.3
Derivation process............................................................................................................. 95
11
5.3.1
5.3.2
5.3.3
5.3.4
Hubble constant HU............................................................................................... 95

CMBR temperature TU.......................................................................................... 96
HU HU2, TU TU2 TU3................................................................................. 97
Rate of change dHdt............................................................................................... 99
5.4
Sample results ................................................................................................................. 100
5.4.1
Numerical evaluation and analysis.......................................................................... 100
5.4.1.1 Cosmological properties....................................................................................... 100
5.4.1.2 Significant temporal ordinates.............................................................................. 102
5.4.2
Graphical evaluation and analysis........................................................................... 103
5.4.2.1 Average Cosmological temperature vs. age .......................................................... 103
5.4.2.2 Magnitude of the Hubble constant vs. Cosmological age...................................... 104
5.4.3
Cosmological evolution process.............................................................................. 105
5.4.4
History of the Universe according to EGM ............................................................. 106
5.5
Discussion ....................................................................................................................... 107
5.5.1
Conceptualization................................................................................................... 107
5.5.1.1 x ..................................................................................................................... 107
5.5.1.2 TL ..................................................................................................................... 108
5.5.1.3 C_J .................................................................................................................. 108
5.5.1.4 St.................................................................................................................... 109
5.5.2
Dynamic, kinematic and geometric similarity ......................................................... 109
5.5.2.1 HU .................................................................................................................... 109
5.5.2.2 TU..................................................................................................................... 110
5.6
Concluding remarks......................................................................................................... 110
5.7
Graphical summary ......................................................................................................... 112
5.7.1
TU3 vs. H: Figure 4.22........................................................................................ 112
5.7.2
TU3 vs. t = (HH)-1 (i): Figure 4.23..................................................................... 113
5.7.3
TU3 vs. t = (HH)-1 (ii): Figure 4.24.................................................................... 114
5.7.4
TU3 vs. t = (HH)-1 (iii): Figure 4.25................................................................... 115
5.7.5
TU3 vs. H = (HH) (i): Figure 4.26 ..................................................................... 116
5.7.6
TU3 vs. H = (HH) (ii): Figure 4.27 .................................................................... 117
5.7.7
TU3 vs. r = (HH)-1c (i): Figure 4.28 ................................................................... 118
5.7.8
TU3 vs. r = (HH)-1c (ii): Figure 4.29.................................................................. 119
5.7.9
dTU4/dt vs. t = (HH)-1 (i): Figure 4.30............................................................... 120
5.7.10
dTU4/dt vs. t = (HH)-1 (ii): Figure 4.31.............................................................. 121
5.7.11
d2TU4/dt2 vs. t = (HH)-1 (i): Figure 4.32 ............................................................ 122
5.7.12
d2TU4/dt2 vs. t = (HH)-1 (ii): Figure 4.33 ........................................................... 123
5.7.13
|d3TU4/dt3| vs. t = (HH)-1 (i): Figure 4.34........................................................... 124
5.7.14
|d3TU4/dt3| vs. t = (HH)-1 (ii): Figure 4.35.......................................................... 125
5.7.15
dH/dt vs. (HH)-1 (i): Figure 4.36 ..................................................................... 126
5.7.16
dH/dt vs. (HH)-1 (ii): Figure 4.37 .................................................................... 127
5.7.17
dH/dt vs. (HH)-1 (iii): Figure 4.38 ................................................................... 128
5.7.18
dH/dt vs. (HH)-1 (iv): Figure 4.39.................................................................... 129
5.7.19
d2H/dt2 vs. (HH)-1 (i): Figure 4.40................................................................... 130
5.7.20
d2H/dt2 vs. (HH)-1 (ii): Figure 4.41.................................................................. 131
5.7.21
d2H/dt2 vs. (HH)-1 (iii): Figure 4.42................................................................. 132
5.7.22
d2H/dt2 vs. (HH)-1 (iv): Figure 4.43................................................................. 133
5.7.23
d2H/dt2 vs. (HH)-1 (v): Figure 4.44 .................................................................. 134
12
5.7.24
5.7.25
5.7.26
5.7.27
5.7.28
6
6.1
d2H/dt2 vs. (HH)-1 (vi): Figure 4.45 ................................................................. 135

|H| vs. (HH)-1 (i): Figure 4.46.......................................................................... 136
|H| vs. (HH)-1 (ii): Figure 4.47......................................................................... 137
TU2,3 vs. |H|: Figure 4.48...................................................................................... 138
TU2 vs. |H|: Figure 4.49........................................................................................ 139
q0, 0............................................................................................................................... 141

SMoC.............................................................................................................................. 141
6.2
EGM ............................................................................................................................... 141
6.2.1
Ro, MG, EGM, ZPF............................................................................................. 141
6.2.2
ZPF q0 qSM_1 ........................................................................................... 142
6.2.3
0........................................................................................................................ 143
6.2.4
U, UZPF, U........................................................................................................ 143
6.2.5
T0........................................................................................................................ 144
6.2.6
ZPF qSM_2....................................................................................................... 145
6.2.7
qSM_2 .......................................................................................................... 145
6.2.7.1 Construct ............................................................................................................. 145
6.2.7.2 Sample calculations ............................................................................................. 146
6.2.7.3 Analysis............................................................................................................... 147
6.3
EGM vs. SMoC ............................................................................................................... 147
6.4
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 148
7
7.1
Definition of Terms ........................................................................................................... 149

Numbering conventions................................................................................................... 149
7.2
Quinta Essentia Part 3................................................................................................... 149
7.2.1
Alpha Forms x................................................................................................... 149
7.2.2
Amplitude Spectrum............................................................................................... 149
7.2.3
Background Field ................................................................................................... 149
7.2.4
Bandwidth Ratio R.......................................................................................... 149
7.2.5
Beta Forms x ..................................................................................................... 149
7.2.6
Buckingham Theory (BPT)................................................................................. 149
7.2.7
Casimir Force FPP................................................................................................ 149
7.2.8
Change in the Number of Modes nS .................................................................. 149
7.2.9
Compton Frequency Cx ..................................................................................... 149
7.2.10
Cosmological Constant........................................................................................... 150
7.2.11
Critical Boundary ........................................................................................... 150
7.2.12
Critical Factor KC................................................................................................ 150
7.2.13
Critical Field Strengths EC and BC....................................................................... 150
7.2.14
Critical Frequency C ......................................................................................... 150
7.2.15
Critical Harmonic Operator KR H ......................................................................... 150
7.2.16
Critical Mode NC................................................................................................. 150
7.2.17
Critical Phase Variance C .................................................................................. 150
7.2.18
Critical Ratio KR ................................................................................................. 150
7.2.19
Curl ........................................................................................................................ 150
7.2.20
DC-Offsets ............................................................................................................. 150
13
7.2.21
7.2.22
7.2.23
7.2.24
7.2.25
7.2.26
7.2.27
7.2.28
7.2.29
7.2.30
7.2.31
7.2.32
7.2.33
7.2.34
7.2.35
7.2.36
7.2.37
7.2.38
7.2.39
7.2.40
7.2.41
7.2.42
7.2.43
7.2.44
7.2.45
7.2.46
7.2.47
7.2.48
7.2.49
7.2.50
7.2.51
7.2.52
7.2.53
7.2.54
7.2.55
7.2.56
7.2.57
7.2.58
7.2.59
7.2.60
7.2.61
7.2.62
7.2.63
7.2.64
7.2.65
7.2.66
7.2.67
7.2.68
7.2.69
7.2.70
7.2.71
Dimensional Analysis Techniques (DAT's) ............................................................ 151

Divergence ............................................................................................................. 151
Dominant Bandwidth.............................................................................................. 151
Electro-Gravi-Magnetics (EGM) ............................................................................ 151
Electro-Gravi-Magnetics (EGM) Spectrum............................................................. 151
Energy Density (General) ....................................................................................... 151
Engineered Metric .................................................................................................. 151
Engineered Refractive Index KEGM...................................................................... 151
Engineered Relationship Function K0(,X)....................................................... 151
Experimental Prototype (EP) .................................................................................. 151
Experimental Relationship Function K0(,X)...................................................... 151
Fourier Spectrum.................................................................................................... 151
Frequency Bandwidth PV ................................................................................ 152
Frequency Spectrum ............................................................................................... 152
Fundamental Beat Frequency r(1,r,r,M) ...................................................... 152
Fundamental Harmonic Frequency PV(1,r,M).................................................... 152
General Modelling Equations (GMEx) .................................................................... 152
General Relativity (GR).......................................................................................... 152
General Similarity Equations (GSEx) ...................................................................... 152
Gravitons g ........................................................................................................ 152
Graviton Mass-Energy Threshold mg ................................................................. 152
Group Velocity....................................................................................................... 152
Harmonic Cut-Off Frequency ........................................................................ 152
Harmonic Cut-Off Function ............................................................................ 153
Harmonic Cut-Off Mode n ................................................................................ 153
Harmonic Inflection Mode NX............................................................................. 153
Harmonic Inflection Frequency X...................................................................... 153
Harmonic Inflection Wavelength X.................................................................... 153
Harmonic Similarity Equations (HSEx)................................................................... 153
IFF ......................................................................................................................... 153
Impedance Function ............................................................................................... 153
Kinetic Spectrum.................................................................................................... 153
Mode Bandwidth .................................................................................................... 153
Mode Number (Critical Boundary Mode) n........................................................ 153
Number of Permissible Modes Nr ...................................................................... 154
Phenomena of Beats ............................................................................................... 154
Photon Mass-Energy Threshold m...................................................................... 154
Polarisable Vacuum (PV) ....................................................................................... 154
Polarisable Vacuum (PV) Beat Bandwidth .................................................. 154
Polarisable Vacuum (PV) Spectrum........................................................................ 154
Potential Spectrum.................................................................................................. 154
Poynting Vector...................................................................................................... 154
Precipitations.......................................................................................................... 154
Primary Precipitant................................................................................................. 154
Radii Calculations by Electro-Gravi-Magnetics (EGM) .......................................... 155
Range Factor St ................................................................................................. 155
Reduced Average Harmonic Similarity Equations (HSExA R) .................................. 155
Reduced Harmonic Similarity Equations (HSEx R) .................................................. 155
Refractive Index KPV........................................................................................... 155
Representation Error RError .................................................................................. 155
RMS Charge Radii (General).................................................................................. 155
14
7.2.72
7.2.73
7.2.74
7.2.75
7.2.76
7.2.77
7.2.78
7.2.79
7.2.80
7.2.81
7.2.82
7.2.83
7.2.84
7.2.85
7.2.86
7.2.87
7.2.88
7.2.89
7.2.90
7.2.91
7.2.92
7.2.93
RMS Charge Radius of the Neutron r................................................................. 155

Similarity Bandwidth S ................................................................................... 155
Spectral Energy Density 0() ............................................................................ 156
Spectral Similarity Equations (SSEx) ...................................................................... 156
Subordinate Bandwidth .......................................................................................... 156
Unit Amplitude Spectrum ....................................................................................... 156
Zero-Point-Energy (ZPE)........................................................................................ 156
Zero-Point-Field (ZPF) ........................................................................................... 156
Zero-Point-Field (ZPF) Spectrum ........................................................................... 156
Zero-Point-Field (ZPF) Beat Bandwidth ZPF ................................................... 156
Zero-Point-Field (ZPF) Beat Cut-Off Frequency ZPF....................................... 156
Zero-Point-Field (ZPF) Beat Cut-Off Mode n ZPF .............................................. 156
1st Sense Check St.............................................................................................. 156
2nd Reduction of the Harmonic Similarity Equations (HSExA R)............................... 156
2nd Sense Check St ............................................................................................. 156
3rd Sense Check St ............................................................................................. 157
4th Sense Check St.............................................................................................. 157
5th Sense Check St ............................................................................................. 157
6th Sense Check St ............................................................................................. 157
Physical Constants.................................................................................................. 157
Mathematical Constants and Symbols..................................................................... 158
Solar System Statistics............................................................................................ 158
7.3
7.3.1
Big-Bang............................................................................................................. 159
7.3.2
Black-Hole BH ................................................................................................... 159
7.3.3
Broadband Propagation .......................................................................................... 159
7.3.4
Buoyancy Point ...................................................................................................... 159
7.3.5
CMBR Temperature T0 ....................................................................................... 159
7.3.6
EGM-CMBR Temperature TU............................................................................. 159
7.3.7
EGM Flux Intensity C_J..................................................................................... 159
7.3.8
EGM Hubble constant HU ................................................................................... 159
7.3.9
Event Horizon RBH.............................................................................................. 159
7.3.10
Galactic Reference Particle GRP ......................................................................... 159
7.3.11
Gravitational Interference ....................................................................................... 159
7.3.12
Gravitational Propagation ....................................................................................... 159
7.3.13
Hubble Constant H0............................................................................................. 160
7.3.14
Narrowband Propagation ........................................................................................ 160
7.3.15
Non-Physical .......................................................................................................... 160
7.3.16
Physical.................................................................................................................. 160
7.3.17
Primordial Universe................................................................................................ 160
7.3.18
Schwarzschild-Black-Hole SBH.......................................................................... 160
7.3.19
Schwarzschild-Planck-Black-Hole SPBH............................................................ 160
7.3.20
Schwarzschild-Planck-Particle................................................................................ 160
7.3.21
Singularity.............................................................................................................. 160
7.3.22
Singularity Radius rS ........................................................................................... 160
7.3.23
Solar Mass.............................................................................................................. 160
7.3.24
Super-Massive-Black-Hole SMBH...................................................................... 161
7.3.25
Total Mass-Energy ................................................................................................. 161
7.3.26
Astronomical / Cosmological statistics ................................................................... 161
15
Glossary of Terms ............................................................................................................. 163
8.1
8.1.1
Acronyms ............................................................................................................... 163
8.1.2
Symbols in alphabetical order................................................................................. 165
8.2
8.2.1
Acronyms ............................................................................................................... 172
8.2.2
Symbols by chapter ................................................................................................ 173
8.2.3
Symbols in alphabetical order................................................................................. 177
9
Key Artefact and Equation Summary .............................................................................. 181
9.1
9.1.1
Dimensional Analysis............................................................................................. 181
9.1.1.1 KPV, K0(X) ....................................................................................................... 181
9.1.1.2 a(t).................................................................................................................... 181
9.1.2
General modelling and the critical factor ................................................................ 181
9.1.2.1 KC .................................................................................................................... 181
9.1.2.2 GME1 ............................................................................................................... 181
9.1.2.3 GME2 ............................................................................................................... 182
9.1.3
The engineered metric ............................................................................................ 182
9.1.3.1 KR .................................................................................................................... 182
9.1.3.2 K0(,X).......................................................................................................... 182
9.1.3.3 KEGM (normal matter form)............................................................................... 182
9.1.4
Amplitude and frequency spectra............................................................................ 182
9.1.4.1 CPV ................................................................................................................... 182
9.1.4.2 PV ................................................................................................................... 182
9.1.4.3 n ..................................................................................................................... 182
9.1.4.4 ...................................................................................................................... 182
9.1.4.5 .................................................................................................................... 182
9.1.5
General similarity ................................................................................................... 183
9.1.5.1 ..................................................................................................................... 183
9.1.5.2 EGM Wave Propagation ...................................................................................... 183
9.1.5.3 EGM Spectrum .................................................................................................... 183
9.1.6
Harmonic and spectral similarity ............................................................................ 183
9.1.6.1 C = 0, 90, EC, BC....................................................................................... 183
9.1.6.2 SSE4,5 ............................................................................................................... 184
9.1.6.3 DC-Offsets........................................................................................................... 184
9.1.6.4 C..................................................................................................................... 184
9.1.7
The Casimir Effect ................................................................................................. 184
9.1.7.1 NX .................................................................................................................... 184
9.1.7.2 NC .................................................................................................................... 184
9.1.7.3 X .................................................................................................................... 184
9.1.7.4 FPV ................................................................................................................... 184
9.1.7.5 r, x, Erms, Brms, 0c, , /2........................................................................... 184
9.1.8
Physical characteristics........................................................................................... 185
9.1.8.1 Photon / Graviton................................................................................................. 185
9.1.8.1.1 m ............................................................................................................... 185
9.1.8.1.2 mgg.............................................................................................................. 185
9.1.8.1.3 m .............................................................................................................. 185
9.1.8.1.4 r................................................................................................................ 185
16
9.1.8.1.4.1 Primary ................................................................................................... 185

9.1.8.1.4.2 Secondary................................................................................................ 185
9.1.8.1.5 rgg ............................................................................................................... 185
9.1.8.2 ...................................................................................................................... 185
9.1.8.2.1 Primary .......................................................................................................... 185
9.1.8.2.2 Secondary ...................................................................................................... 185
9.1.8.3 St.................................................................................................................... 186
9.1.8.4 Electron, Muon, Tau ............................................................................................ 186
9.1.8.4.1 r, r, r........................................................................................................ 186
9.1.8.4.2 ren, rn, rn.................................................................................................... 186
9.1.8.5 Proton, Neutron.................................................................................................... 186
9.1.8.5.1 .............................................................................................................. 186
9.1.8.5.2 r, r............................................................................................................ 186
9.1.8.5.3 ch............................................................................................................... 186
9.1.8.5.4 rdr................................................................................................................ 186
9.1.8.5.5 KS............................................................................................................... 187
9.1.8.5.6 b1, rX........................................................................................................... 187
9.1.8.5.7 rM .............................................................................................................. 187
9.1.8.5.8 rE............................................................................................................... 187
9.1.8.5.9 rM .............................................................................................................. 187
9.1.8.5.10 rp............................................................................................................... 187
9.1.8.6 Quark / Boson harmonics..................................................................................... 187
9.1.8.6.1 Up Quark.................................................................................................... 187
9.1.8.6.2 Electron ......................................................................................................... 187
9.1.8.7 Hydrogen Spectrum: A.................................................................................... 188
9.1.9
Theoretical propositions ......................................................................................... 188
9.1.9.1 The Planck scale: K, K, Km ........................................................................... 188
9.1.9.2 Particles ............................................................................................................... 188
9.1.9.2.1 Leptons: mL(2), mL(3), mL(5)...................................................................... 188
9.1.9.2.2 Quarks / Bosons: mQB(5), mQB(6)................................................................ 188
9.2
9.2.1
Gravitation ............................................................................................................. 189
9.2.1.1 Stg .................................................................................................................... 189
9.2.1.2 _2.................................................................................................................. 189
9.2.1.3 aEGM_ ............................................................................................................ 189
9.2.1.4 StG.................................................................................................................... 189
9.2.1.5 _3.................................................................................................................. 189
9.2.1.6 _3 .................................................................................................................. 189
9.2.1.7 G ...................................................................................................................... 189
9.2.1.8 PV(nPV,r,M)3 ................................................................................................... 189
9.2.1.9 StJ..................................................................................................................... 189
9.2.1.10
C_J1, C_J .................................................................................................. 189
9.2.1.11
n_2............................................................................................................... 190
9.2.1.12
KDepp............................................................................................................. 190
9.2.1.13
KPV ............................................................................................................... 190
9.2.1.14
TL ................................................................................................................. 190
9.2.1.15
g ................................................................................................................. 190
9.2.1.16
ngg................................................................................................................. 190
9.2.1.17
r .................................................................................................................. 190
9.2.1.18
aPV ................................................................................................................ 190
17
9.2.1.19
ag .................................................................................................................. 190
9.2.1.20
gav................................................................................................................. 191
9.2.2
Planck-Particles...................................................................................................... 191
9.2.2.1 mx..................................................................................................................... 191
9.2.2.2 x ..................................................................................................................... 191
9.2.2.3 m, S ............................................................................................................... 191
9.2.2.4 r3, M3................................................................................................................ 191
9.2.3
SBHs..................................................................................................................... 191
9.2.3.1 StBH .................................................................................................................. 191
9.2.3.2 _4.................................................................................................................. 191
9.2.3.3 rS ...................................................................................................................... 191
9.2.3.4 n_4 .................................................................................................................. 192
9.2.3.5 n_5 .................................................................................................................. 192
9.2.3.6 nBH ................................................................................................................... 192
9.2.3.7 _5.................................................................................................................. 192
9.2.3.8 BH................................................................................................................... 192
9.2.3.9 _6.................................................................................................................. 192
9.2.3.10
_7.............................................................................................................. 192
9.2.3.11
PV_1............................................................................................................. 192
9.2.3.12
ng.................................................................................................................. 192
9.2.4
Cosmology ............................................................................................................. 192
9.2.4.1 r2, M2................................................................................................................ 192
9.2.4.2 y ..................................................................................................................... 192
9.2.4.3 KU .................................................................................................................... 193
9.2.4.4 AU .................................................................................................................... 193
9.2.4.5 RU .................................................................................................................... 193
9.2.4.6 HU, HU2, HU5, |H| .............................................................................................. 193
9.2.4.7 H .................................................................................................................... 193
9.2.4.8 U, U2.............................................................................................................. 193
9.2.4.9 MU.................................................................................................................... 194
9.2.4.10
KT................................................................................................................. 194
9.2.4.11
TW ................................................................................................................ 194
9.2.4.12
StT ................................................................................................................ 194
9.2.4.13
TU, TU2, TU3, TU4, TU5 ................................................................................... 194
9.2.4.14
dTdt, dT2dt2, dT3dt3 ........................................................................................ 194
9.2.4.15
dHdt, dH2dt2................................................................................................... 195
9.2.4.16
t1, t2, t3, t4, t5.................................................................................................. 195
9.2.5
ZPF ........................................................................................................................ 195
9.2.5.1 EGM ................................................................................................................ 195
9.2.5.2 ZPF.................................................................................................................. 196
9.2.5.3 UZPF.................................................................................................................. 196
9.2.6
EGM Construct limits............................................................................................. 196
9.2.6.1 ML .................................................................................................................... 196
9.2.6.2 rL ...................................................................................................................... 196
9.2.6.3 tL ...................................................................................................................... 196
9.2.6.4 ML / rL = MEGM / REGM = tL / tEGM ..................................................................... 196
9.2.7
Particle-Physics ...................................................................................................... 196
9.2.7.1 m2 .................................................................................................................. 196
9.2.7.2 mgg2 .................................................................................................................. 196
9.2.7.3 r2 .................................................................................................................... 196
9.2.7.4 rgg2.................................................................................................................... 197
18
9.2.7.5 N ..................................................................................................................... 197

9.2.7.6 Q ..................................................................................................................... 197
9.2.7.7 Q .................................................................................................................... 197
9.2.7.8 Q2................................................................................................................... 197
9.2.7.9 tL / TL = m / m2 = Q / Q2........................................................................... 197
9.2.8
Other useful relationships ....................................................................................... 197
APPENDIX 2.A......................................................................................................................... 199
APPENDIX 2.B ......................................................................................................................... 215
APPENDIX 2.C......................................................................................................................... 217
APPENDIX 2.D......................................................................................................................... 223
Quinta Essentia Part 3 .............................................................................................................. 223
MathCad 8 Professional: calculation engine............................................................ 223

a. Computational environment ........................................................................................ 223
b. Units of measure (definitions) ..................................................................................... 223
c. Constants (definitions) ................................................................................................ 224
e. Planck characteristics (definitions) .............................................................................. 225
f.
Astronomical statistics ................................................................................................ 225
g. Other........................................................................................................................... 225
h. Arbitrary values for illustrational purposes.................................................................. 225
i.
PV / ZPF equations ..................................................................................................... 226
j.
Casimir equations........................................................................................................ 227
k. Fundamental particle equations ................................................................................... 228
l.
Particle summary matrix 3.1........................................................................................ 232
m. Particle summary matrix 3.2........................................................................................ 233
n. Particle summary matrix 3.3........................................................................................ 234
o. Particle summary matrix 3.4........................................................................................ 235
p. Similarity equations .................................................................................................... 236
q. Calculation results....................................................................................................... 237
r.
Resonant Casimir cavity design specifications (experimental)..................................... 245
MathCad 12: High precision calculation results ...................................................... 247

a. Computational environment ........................................................................................ 247
b. Particle summary matrix 3.1........................................................................................ 247
c. Particle summary matrix 3.2........................................................................................ 248
d. Particle summary matrix 3.3........................................................................................ 249
e. Particle summary matrix 3.4........................................................................................ 250
Quinta Essentia Part 4 .............................................................................................................. 253
MathCad 8 Professional.......................................................................................... 253

a. Complete simulation ................................................................................................... 253
i. Computational environment..................................................................................... 253
ii. Units of measure (definitions).................................................................................. 253
iii.
Constants (definitions) ......................................................................................... 253
iv.
Astronomical statistics ......................................................................................... 253
v. Characterisation of the gravitational spectrum.......................................................... 253
1. 1, n n_1, _1....................................................................... 253
2. g ............................................................................................................. 255
19
_1 _2 ................................................................................................. 255
_1 _3 ................................................................................................. 257
3. g PV3 .......................................................................................................... 257
4. S cUm...................................................................................................... 258
5. C_J .................................................................................................................. 258
vi.
Derivation of Planck-Particle and SBH characteristics...................................... 259
1. x, mx ............................................................................................................... 259
2. m(xh,mxmh), Um(xh,mxmh) ........................................................................ 261
3. Physicality of K .............................................................................................. 261
4. KPV @ xh....................................................................................................... 261
i. KPV = Undefined........................................................................................... 261
ii. KDepp = KPV................................................................................................... 263
5. _3.................................................................................................................. 264
6. _4.................................................................................................................. 265
7. rS ...................................................................................................................... 266
i. rS(xh) ......................................................................................................... 266
ii. rS(), rS(R) ........................................................................................... 266
iii. MBH(rS) ........................................................................................................ 267
8. r RBH............................................................................................................ 268
i. n n_4, n_5, nBH ..................................................................................... 268
ii. _5, BH ........................................................................................... 269
iii. _6, _7, PV_1 .......................................................................................... 270
9. TL ..................................................................................................................... 271
10.
g, ngg........................................................................................................... 272
11.
BHs ................................................................................................................ 273
vii.
Fundamental Cosmology...................................................................................... 275
1. H, HU .............................................................................................................. 275
i. AU, RU, HU.................................................................................................... 275
ii. H................................................................................................................. 276
iii. U................................................................................................................. 276
iv. MU................................................................................................................ 277
2. TU..................................................................................................................... 277
3. TU TU2 ......................................................................................................... 278
4. TU2 Ro, MG, HU2, U2.................................................................................... 279
5. UZPF.................................................................................................................. 281
viii. Advanced Cosmology .......................................................................................... 281
1. n_2 n_6 ...................................................................................................... 281
2. KU2 KU3 ....................................................................................................... 282
3. HU2 HU3, TU2 TU3..................................................................................... 282
4. HU3 HU4, TU3 TU4..................................................................................... 282
5. HU4 HU5, TU4 TU5..................................................................................... 282
6. HU3, HU4, HU5, TU3, TU4, TU5 ............................................................................. 283
7. Time dependent characteristics ............................................................................ 283
8. History of the Universe ........................................................................................ 292
9. ML, rL, tL, tEGM.................................................................................................. 293
10.
Radio astronomy .............................................................................................. 294
ix.
Gravitational Cosmology ..................................................................................... 295
x. Particle Cosmology.................................................................................................. 297
b. Calculation engine ...................................................................................................... 299
i.
ii.
20
ii. Standard relationships.............................................................................................. 299

iii.
Derived constants................................................................................................. 299
iv.
Base approximations / simplifications .................................................................. 300
v. SBH mass and radius ............................................................................................... 301
vi.
n ..................................................................................................................... 302
vii.
, T, ........................................................................................................ 303
viii. Gravitation........................................................................................................... 305
ix.
Flux intensity ....................................................................................................... 306
x. Photon and Graviton populations ............................................................................. 308
xi.
Hubble constant and CMBR temperature ............................................................. 309
xii.
SBH temperature ................................................................................................. 316
xiii. ZPF...................................................................................................................... 317
xiv. Cosmological limits ............................................................................................. 318
xv.
Particle Cosmology.............................................................................................. 318
MathCad 12............................................................................................................ 321

c. High precision calculation engine................................................................................ 321
ii. Astronomical statistics ............................................................................................. 321
iii.
Derived constants................................................................................................. 321
iv.
Algorithm ............................................................................................................ 321
d. Various forms of the derived constants........................................................................ 322
Bibliography 2........................................................................................................................... 323
Periodic Table of the Elements ................................................................................................. 324
Cosmological Evolution Process ............................................................................................... 325
Notes
22, 40, 50, 64, 72, 140, 158, 161-162, 164, 171-172, 176, 180, 198, 214, 216, 221222, 246, 251-252, 298, 320, 322, 327, 328
ERRATA
21
NOTES
22
1 Quinta Essentia
1.1
The aether
Among the great things which are found among us, the existence of nothing is the greatest.
Leonardo da Vinci6
1.1.1 The void
The Sun, the Earth and all the planets of our solar system float in the vast expanse of space
along with every other material object in the Universe. Our world is effortlessly, almost magically,
suspended in an equally mystical, indefinable void. It may easily be assumed that few people today
ever give a moment of thought to the question of what space actually is. To others, this question is
an obsession.
The nature of space has been the source of philosophical and scientific debate for thousands
of years. This debate began as a rational argument to substantiate the existence of nothing. Before
humanity had any experiential knowledge of space, a debate raged about whether a threedimensional volume could be completely devoid of all substance. If there was in-fact a true void,
could it even be thought to exist? Over the centuries, the void eventually gained acceptance as a
truism, but then the debate shifted to questions concerning the physical nature of nothingness. Was
the void truly nothing, or is it composed of an aethereal substance?
The question posed by philosophers throughout the ages is: how can nothing exist as part
of our reality, that is, since nothing represents a state of non-existence, it is a paradox and a
contradiction in terms. Some ancient Greek philosophers expressly opposed the existence of the
void for this reason. But the precise definition of the void at that time was considered to be a true
and complete nothingness. One interpretation of the vacuum was related to the idea of zero,
which is in many ways just as unfathomable as the concept of infinity.
The Roman poet Lucretius is well known for the phrase: ex nihilo nihil fit, meaning,
nothing comes from nothing an idea originally expressed by the Greek philosopher Empedocles
(495-435 BC). Empedocles view was that everything in our material Universe had to be born of
something else, something tangible. Something cannot be created from nothing, nor could anything
simply disappear into nothingness. To the Greek philosophers in this particular camp, everything
that is, is and forever will be, so there was no rational way to include the idea of nothing or the state
of non-existence into arguments regarding the nature of matter.
It is this overlying concept that marks the birth of what is referred to today as conservation
of energy in contemporary Physics. This means that energy can neither be created nor destroyed,
but only transformed or exchanged. Its like accounting, or balancing your bank account. Although
we all may wish that money could magically appear in our bank account, or that we could just addon an extra zero to the end of our balance, we cant. The money has to come from somewhere. In
the same way that currency is exchanged for goods and services, paid to us for the work we do, the
same is true of energy the currency of the Universe.
Leucippus (5th century BC) and his student Democritus (460-370 BC) are both referred to as
being atomists. This is because they introduced the notion that matter is composed of eternal,
indivisible, fundamental units. A pure substance, the atomists would say, could be divided and
subdivided again and again until at some point it could be divided no further. The end-point of
matter was called atomos, meaning without parts. But the philosophical and logical invention
of the atom required something special namely, a void. All of those unseen atoms that make up
matter would need some free space to move around in to rearrange themselves and form structures
within. If there were no space, then there would be no movement and no transformation of matter
that we witness in our commonplace experience. There would likewise be no cause-and-effect and
the ever-dynamic motions of the Universe would cease. The Cosmos would be frozen without time.
6
The Notebook, translated and edited by E. Macurdy, London (I954), p.6I. Leonardo da Vinci.
23
The Pythagoreans, as Aristotle wrote, believed that: It is the void which keeps things distinct,
being a separation and division of things7.
Aristotle (384-322 BC) didnt completely agree with the atomists. In-fact, it was Aristotle
himself who maintained that Nature abhors a vacuum. However, he didnt necessarily disagree
with them either, because his argument wasnt actually rooted in a denial of the void itself. The
argument now became an issue of defining terms.
When we speak of a vacuum, what do we mean? Aristotle would contend that if one tried to
create new space where there wasnt space before; matter would always immediately rush in to fill
that space. To use an example based in our own time, if one were to take a zip-sealed plastic
sandwich bag, flatten it completely to remove all the air and then zip it shut, one will find that it
isnt possible to pull the sides apart in any way that could create a new space inside. Indeed, if one
were to construct a similar experiment utilising something more rigid, like glass or metal, we know
that it is in-fact possible to create a vacuum largely free of air and matter, but the creation of that
vacuum doesnt entail that a zone of non-existence has been substituted in its place. For example,
the new vacuum between the walls of glass would still transmit light.
This point is indicative of the direction the void would take in philosophical terms. The void
was a necessity in the atomists view, but it was still impossible because a true void could never
actually be created by any natural process. Something, whatever it may be, still had to occupy the
new space that was created. But what was it, exactly, that was rushing in to fill the space if it wasnt
some form of matter? The spaces that both permeate objects and separate them from each other
must be composed of something for this line of reasoning to be compatible with experience and
observation. When a vacuum is created, it may be devoid of all matter, but according to Aristotle, it
must still be something.
It was the Hellenistic philosopher, Zeno of Citium (333-264 BC), whos teachings mark the
beginnings of Stoicism8, so named because of the Painted Porch from which he taught. Like
Aristotle, the Stoics also believed in a continuum of matter, or at least an absence of a true void in
the presence of matter. They believed that there must be some kind of substance that occupied the
space around objects, yet also completely permeated them, as if to say that all matter was imbibed
with a spirit which imparts purpose for being. They called this substance pneuma, which was
thought to be a mixture of fire and air an energising fluid.
But unlike Aristotle, whos void-substance was somewhat static and eternal, the Stoics
pneuma was dynamic and protected matter from simply dissolving away into the true void of
nothingness which they believed existed, but only surrounded or encapsulated the pneuma. It is this
concept of nothing which has its roots in what Empedocles called the aether a mysterious and
ubiquitous medium which surrounded and permeated matter. This so-called aether, supremely
rarefied and quintessential, became the so-named aetherial substance that gives form to the void.
The debate over nothingness (i.e. non-existence), became a futile endeavour beyond the
realm of empirical study or solution. However, the nature and composition of the vacuum as a real
substance called the aether would take the focus of debate evermore.
1.1.2 The platonic solids
It was Plato (427-347 BC) who derived a mathematical interpretation of the aether. Plato, in
a similar manner to the atomists, boiled down matter into its quintessential elemental constituents.
Study of Pythagorean and Euclidian mathematics quite possibly provided the inspiration for his
development of a rather poetic model of the Universe based on geometric symmetry. In his treatise
called Timaeus, Plato describes a complete theory of matter based on what he called the five
perfect solids.
7
8
Aristotle quoted in, An Introduction to Greek Philosophy, Boston, (1968), p. 75. J. Robinson.
Stoa is Greek for porch.
24
These solids represent the only perfectly symmetrical polyhedrons9 whose outer surfaces are
entirely composed of a single type of regular polygon such as an equilateral triangle, a square or a
pentagon. Other shapes, such as the hexagon, cannot form a polyhedron with a surface comprised
only of hexagons.
The first of these perfect polyhedrons is known as the tetrahedron; a three-dimensional
shape consisting of four (4) equilateral triangles connected along their edges to form a three-legged
pyramid structure. The next order of polyhedron is the octahedron; composed of two standard
four-sided pyramids sandwiched together by sharing the square base of each pyramid, forming a
diamond shape from eight (8) triangles. Even though the center of the diamond shape is a square on
the inside, the surface is entirely composed of triangles. The third solid is the hexahedron (i.e. a
simple cube). The fourth perfect solid, composed of twenty (20) equilateral triangles, is the
icosahedron. The fifth and most unique solid, the dodecahedron, is composed of twelve (12)
identical pentagons, forming a shape approximating a soccer ball.
Each of these five solids formed Platos version of what we might think of today as a
periodic table of elements which were thought to make up all material objects in the Universe10. Infact, the dodecahedron was considered so important by ancient philosophers that its existence was
kept secret from the general population11. These five elements would go on to form the basis of
Alchemy, which was practiced over the next few thousand years. Empedocles, before Plato, held
the belief that there were only four elements, not including the aether, forming the basic atomic
constituents of all matter; various concoctions of these four elements could create all objects and
substances. The four elements themselves were Earth, Air, Fire and Water.
The existence of the five Platonic solids implied that there must be an additional fifth
element of matter, called Quinta Essentia. The Quinta Essentia was the aether itself; the
substance that the heavens were made of. It was considered to be eternal, immutable and the source
of all things. This marked a rather different way of viewing the aether because it transformed the
void into the quintessential origin of all things.
The Quinta Essentia didnt simply infuse matter with spirit in the way that the pneuma was
believed to do, rather, it was considered to be both the fabric of the void and the basis of matter
itself. Plato surmised that these five elements, unlike Empedocles four elements, could split and
merge into entirely new and larger atoms and thus form different substances, whereas the four
fundamental elements of Empedocles were combined in various recipes to form substances with
unique characteristics.
In Platos model, the five elements correspond to each of the five perfect solids,
Element
Earth
Air
Fire
Water
Aether
Geometry
Hexahedron
Octahedron
Tetrahedron
Icosahedron
Dodecahedron
Plato describes how the first four elements could recombine to form new elements; however,
the dodecahedron was unique. The aether could not be broken up into more fundamental subunits or
recombined with other elements like the others could. This is due to the fact that the surfaces of the
other four solids may be further subdivided into two types of right triangles. One of these is formed
by slicing a square diagonally through its centre. The other is produced by dividing an equilateral
triangle by drawing a line from one tip through to the centre of the base, thus dividing it in half.
What makes the dodecahedron unique in this case is that it is not possible to build a pentagon from
9
Three-dimensional shapes.
Each solid represented one of the five atoms.
11
Carl Sagan, Cosmos television series.
10
25
just these two types of right triangles, as it is for the other shapes. The other elements were
malleable, whereas the aether was eternal. The Quinta Essentia thus became the fabric of the
Cosmos upon which all matter was thought to be embroidered.
Oddly enough, this kind of triangular symmetry is mirrored in the subatomic particles and
Quarks comprising the atoms as we have come to understand them today. Our contemporary atomic
model is composed of three subatomic units; Protons, Neutrons and Electrons. Moreover, the Proton
is composed of two Up and one Down Quark; whereas the Neutron is composed of one Up
and two Down Quarks.
These Quark triplicates (even the triplicate subatomic components of the atom) can be
likened to Platos sub-elemental triangles! Even though we now know that Platos conjectures were
nothing more than philosophical representations of reality, it is quite surprising that the basic tenets
of his theory display such prescience. One must wonder whether it was forethought and logic in his
arguments holding true, or whether this connection hints at a deeper order in Nature which Plato
was able to illuminate through his careful study of mathematical symmetry.
1.1.3 The laws of motion
From Roman times to the dark ages, through the middle ages and the Renaissance, the
Platonic solids formed the basis of Physics and Alchemy. The Quinta Essentia contributed to Sir
Isaac Newtons philosophical and scientific stance regarding the aether and remained a key
ingredient in the many concoctions of alchemical practice, greatly contributing to the development
of the modern Scientific Method.
In his writings12, Newton was very careful to remind his readers that he would feign no
hypotheses for what the aether could physically be, it remained the basis for his reasoning
throughout. Newton felt that the aether should remain in the realm of the occult and metaphysics,
but in Newtons time, very little distinction was made between Alchemy and science. These were
completely overlapping methods at a time when formalised science was beginning to burgeon.
In Newtons laws of motion, gravity was thought to be a force which attracted bodies to
each other in the heavens, as it does on Earth. Objects invariably fall to the Earth and it was thought
that an actual, physical force existed pulling everything to the surface. Even to this day, a colloquial
notion of what gravity is persists in our language. We continue to call gravity a force and
erroneously refer to it as though it has the ability to reach out and pull in objects from afar. Gravity
in Newtons time was thought to be transmitted instantaneously through space via the aether,
imparting a force on objects.
Even though Newton implicated the aether as the medium transmitting force, he could not
logically reconcile how the nature and behaviour of solids moving in a fluid could allow a fluidlike description of the aether, demonstrating how fluids act to impede the movements of objects.
The planets moved eternally and without resistance through the aether, so how could objects move
in a fluid without any resistance to slow their motion? If the aether was some kind of substance, it
should cause resistance to the orbital motion of planets and cause them to spiral into the Sun.
Newton writes in his work, Opticks:
p.528, Qu.28.
A dense fluid can be of no use for explaining the phenomena of Nature, the motions
of the planets and comets being better explained without it. It serves only to disturb
and retard the motions of those great bodies, and make the frame of Nature
languish; . . . so there is no evidence for its existence; and, therefore, it ought to be
rejected. . . . the main business of natural philosophy is to argue from phenomena
without feigning hypotheses, and to deduce causes from effects, till we come to the
very first cause, which certainly is not mechanical and not only to unfold the
12
Principia (1687) and Opticks (1704).

26
mechanism of the world, but chiefly to resolve these and such like questions. What is
there in places almost empty of matter, and whence is it that the Sun and planets
gravitate towards one another, without dense matter between them? Whence is it that
Nature doth nothing in vain; and whence arises all that order and beauty which we
see in the world?
Thus, Newton recognised that something occupying the spaces between objects accounted for
transmission of heat and gravitational force. Otherwise, how could one object like the Earth affect
the motions of the moon so far away with just empty space between them?
In Newtons time, this strange, disconnected cause-and-effect relationship was referred to as
action-at-a-distance, sparking another great debate in Physics which raged until Albert Einsteins
development of General Relativity (GR) approximately two hundred years later. Newtons work
however, was immune from this argument, even though it remained a point of great contention,
pestering and haunting him ceaselessly.
Newton eloquently demonstrated that simply understanding the regular, predictable
behaviour of Nature can often suffice, i.e., it is sometimes adequate to formulate a mathematical
description of Natures laws without feigning hypotheses. He formulated a mathematical structure
describing the motions of the planets without espousing a mechanical, physical manifestation of its
behaviour. If it works, so be it; thus, it became possible to discuss the aether in purely philosophical
terms without invoking it as a necessity for the laws of gravitation and mechanics.
Newtons equations have allowed us to design rockets to the moon, enabling rover missions
to Mars and made other planetary explorations of our solar system possible. It was also Newtons
principles of optics which enabled us to design the photographic equipment producing the images of
these adventures, igniting our imaginations. All of this has been possible without having to
understand the mechanics of the aether. The need for the aether evaporated, even though its
existence could be debated; the precise nature of it remained as mysterious and indefinable as ever.
1.1.4 The luminiferous aether
One of the most triumphant and influential discoveries in scientific history was James
Clerck Maxwells development of the four equations for ElectroMagnetism in 1864. Based upon
earlier work by Michael Faraday, the introduction of the laws of ElectroMagnetism transformed the
world forever. In much the same way that Newton derived the laws of motion and gravitation from
first principles, by feigning no hypotheses and an uncorrupted observation of Nature, Maxwell was
able to successfully merge the forces of Electricity and Magnetism into a system of interactions he
termed ElectroMagnetism.
Maxwells equations describe the behaviour and interaction of Electric and Magnetic fields
with matter. He was the first to demonstrate that light is an oscillating wave of intertwined Electric
and Magnetic fields. This hailed the development of Relativity and Quantum Mechanics (QM). His
equations were a monumental achievement, not only because of their elegance, or because of their
immense usefulness for technological applications, but because they verified a fundamental
connection between Electricity and Magnetism, as these were once considered to be completely
disparate phenomena.
During the latter part of the 19th century, British Physicists13 continually returned to the
notion of the luminiferous aether to assess emergent theories. This embodiment of the aether was
so-named because it was believed to represent the medium which carried light, i.e.,
ElectroMagnetic (EM) waves; thus, termed luminiferous.
During the Victorian period, technological advancements spawning the industrial revolution
contributed to the rapid development of a mechanistic world-view. British society was bearing
witness to the triumph of the machine; rapidly and drastically transforming the social and cultural
landscape. The technological developments of the age shaped the spectacles through which British
13
Those following Maxwells lead to further describe ElectroMagnetism.

27
Scientists would view the Universe, skewing the perception of theorists, causing them to
conceptualise the fabric of space in terms of cogs and wheels14. This emergent perspective gave
Physicists cause to explain ElectroMagnetism in terms of the mechanical language of the day.
Light was discovered by Maxwell to be an EM wave propagating through space. But what
did this actually mean? What were these waves of light propagating in? What were they made of?
We can easily imagine waves of light propagating through space like waves on the surface of the
ocean rolling towards the shore. However, the concept of waves implies movement through a
medium. So the question was; what substance carried these waves of light?
The aether was an attempt to provide a physical explanation for an abstract mathematical
representation of Maxwells equations for ElectroMagnetism. The form of this physical substance
was modelled after the most prevalent mechanistic imagery of the time. In our own era, some
theorists argue for an information philosophy as the basis for conceptualising elementary particle
phenomenon, so that matter itself may be conceptualised in terms of binary bits of information. The
fundamental constituent of our known Universe, according to information theory, is not really bits
of stuff, rather bytes of information15. In the information and computing age, we are naturally
tempted to create philosophical models reflecting our own zeitgeist16; in precisely the same manner
as Maxwellian Physicists in their quest for a mechanical interpretation of physical reality.
The aether provided Scientists at the time with a convenient pedagogical tool for describing
the manner in which Electric and Magnetic forces interacted. A driving desire existed to validate the
aether, unifying physical phenomena as purely mechanical movements, in-line with the late 19th
centurys view of the Universe. If the problem of the aether could be resolved, it would be a
scientific triumph rivalling all others, providing instant fame and glory for those whom resolved it.
Any mechanical proof of the aethers structure eliminates the nagging problem of action-at-adistance, which had been a source of debate since Newtons time.
The Maxwellians wanted a complete theory quieting metaphysical questions regarding
precisely how EM signals propagated and planets separated by vast distances in space could interact
with one another. Following the lead of Descartes, theorists even developed models demonstrating
how matter might be understood as a manifestation of the aether in the form of vortex rings. In
this model, atoms are conceptualised as tiny stable vortices within the fluidic aether.
But why hold on to these purely hypothetical models of space if one could successfully
predict and harness the phenomenon of ElectroMagnetism via mathematical reasoning alone? By
modelling the luminiferous aether, the classical Physicist could present a working hypothesis for
EM waves demonstrating how they mechanically propagate through the aether. Physicists at the
time wrestled with the concepts of theory and method. If the method works, is there any real
need to provide a concrete theory to explain why the method works? Is it not enough to simply
provide an elegant set of formulae which may be used to describe how Nature works, even if we
still dont understand why it works that way?
The fervour with which the Maxwellians sought to solve the structure of the aether was
largely motivated by a desire to unify Physics in its entirety. This desire remains just as strong today
as it did in Maxwells time. Born of a want to provide an all-encompassing theory utilising the
mechanical language of the Victorian era, the aether had such a manageable and useful quality that
it seemed its discovery was not only attainable, but almost within reach. The aether became the
Holy Grail for the British Maxwellians, not only to make their work on ElectroMagnetism credible,
but to also render it immune to doubt and criticism. There remained a desperate need to hold onto
the idea of the aether, whether it stemmed from a desire for personal triumph, or a sense of
obligation to uphold the essence of Maxwells theory; even more persuasive was the tantalizing hint
14
An invisible, intricate and seamlessly connected clockwork of interactions via which the
movements of objects and light travelled through space.
15
Fire in the Mind: Science, Faith and the Search for Order. Alfred A Knopf Publishers, New York
(1995). George Johnson.
16
Spirit of the time.
28
that there was a golden opportunity to finally unveil the mysterious inner structure of the Cosmos.
The concept of the aether had great philosophical value, but only in its use as a tool.
Eventually, with a greater reliance on purely mathematical approaches to the problems of
ElectroMagnetism, emphasised by the results of the Michelson-Morely experiment, the aether was
eventually abandoned. As the 19th century began to ebb away into the 20th, Einstein later explained
that; mechanics as the basis of Physics was being abandoned, almost unnoticeably, because its
adaptability to the facts presented itself finally as hopeless17.
1.1.5 Michelson and Morely
The final nail in the coffin for the luminiferous aether came in the form of an experiment
performed by Albert Michelson and Edward Morley in 188718; however, the basis for this came
decades earlier. In 1803, Thomas Young demonstrated that when light was directed at an opaque
screen with two slits, the light coming through each slit interfered with one another, forming a
pattern on the wall behind the screen. Known as the two-slit experiment, Young discovered light
to be wave-like creating peaks and troughs of interference.
The Michelson and Morely experiment was formulated on the premise that if the Earth was
moving through a fluid-like medium, we should be able to detect our movement through it. If the
aether existed in the form envisioned by the Maxwellians, the speed of light through the aether
should be relative to some ground speed of the aether itself. Michelson and Morley tested for this
by emitting two perpendicular beams of light from a single point source, reflected by mirrors back
to a single detector.
Because of Youngs pioneering two-slit experiment, Michelson and Morley knew that the
two beams would interfere indicating whether they travelled at different speeds. Taking into
account the rotation of the Earth and relative motions around the Sun, they demonstrated that no
matter what relative direction the beams of light were travelling, no interference pattern is observed
indicative of a preferred direction of the aether.
This experiment silenced the debate over the notion that a mechanical fluid-like aether filled
space, acting as the medium through which light propagated. But Michelson and Morley more
accurately proved that no preferred reference frame exists from which we can measure the
propagation of light signals. This idea became the spring-board for Einsteins Relativity theory,
where light speed is constant and everything else, including time, is observed relative to the speed
of light.
17
18
The Maxwellians, Cornell University Press, Ithaca and London, (1991). Bruce J. Hunt.
Philos. Mag. S.5, 24 (151), p.449-463 (1887). A. A. Michelson and E.W. Morley.
29
1.1.6 Space-Time
Michelson and Morley disproved the existence of the mechanical luminiferous aether
conceptualised in Maxwells era, but it did little to arrest the emergence of a contemporary version.
Einstein is, at least partially, responsible for destroying the mechanical aether of old and replacing it
with a new aether all his own. Although this time, unlike the Maxwellians, Einstein feigned no
hypotheses for what physical manifestation the aether might take. Einsteins development of
Relativity and the notion of a new aether termed curved space-time evaporated the concept that
gravity was a force mediated by the ill-defined aether of Newtons time. Einsteins equations
demonstrate that an objects motion in a gravitational field is determined by its geodesic path19.
Einstein introduced this concept to describe gravitational interactions between mass-objects,
eliminating the necessity for action-at-a-distance. Curved space-time is a geometric contrivance,
but exactly what is being curved? And if the vacuum of space is indeed a formless void, then how
may nothing have shape? GR not only invokes, but requires the existence of a medium (i.e.
manifold) capable of conveying information indicating whether the space-time a mass-object
transits is curved. On May 5th, 1920 at the University of Leiden in the Netherlands, Einstein gave an
address on the issue of the aether stating,
According to the general theory of relativity space without aether is unthinkable;
for in such space there not only would be no propagation of light, but also no
possibility of existence for standards of space and time (measuring-rods and clocks),
nor therefore any space-time intervals in the physical sense.
To Einstein, the physicality of the space-time fabric was as undeniable as it was indefinable.
He desired an accurate and complete explanation for the physical Universe, in much the same way
that the Maxwellians needed to interpret the physical meaning of ElectroMagnetism through an
understanding of the luminiferous aether. Newton, like Maxwell, feigned no hypotheses in his
explanation for why his equations were true, he only demonstrated that they were; Einstein did the
same with Relativity. However, we must not take the notion of curvature too literally, but we are
still left wrestling with the imponderable demon that is the aether.
1.1.7 The Casimir Effect
A French nautical handbook from the 1830s20 tells of the strange attraction between two
large ships in the open ocean. The optimal condition for this attraction occurs when they are
positioned side by side in moderate swell with little or no wind. If the ships drift within a distance
of 30-40 meters from each other, the handbook states that they are gradually pulled together and
their riggings entangled. To avert disaster, a small boat manned by 20-30 rowers would tow the
ships apart.
So what are we to make of this strange observation? Why is it that the two ships are drawn
together in such a way? The effect, as it so happens, has to do with boundary conditions. The
hulls of the two ships may be represented as two parallel lines in a uniform sea. The two ships
delineate the otherwise uniform surface of the ocean, which in turn divides the oceans surface into
distinct zones. Each ship establishes a physical boundary separating the region between them from
the greater environment21.
The Dutch Physicist, Sipko Boersma, noticed Causees nautical description of this strange
effect during a visit to the Amsterdam Shipping Museum in the mid 1990s and published a paper
19
i.e. the shortest temporal path between two points in a curved space-time manifold.
LAlbum du Marin, Charpentier, Nantes (1836). P.C. Causee.
21
The importance of boundary conditions cannot be overstated; they are the essential hallmark of
dynamic systems.
20
30
about it in 199622. Boersma sagaciously recognised that this nautical phenomenon observed in the
early 1800s was a real-world analogy for what is known as the Casimir Effect in QM.
Hendrik Casimir, also a Dutch Physicist, predicted a similar effect based on the rules of QM
nearly 50 years earlier. Casimirs discovery marked a key turning point in the philosophical
debate which has raged since ancient times on the true nature of the vacuum. The discovery of the
Casimir Effect provided strong evidence, in the form of a physical, measurable force that the socalled empty vacuum of space is in-fact something more resembling a plenum of energy.
The Casimir Effect is a QM manifestation of the nautical observations described in the 19th
century French naval handbook, except that in the Casimir case, the environmental conditions
affected by parallel boundaries are EM waves, propagating in an ocean of energy known as the
Quantum Vacuum (QV).
Quantum Field Theory (QFT) models the vacuum of space as being something quite
different than what most of us might think. People generally assume that the vacuum of deep space
is a true and complete void. Objects occupy a three-dimensional volume in the void and we
conceptualise space as nothing more than a matrix containing matter; once the matter is removed,
we are left with an empty space of the same volume as the matter which has been removed.
However, QFT states that if we were to take a volume of space at the surface of the Earth for
example, evacuate every last molecule of air, shield all thermal radiation so that the vacuum was at
absolute zero temperature, a vacuum of space filled with energy remains; it can never be completely
evacuated from a given volume like air. Energy will propagate throughout the volume because
the QV is composed of energy propagating in sinusoidal form and can never fully come to rest;
within QM, energy must cycle about its ground state.
The Casimir Effect occurs when two neutrally charged
conducting plates are placed in close proximity and parallel to
one another, establishing boundary conditions in the QV. In
such a configuration, an attractive force is observed between
the plates, beyond that which may be attributed to gravitational
attraction. The QV is comprised of EM wavefunctions which
may only exist between the plates if their lengths are equal to
or less than the plate separation distance r; any wave of
longer length cannot exist within the gap! For example, if r =
1(m), only the QV modes of wavelength less than 1(m)
may physically exist within that space.
As the plates are drawn closer together, an increasing number of QV modes are excluded
from existence between the plates. This implies that more Quantum-Vacuum-Energy (QVE) exists
outside the plates than in between them. This energy difference pushes the plates together with a
force inversely proportional to the plate separation distance. That is to say, as the plates get closer
together, the force pushing them together becomes greater.
It was not until 1997-8 that the Casimir Force was physically confirmed by two independent
experiments. The first measurement was performed in 1997 by Steve Lamoreaux at the University
of Washington, Seattle23. The second measurement was conducted in 1998 by Umar Mohideen and
Anushree Roy at the University of California, Riverside24. In an experiment similar to that of
Lamoreaux, Mohideen and Roy used an atomic Force Microscope capable of measuring values as
low as 10-18(N). Although the Casimir Force is miniscule at the separation distances measured,
confirmation of the Casimir Effect provided physical evidence for the existence of QVE, suggesting
that aether-like energy forms the physical basis of space-time.
22
A maritime analogy of the Casimir Effect, American J Physics, 64, p. 539 (1996). S.L. Boersma.
Demonstration of the Casimir Force in the 0.6 to 6 m Range, Phys. Rev. Lett. 78, 58 (1997). S.
K. Lamoreaux.
24
A Precision Measurement of the Casimir Force between 0.1 to 0.9 mm, Physical Review Letters,
vol.81, (no.21), APS, (1998). U. Mohideen and Anushree Roy.
23
31
1.2
Inertia
Give me a firm place to stand and I will move the earth.
Archimedes (287-212 BC)
For thousands of years the aether has been invoked as a means of explaining various
physical phenomena. However, all attempts have been relegated to the realm of speculation and
philosophical exercise. Human psychology seems to require a medium to account for the balance of
forces we experience in our lives. Birds fly by manipulating the balance of forces beneath their
wings, fish swim by manipulating the balance of forces encasing their bodies and humans walk by
manipulating the balance of forces beneath their feet. We observe force balancing everywhere; for
an object to change velocity, a push is required to overcome the balance of uniform motion and in
doing so, encounters an acceleration reaction force termed inertia. Objects in uniform motion will
remain in that state unless otherwise acted upon by an outside force25.
Newtonian gravity is analogous to inertia because objects experience the force of gravity in
free space and respond accordingly. Why do objects not experience a force when in a uniform state
of motion, but suddenly do when it changes from one uniform state to another? And what peculiar
attribute of space provides us with this ability to register the difference between them? Why does
matter resist acceleration if there is nothing in the way to impede it? The similarity between the
manner in which matter experiences gravitational and inertial forces is primarily responsible for the
development of modern Physics.
The Czech-Austrian Physicist, Ernst Mach, proposed a possible mechanism for inertial
forces and their connection to gravitation in the late 1800s, while Einstein was only in his teens and
just beginning to explore the frame of thought which would later lead to the development of
Relativity. In-fact it was Einstein himself who, in describing Machs ideas on the subject of inertia,
coined the term Machs Principle26. Machs original proposal was based upon the notion that all
matter in the Universe is homogeneously distributed, connected by a web of gravitational
interactions.
Mach reasoned that all co-ordinates in space should experience the averaged effect of
gravitational fields from all matter in the Universe. Thus, regardless of location, objects experience
gravitational resistance opposing changes in motion. Mach studied the work of Johan Christian
Andreas Doppler27 in great detail; consequently, Machs principle for the origin of inertia is
analogous to a gravitational Doppler Effect28. Objects are attracted uniformly in all directions such
that motion induces an immediate opposing force; the averaged gravitational field is compressed in
the direction of motion29.
Machs view implies that an objects motion relative to the fabric of space30 induces inertial
forces. Thus, energy input is required to counter the opposing force as it moves uniformly31. This is
problematic because objects travelling with uniform motion do not experience inertial forces. If
Machs principle were true, objects should experience inertial force at all times. However, inertia is
only experienced upon acceleration. Although Machs principle was never formally developed into
a quantitative, physical theory, a compelling aspect exists. Despite its inadequacies, Machs
conceptualisation was correct in its premise that a relationship exists between gravitational and
inertial forces.
25
Newtons first law of motion.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mach's_principle
27
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Doppler
28
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doppler_effect
29
i.e. motion induces a decompression wake within space.
30
i.e. a pan-universal gravitational matrix.
31
A natural conclusion considering the human experience and knowledge of the era.
26
32
The relationship between gravitational and inertial forces provides the basis for the
equivalence principle; a key premise of GR asserting that geometric interpretations of curved
space-time demonstrate why gravity is the same force as inertia. GR states that any diversion from
an objects geodesic path of motion in a curved space-time manifold induces an inertial reaction
force.
The most far-reaching of Einsteins theories is the concept of mass-energy equivalence,
described by E = mc2. Einstein realised this connection whilst considering inertia; energy is
required to accelerate an object or alter its geodesic path through curved space-time, implying that
the energy required to change the motion of mass is directly proportional to the mass itself. Thus, it
follows that mass and energy are equivalent mass is energy and energy is mass!
Einsteins epiphany leading to the derivation of E = mc2 was that the more energy
provided to accelerate an object, the more massive it becomes. Understanding the nature of inertia
will allow us to understand the true nature of space and matter. The equivalence principle
necessitates that if we can modify inertial force, we would also be able to manipulate gravity, giving
ourselves a firm place to stand in Archimedes challenge.
1.3
Material waves
When Louis De Broglie32 was a student at the University of Paris in the early 1920s, he
learned that mass-less Photons possess momentum and a Photons frequency was a measure of its
energy. Thus, if Photons of light possess the wave characteristic of frequency, could the Electron
also have characteristics of waves? Or greater still, could all forms of matter possess wave-like
characteristics as well? The answer, De Broglie discovered, was yes!
Three years after De Broglie derived his hypothesis it was verified experimentally by
Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer at Bell Labs. Experimental confirmation of De Broglies
hypothesis earned him the Nobel Prize in 1929. Electrons not only appeared to move in waves, they
may be considered to be waves. Subsequently, matter may be characterised by what is now termed
its De Broglie wavelength.
Note: the Quinta Essentia series extends this hypothesis by describing matter33 as a spectrum of
wavelengths, rather than a single De Broglie wavelength.
The physical attributes of wavelength and frequency are the characteristics by which we
describe energy, providing the basis for the concept of mass-energy equivalence. Thus, by
considering the fabric of space as being composed of energy, i.e. Platos fifth element Quinta
Essentia, space is the basis for all matter.
1.4
Equilibration and virtual reality
We may consider the space-time curvature induced by the presence of matter to be a

marriage of the manifold to the mass-energy introduced, constituting a system. All natural
systems energetically equilibrate with their environment; hence, the QVE of space surrounding
matter is as important as the matter it circumscribes. The reverse concept implies that the QV
adopts different states dependent upon the local matter content. Thus, it follows that the presence of
matter invokes a local boundary condition in the vacuum such that the mass-energy of the matter
present must equilibrate with the local QVE34. QVE is also referred to as vacuum energy35
32
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1929/broglie-bio.html
In terms of mass-energy density.
34
This partitioning of space becomes particularly important at the level of subatomic particles.
35
This is a casual reference commonly utilised for generalised conversation. Please refer to the
Electro-Gravi-Magnetic (EGM): Technical summary section for further information.
33
33
because the energy considered is associated with the vacuum of space and not with matter.
QM permits systems to briefly borrow vacuum energy fluctuations for the creation of
virtual particles36, followed by re-absorption of the energy back into the QV. However, the
process occurs so rapidly that we may never be able to detect them directly. One might wonder why
particles are considered virtual instead of real; since the particles cannot be detected directly, we
consider them to be theoretical37 however, they induce real and measurable effects.
The most dramatic insight to be gained by understanding the QV is that space affects matter
and matter affects space; a relationship exists between matter, space and energy which cannot be
severed. Although QVE is predicted and obliged to exist by the rules of QM, our psychological
acceptance of the QV appears to be a suspension of disbelief rather than a sincere conviction. The
broader scientific community is required to modify its collective perspective, emphasising future
research pathways in terms of systems of interactive wholes rather than disconnected entities.
1.5
QVIH
QM states that space is replete with QV fluctuations. In the early 1990s, Astrophysicist
Bernard Haisch and Physicist Alfonso Rueda applied the concept of radiation pressure to the QV. A
Poynting Vector38 is associated with each of the Photons39 within the QV; however, their chaotic
and random distribution requires that the QV does not possess net direction. Thus, in a flat spacetime manifold the QV is said to be isometric40.
Haisch and Rueda wondered what the QV might become from an accelerated reference
frame. By applying standard ElectroDynamic principles, they determined that transformation of the
QV from a stationary to an accelerated reference frame induces asymmetry; the field was no longer
random and isometric. The QV in the accelerated frame appeared to have a net Poynting Vector
associated with it. They discovered that the net Poynting Vector generated by the QV was
proportional to the magnitude of the applied acceleration; thus, the greater the applied acceleration,
the greater the QV resistance.
Haisch and Rueda surmised that upon acceleration, matter experiences an EM drag-force
against the QV, akin to radiation pressure. Objects will only be affected by the QV when it appears
to have a net direction, i.e., when it is asymmetric. The fact that the magnitude of the QV
asymmetry appeared to be acceleration-dependent implies a physical basis for the existence of
inertia. The model proposed by Haisch and Rueda is called the QV Inertia Hypothesis (QVIH).
Why is it that an asymmetry in the QV arises only during acceleration and not during
uniform motion? The QV is predicted to posses a cubic frequency distribution in a flat space-time
manifold. Thus, at low frequencies, the QVE density is minimal; however, at high frequencies the
QVE density is maximal (paralleling the cube of the frequency along the EM spectrum). This
means that the highest frequency ranges of the EM spectrum contain the most QVE, making the
36
Virtual particles are invoked to explain conservation of energy and momentum during particle
decay processes. They are also utilised to explain the Electro-Weak and Strong-Nuclear force inside
the atom by virtual particle exchange between subatomic elements. The Electro-Weak force is
generally described as resulting from a subatomic transfer of virtual Photons. Moreover, virtual
particles are utilised to plot the creation and annihilation of intermediate particles formed at
accelerator laboratories. Particles are collided at near light-speed and the resulting high-energy
subatomic debris is explained through a mapping process often requiring the use of adjunct virtual
particles. In addition, virtual particles are also utilised to describe the interaction and partitioning of
energy in these exceedingly short-lived events.
37
See: Hawking and Davies-Unruh radiation.
38
The Poynting Vector is a physical measure of the direction and power associated with EM
radiation.
39
Virtual and / or real.
40
i.e. equal in all directions.
34
energy density of free-space inconceivably energetic. In-fact, it has been estimated that the amount
of QVE contained in a coffee cup volume of empty space would be enough to boil away the Earths
oceans41,42.
Haisch and Rueda assert that the cubic frequency distribution of the QV explains why an
object does not experience inertia during uniform motion. An object moving uniformly does not
experience inertia because, regardless of velocity, ambient high-frequency QV Photons compensate
for the Doppler Effect in the trailing direction of motion43. Hence, the distribution of the QV
ensures that space-time appears flat and isometric for any object travelling in uniform motion.
Therefore, the QVIH model remains consistent with GR and the inertial-frame view of
space-time. GR states that an observer travelling in uniform motion through space-time perceives
the Universe as being flat; however, in an accelerated reference frame space-time appears to be
curved. Haisch and Ruedas classical ElectroDynamics model of inertia asserts a congruent
position; during uniform motion the QV appears symmetric. However, in an accelerated reference
frame, asymmetry44 manifests in the QV; proportional to the magnitude of the applied acceleration.
Thus, rather than the metaphysical non-intuitive terminology of GR, i.e., flat or curved spacetime, the QVIH facilitates the substitution of intuitive terminology, i.e., physically meaningful
reference to symmetrical or asymmetrical QVE distributions.
1.6
Bridging the gaps
Einstein relied upon the equivalence principle to

demonstrate that the space-time geometry of an accelerated
reference frame is equivalent to a gravitational field; the same may
be said for the QVIH. Haisch and Rueda have utilised the
equivalence principle to demonstrate the manner in which QV
asymmetry appears in an accelerated reference frame and a
reference frame held fixed in a gravitational field. In the Earths
gravitational field, an object experiences force due to local QVE
asymmetry, producing a net energy flux downwards.
QM was largely formulated several years after Einstein
developed GR and he considered the whole field to be rather
unpalatable. Einstein lacked the tools to offer any physical basis
for why inertia existed, or why matter curved space-time. The QV
had not yet been conceived at the time he was developing GR;
thus, he had no foundation from which to derive a potential physical basis for gravity and inertia,
aside from the luminiferous aether, which he believed did not exist.
QM, through its prediction of the QV, states that the energy density of the Universe is
enormous. However, when viewed through GR, the energy density of the QV should cause a
catastrophic gravitational collapse of the Universe. This creates a major dilemma for Physicists and
Astronomers; either QM or GR is somehow fundamentally flawed or incomplete, yet they have
proven themselves to be highly accurate means of representing physical systems.
41
Emerging Possibilities for Space Propulsion Breakthroughs, Interstellar Propulsion Society

Newsletter, Vol. I, No. 1, (July 1, 1995). Marc G. Millis.
42
This is the mainstream view, not the view of the EGM construct in the Quinta Essentia series
(i.e. QE3,4) where the opposite conclusion is mathematically derived. That is, QE3,4 mathematically
demonstrate that free space does not contain a near infinite amount of energy in a vanishing
volume.
43
Analogous to the negation of pressure-drag associated with motion through a Newtonian fluid.
44
i.e. anisotropy.
35
1.7
The Polarisable Vacuum
1.7.1 Blind-sighted
GR is a geometric model of gravity representing space-time as a four-dimensional manifold
of events. It has profoundly enhanced our understanding of the Universe, yielding highly accurate
predictions, yet does not explain why matter produces a gravitational field, or the specific
mechanism by which matter experiences inertial forces upon acceleration. The GR space-time
manifold is a vacuum a void. If this is indeed the case, then an obvious question arises: how can
nothing have curved four-dimensional geometry?
20th century Physics has replaced Newtonian action-at-a-distance with the equally abstract
concept of curved space-time. Physicists have largely ignored the question of why objects feel
force upon acceleration, surrendering without protest to the notion that it comes from nowhere,
content to nod vacantly in peer agreement and accept the logical contradictions of geometric
nothingness in lieu of predicting Nature. Many are so comfortable with this that they insist the
relativistic tensor mathematics is space-time substituting the abstraction for the phenomenon45.
Physicist John Wheeler is noted for his concise description of GR: matter tells space how
to curve and curved space tells matter how to move. However, does matter curving space cause
light to bend? Ask an Engineer to bend light and they wont attempt it by curving space-time; if you
want to bend light, put it through a lens!
1.7.2 Optical gravity
Bernard Haisch and Alfonso Rueda introduced a model describing matter as being
immersed-in and wholly dependent upon the QV for its existence. This fed an intuitively appealing
interpretation of space-time curvature termed the Polarisable Vacuum (PV) Approach to GR46.
Harold Puthoff first introduced the PV model in 2002, having drawn upon earlier work by Harold
Wilson, Robert Dicke and Andrei Sakharov.
The PV model is an optical interpretation of gravity because it applies optical principles to
define the topological features of space-time, otherwise represented geometrically within GR. It
attributes space-time with a variable Refractive Index KPV, not curvature. The value of KPV is
proportional to the energy density associated with a gravitational field. As light passes a massobject, it transits through regions of variable KPV and refracts (i.e. bends), in accordance with the
experimentally verified results within the GR construct.
Light is refracted as it passes from one gravitational field to another of differing strength
(i.e. energy density). When light transits from a region of low KPV to high, it slows down; causing
it to bend47. The degree to which it refracts also depends upon the angle of incidence. Sir Isaac
Newton worked extensively in this field and we owe the science of Optics to him. He studied how
lenses of differing shape and density bend light. However, its core principles are based upon Photon
exchange in the governing theory; termed, Quantum-ElectroDynamics (QED).
The PV model ascribes a value of KPV to the QV48 such that all matter generates a
gradient in the energy density of the QV surrounding it. The gradient relates to a change in KPV
acting as a space-time lens causing light to bend49. Hence, the PV model demonstrates that
substituting the metaphysical conceptualisation of space-time curvature with a physically
meaningful optical construct yields a congruent interpretation of gravity to that of GR.
45
GR is a descriptive tool, not a literal explanation of Nature.

H. E. Puthoff, Polarizable-Vacuum (PV) approach to general relativity, Found. Phys. 32, 927943 (2002).
47
A change in propagation rate induces refraction.
48
The existence of the QV was derived from QM and is essential to QED.
49
Referred to as gravitational lensing.
46
36
The key difference between interpretations is that the PV model describes the physical
manner by which space-time is curved, GR does not. However, neither GR nor the PV model
specifically addresses the precise mechanism by which matter physically polarises space-time.
Fortunately, the PV model is not required to do so because QED explains this mechanism based
upon the premise that within a volume of space-time devoid of matter, a chaotic and equally
distributed mix of virtual Electron-Positron particle pairs is said to pop into and out of existence.
1.7.3 Shaping the lens
The PV model asserts that matter polarises50 the QV into variable regions of energy density
which, in turn, generates regions of variable KPV. A well-developed precedent for the existence of
vacuum polarisation exists, based upon the generally accepted model of the Electron. The
contemporary model of the Electron stems from QED51, modelling it as a negatively charged point
core surrounded by a cloud of virtual particle pairs52, constantly emerging from and disappearing
into the QV.
The presence of the negatively charged core attracts the
virtual positive charges and repels the virtual negative charges
present in the vacuum, biasing the QV, resulting in a vacuum
gradient as it segregates clustered regions of virtual charges. In
this state the vacuum is no longer uniform it has been polarised.
The effect of an Electron on the QV is termed vacuum
polarisation and the property of charge emerges due to a change
in the QVE distribution of the surrounding space-time. Thus, if the
QV is effervescent with virtual particle pairs, we must consider its
effect on all elementary particles, not just the Electron.
From the perspective of the PV model; matter polarises the QV, forming gravitational fields
because its atomic constituents are composed of countless numbers of elementary particles, all
generating their own localised polarisations of the vacuum such that the cumulative effect results in
a large-scale, synergistic polarisation. Conceptualising the space-time manifold in terms of vacuum
polarisation yields an isomorphic representation of GR. Moreover, the PV interpretation combined
with the QVIH advances a meaningful physical explanation for why matter experiences
gravitational and inertial force, whereas GR offers very little in this regard53.
In the PV model, matter generates a polarised gradient manifesting as a change in KPV
such that gravitational and inertial force is experienced whenever the QV appears asymmetrical.
Thus, if matter is capable of polarising the QVE distribution asymmetrically, then we immediately
understand why matter generates a gravitational field.
50
i.e. enforces direction and order.

http://Physics.nist.gov/cuu/Constants/alpha.html: according to QED and the relativistic QFT of
the interaction of charged particles and Photons, an Electron may emit virtual Photons which, in
turn, may become virtual Electron-Positron pairs. The virtual Positrons are attracted to the bare
Electron whilst the virtual Electrons are repelled from it. The bare Electron is therefore screened
due to polarisation.
52
Hawking and Davies-Unruh radiation are also derived from the principle of virtual particle pair
formation.
53
Within GR, gravitational weight and inertial force are generated through a geometric manifold
defined by the geodesic paths of light in curved space-time. When an object deviates from the
geodesic topology of space-time, it experiences a force and energy input is required to affect the
deviation from the geodesic path. When an object accelerates or is held fixed in a gravitational field,
space-time appears curved and the object experiences a force. When the object moves with uniform
motion in flat space-time, or falls along the geodesic path in a curved manifold, space-time will
appear to be flat and no force will be experienced.
51
37
When the optical effects of asymmetrical energy densities are considered, it is clear how the
PV state affects the propagation of light. As light enters an area of vacuum polarisation, it is
affected by the changing KPV and arcs towards the mass-object, as if it were passing through a
lens. The curved path resulting from the changing KPV is precisely congruent to the behaviour
predicted geometrically within GR.
1.7.4 Asymmetry, equilibrium and KPV
Three important features of the PV model incorporating the QVIH are,
i.
Gravitational and inertial forces arise due to QV asymmetry.
ii.
Mass-energy equilibrates to the local QVE density.
iii.
KPV.
QV asymmetry
The QV surrounding a mass-object exists in a state of asymmetrical energy polarisation such

that material objects equilibrate by falling with gravity. QV asymmetry is the reason why constant
acceleration requires energy input and why inertia is experienced during acceleration. Energy input
is required to maintain QV asymmetry; hence, once energy input ceases, the objects motion
becomes uniform.
Mass-energy equilibration
As an object accelerates away from an observer to near light speed, it perceives an increase
in the local QVE density. From the perspective of the object, its mass-energy is invariant; however,
to the distant observer, the objects mass-energy appears to increase as it absorbs mass-energy from
the local QV environment (i.e. the object equilibrates).
KPV
KPV may be conceptualised as an observed change in energy density; the greater the QV
asymmetry, the greater the observed change. KPV has a minimum permissible value of unity,
applicable to a mass-less observer performing measurements on an object from infinity.
1.7.5 Conflux
For the PV model to be isomorphic to GR54, KPV must consider the speed of light, length
contraction, mass scaling, frequency-shifts and time dilation. KPV is demonstrated to consider
these metrics for the distant stationary observer according to,
The speed of light

Light passing from a region of lower to higher KPV slows down and is refracted to
the region of higher KPV.
Length contraction
Objects equilibrate to the local QVE density, akin to the manner in which a balloon
is affected by atmospheric pressure. Thus, an object appears to contract as it
approaches light speed because the value of KPV appears to increase as the object55
equilibrates.
54
GR is based upon the trajectories of light through curved space-time relative to an observer; thus,
light (i.e. energy) is the basis for articulating gravitational effects and all metrics descriptive of
material objects (e.g. mass, size and time) are also subject to the motion of light.
55
Its length will not seem to change from its own perspective; however, the Universe will appear to
increase in energy.
38
Mass scaling
Accelerating mass encounters inertial resistance56 due to disequilibrium between
itself and the local QVE density. Thus, it absorbs QVE57 and the value of KPV
appears to increase as the object equilibrates.
Frequency shifts
Light emitted by an object accelerating away at near light speed is measured as being
refracted by the space-time it moves through. The frequency of the light appears to
red-shift because the observer perceives the object as moving from a lower58 to
higher KPV value as the object equilibrates. The spectral shift is solely dependent
upon the relative difference between the KPV values of the observer and the object.
Time dilation
Time is a function of KPV because its value affects the propagation of light59. Thus,
an object moving from a lower to higher KPV value equilibrates and time is dilated.
We can now see how the KPV value of the QV is synonymous with the notion of curved
space-time in explaining the behaviour of objects accelerating or moving through gravitational
fields. Utilising an optical model of gravity, it is possible to understand the physical basis for the
conclusions derived within the metaphysical GR construct.
Note: a table of physical relationships involving KPV is articulated in a proceeding chapter.
56
i.e. QV asymmetry.
Hence, the objects mass appears to increase.
58
i.e. the observers local value.
59
Within Relativity, the speed of light is constant; thus, time, mass and length simultaneously
change to compensate.
57
39
NOTES
40
2 Electro-Gravi-Magnetics (EGM)
2.1
Introduction
Electricity and Magnetism, once thought to be entirely disparate entities, have been unified
into a single set of interactions termed ElectroMagnetism. Physics has long considered the creation
of an all-encompassing Theory of Everything (ToE) to be its greatest and final purpose to unify
gravity (i.e. GR) and ElectroMagnetism into a single relationship. Within GR, matter generates
space-time curvature directly affecting the propagation of EM energy and the motion of material
objects. As a beam of light transits through a gravitational field, its trajectory arcs in direct
response. The dynamic behaviour of EM energy in proximity to matter defines space-time
curvature which, in turn, defines the manner in which material objects interact with gravitational
fields.
The PV model of gravity asserts that the metaphysical concept of space-time curvature
may be replaced by an optical representation of QV polarisation. Thus, it follows that the formation
of gravitational fields are a result of QVE displacement due to the presence of matter. Recognising
that QVE is EM in composition, a fundamental relationship between matter, EM energy and gravity
is implied. This is described utilising a mathematical method termed Electro-Gravi-Magnetics
(EGM)60, developed from the application of standard engineering principles, modelling the manner
in which matter equilibrates with, and is constrained by, the local QV as a system.
2.2
Similitude
The initial premise in the development of the EGM method is the assumption that gravity
and ElectroMagnetism may be unified via QM in terms of the QV, utilising Buckingham
Theory (BPT). BPT is a well established and widely used engineering principle developed by Edgar
Buckingham in the early 1900s. BPT is applied to simplify complex systems and determine which
parameters are necessary (or unnecessary) to adequately represent it. The Greek letter denotes
the formulation of dimensionless groups describing the system.
BPT is analogous to grammar and sentence structure. In this regard, the dimensionless
groups represent the words of the sentence and the grammatical structure and choice of words are
analogous to the equation best describing the system being analysed. For example, a single event
may be articulated many ways, utilising different words or combinations of words, placed in various
order, and yet still yield an adequate description of the event. There is no right-or-wrong
sentence, only one that best describes the event being observed. One may elect to recount a single
event quite differently from another person, or rephrase the details of one event in various ways.
However, the desired result remains unchanged; that the information is communicated adequately.
The BPT formalism affords an engineer the ability to phrase the dynamics of an
Experimental Prototype (EP) in multiple ways resulting in an equation describing the system
mathematically. Syntax provides the structural framework upon which concepts are communicated.
The basic rules of syntax permit a limited number of words to be arranged into a large number of
expressions. Syntax provides structure and meaning to language so that ideas are conveyed. BPT
provides the mathematical syntax upon which an equation may be constructed. No right-or-wrong
equation exists because an engineer designs one yielding a robust depiction of the EP. Parameters
may be included or removed from the construct until a mathematical model is formulated predicting
the outcome of a specific or generalised simulation.
BPT is utilised to model the behaviour of a whole system61 without requiring precise
interactional knowledge of all components simultaneously. For example, it is unnecessary to
60
61
A method derived from a single paradigm, cross-fertilising core physical concepts.

Particularly when scaling physical relationships to the size of benchtop EPs.
41
determine the motion of every water molecule in the ocean to adequately model or predict the
movement of a wave passing through it. BPT formulations are executed within the structural
framework of Dimensional Analysis Techniques (DATs), indicating that similar systems may be
described in like terms.
An important consideration involving DATs and BPT is the rule of similitude. In order to
compare a mathematical model to a physical system, certain criteria must be satisfied. The model
must have dynamic, kinematic or geometric similarity to the real-world system (any of, or all of
these if applicable). Dynamic similarity relates forces, Kinematic similarity relates motion62
and Geometric similarity relates shape63. Once the design principles of similitude are satisfied,
the mathematical model is considered applicable to the real-world system64.
DATs and BPT bring to the research and design table, the following key elements65:
It helps to assess the reasonableness of a model and which variables it should
contain.
It reduces the number of variables and parameters to a minimum.
It reduces the number of needed experiments, on computers as well as in the
laboratory.
It provides the fundamental theory behind experiments on scale models.
It is a systematic method for the analysis of problems.
It forces you to make estimates and to understand the problem.
It helps you understand what is important and what is not.
It produces dimensionless equations with small (or large) parameters.
The famed English Physicist, Sir Geoffrey I. Taylor, masterfully demonstrated how
DATs and BPT may be applied to develop mathematical predictions. Taylor accurately predicted
the energy released by the first atomic bomb detonated outside Alamogordo, New Mexico in 1945,
utilising declassified high-speed camera images of the explosion. Taylor surmised that the five
physical factors involved in the explosion were; its energy, the radius of the shockwave, the
atmospheric pressure and density acting to containing it, and the time associated with the shockwaves expansion. These five physical terms only have three fundamental units (i.e. mass, length
and time). Therefore, only two dimensionless groupings are required to determine the energy
released.
2.3
Precepts and principles
Quinta Essentia: A Practical Guide to Space-Time Engineering (the series) specifies the
development of a modelling approach termed EGM, articulating how gravitational fields may be
described in terms of ElectroMagnetism. EGM is an engineering approach66, not a theory; it is a
tool for mathematically simulating real-world systems in order to model physical problems in GR
and QM utilising standard engineering techniques. Gravity is the result of an interaction between
matter and the space-time manifold; leading to the following precepts,
i.
An object at rest polarises the QV surrounding it.
ii.
An object at rest is in equilibrium with the QV surrounding it.
iii.
The QVE67 surrounding an object at rest is equivalent to E = mc2.
62
Synonymous with the time domain.

i.e. the topology of space-time curvature within the context of GR.
64
Refer to a standard Engineering text for worked examples of DATs and BPT.
65
Norwegian University of Science and Technology,
http://www.math.ntnu.no/~hanche/kurs/matmod/1998h/
66
It is not new Physics.
67
i.e. gravitational field energy.
63
42
iv.
The frequency distribution of the spectral energy density of the QV surrounding an

object at rest is cubic.
EGM is a mathematical modelling method considerate of standard control-systems

engineering philosophy. Control systems engineering is commonly applied to design cruise control
devices in cars and in general, any automated technology utilising feedback to maintain a steadystate. Subsequently, EGM regards material objects as being part of a matter-space-time system,
modelling the manner in which matter behaves in terms of energy exchange with its space-time
environment. EGM precepts state that the mass of any object at rest may be expressed as an
equivalent energy via E = mc2 which, in turn, may be represented as a spectrum of EM energy.
The EGM method commences by mathematically representing mass as an equivalent
localised density of wavefunction energy, contained by the QV surrounding it. Properties of Fourier
harmonics are utilised to mathematically decompile the mass-energy into a spectrum of EM
frequencies. Mass-energy may be represented through principles of similitude as demonstrated by
Sir Geoffrey I. Taylor when he modelled the energy of an atomic bomb blast in the atmosphere.
He modelled the physical parameters of the atomic blast as an action-reaction dynamic between the
energy released and the surrounding environment acting to contain it.
The QV is predicted and required by QM and QED, both dictating that virtual energy must
exist within the fabric of space-time. The term virtual is applied because it refers the nebulous
boundary between existence and non-existence68. The EGM construct represents matter as a
precisely defined spectrum of EM energy utilising Fourier techniques and models its interaction
with the QV as a dynamic system. Subsequently, the unique spectral signatures of matter are
superimposed upon the QV demonstrating that a change in Poynting Vector69 (P) results in a
gravitational effect.
2.4
Gravity
All natural systems seek to find equilibrium; this implies that the energy condensed as matter
exists in a state of equilibrium within the Universe surrounding it. Consequently, EGM asserts that
mass is relativistic because it equilibrates to the ambient energy conditions of its local environment.
The methodology developed in QE3 determines the mass-energy equilibrium point between an
object and the space-time manifold such that the metaphysical conception of curvature is reinterpreted as being a local polarisation of the QV, explicable by the superposition of EM fields,
yielding a change in the Poynting Vector P.
The gradient in P is analogous to variations in the KPV70 value of the space-time
manifold in an optical model of gravity. An optical interpretation of gravity was first suggested
approximately three hundred years ago by Sir Isaac Newton in his treatise entitled Opticks. Newton
theorised that the aether should be most dense far away from an object like the Earth, and
conversely, more subtle and rarefied nearby or within it. Two passages from Newtons Opticks
illustrate the optical model of gravity exceedingly well: [sic]
Qu. 20.
Doth not this aetherial medium in passing out of water, glass, crystal, and other
compact and dense bodies into empty spaces, grow denser and denser, by degrees, and by
that means refract the rays of light not in a point, but by bending them gradually in curved
lines? And doth not the gradual condensation of this medium extend to some distance from
the bodies, and thereby cause the inflexions of the rays of light, which pass by the edges of
dense bodies, at some distance from the bodies?
68
The origin and physical constitution of virtual energy is too complex to be describe herein and
has been omitted for brevity.
69
i.e. in the displacement domain.
70
Refer to preceding chapters.
43
Qu. 21.
Is not this medium much rarer within the dense bodies of the Sun, stars, planets and
comets, than in the empty celestial spaces between them? And in passing from them to
great distances, doth it not grow denser and denser perpetually, and thereby cause the
gravity of those great bodies towards one another, and of their parts towards the bodies;
every body endeavouring to go from the denser parts of the medium towards the rarer?
For if this medium be rarer within the Suns body than at its surface . . . and rarer there
than at the orb of Saturn, I see no reason why the increase of density should stop
anywhere, and not rather be continued through all distances from the Sun to Saturn, and
beyond. And if the elastic force of this medium be exceedingly great, it may suffice to
impel bodies from the denser parts of the medium towards the rarer, with all that power
which we call gravity.71
Newtons optical model of gravity has a contemporary equivalent known as the PV
Representation of GR a title originally coined by Physicist H.E. Puthoff in 1994, based upon an
earlier body of work introduced by Harold Wilson and Robert Dicke in the 1950s. The PV model
replaces the concept of space-time curvature with a variable KPV value induced by the
polarisation of the QV surrounding an object.
Newton wrote that a gradual change in the density of the aether curves paths of light.
Regional changes in KPV result in the refraction of light as though passing through a lens. The
EGM construct models vacuum polarisation by the superposition of mass-energy and QV spectra. A
key difference distinguishing mass-energy from QVE is that the energy contained within matter is
highly localised, whereas QVE is distributed homogeneously throughout the vast regions of freespace72.
Haisch, Rueda and Puthoff (HRP) determined that the QV spectrum obeys a cubic frequency
distribution73. However, this presents a rather formidable dilemma. This type of distribution implies
that the energy density of empty space is staggering. Calculating the total energy represented by the
HRP interpretation suggests that every cubic centimetre of empty space is so packed full of energy
that it should cause the Universe to collapse in on itself.
Because of this theoretical result, many Physicists discount the existence of the QV in cubic
frequency form, believing that something must be fundamentally wrong with the derivation, despite
the fact that it is derived utilising standard QM. However, the EGM construct does not suffer from
this ailment and emphatically rejects the assertion that an infinite quantity of energy is contained
within the vanishing volume associated with the QM derivation of the QV74.
The physical justification for this emphatic rejection spawns from the derivation of the
present Hubble constant H0 and Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR) temperature
T0 utilising the harmonic representation of fundamental particles75. H0 and T0 are measures of
Cosmological expansion since the instant of the Big-Bang. The Standard Model (SM) of
Cosmology (SMoC) determines H0 by measuring the red-shifted light from receding galaxies as
they are pulled apart by the expanding fabric of space; T0 is measured from the microwave
frequencies permeating space, representative of the residual high-energy radiation from the BigBang being stretched to the microwave frequency range by cosmic expansion.
71
Opticks. Sir Isaac Newton. Chicago, Encyclopaedia Britannica [1955, c1952] Book III, Part I
p.520-521.
72
i.e. flat space-time geometry.
73
i.e. the energy density of QV spectral modes increases to the cube of the frequency.
74
Please refer to the Technical summary section of this chapter for further information, or QE3
for rigorous mathematical verification.
75
See: the chapters titled The Natural Philosophy of Fundamental Particles and The Natural
Philosophy of the Cosmos herein or QE3,4 for further information.
44
The derivation of H0 and T0 within the EGM construct yields experimentally impressive
results, substantially beyond the abilities of the SMoC, without the vanishing volume implications
of QM; hence, the emphatic rejection asserted herein is substantiated. Applying EGM to the
energy dynamics of Hubble expansion spectrally, H0 is derived by modelling the QV spectrum of
the Primordial-Universe76 as a single high-frequency wavefunction representing the energy of the
entire Universe.
Instantaneously after the Big-Bang, the single wavefunction rapidly decomposed into a
broad spectrum of lower-frequency wavefunctions, forming localised gradients through the
condensation of mass77. Summing the energy associated with all lower-frequency wavefunctions in
the present QV yields the total energy of the Universe, equalling the total energy at an instant prior
to the Big-Bang; hence, energy is conserved and the cubic frequency distribution of the QV
spectrum predicted by HRP is preserved78.
The QV spectrum of a geometrically flat Universe is described within the EGM construct by
a cubic frequency distribution, comprised of a large number of modes such that the terminating
spectral frequency approaches zero. Hence, the infinite energy in a vanishing volume problem
associated with the QM derivation of the QV spectrum does not exist under EGM, representing a
significant correction over contemporary assertions.
Setting the QV spectrum temporarily aside, we shall now define and describe the energy
spectrum associated with matter; termed the EGM spectrum. This is a wavefunction
representation of mass-energy obeying a Fourier distribution such that the number of modes
decreases as energy density increases79 (see: QE3), implying that the energy density of free-space
approaches zero, avoiding the infinite energy in a vanishing volume problem.
Consider the action of adding a point mass to an empty Universe. This action superimposes
the EGM spectrum of the point mass onto the QV spectrum of the Universe; doing so forms the PV
spectrum80 surrounding the point mass, inducing a mode population gradient in space-time between
the point mass and the edge of the Universe. The mode population gradient modifies the KPV
value of the vacuum such that it changes at the same rate as gravitational acceleration g from the
point mass. Thus, the gradient is curved in an analogous manner to space-time within GR.
The obvious question arising from the formation of the PV spectrum is; what induces the
modal population gradient?81 . The nature of the Universe is to expand such that the energy
within it is stretched out. The process of expansion results in the bifurcation of the relatively few
high-frequency modes in proximity to the point mass, into a larger number of low-frequency modes
at the edge of the Universe. The Universe continually strives to reach its lowest energy state and
greatest stability, yet it never can; and in so doing, undergoes modal bifurcation.
A mass-object pushes the vacuum around it uphill, against the natural flux of expansion.
Mass may be modelled as doing work82 on the surrounding vacuum by curving it. This occurs
because the nature of the Universe is to expand and upon encountering resistance to its normal flux
76
i.e. instantaneously prior to the Big-Bang.

This is a mathematical representation of the spectral energy dynamic of the expansion model, not
a literal interpretation.
78
Although the cubic frequency distribution of the QV spectrum derived by HRP is physically
meaningful, their derivation implies that the energy density of the present Universe is greater than at
the time of the Big-Bang; when the spectral distribution could be defined by a relatively small
number of high-frequency (i.e. high energy) modes. Summing the many high-energy modes
comprising the HRP specification of the QV spectrum, yields an energy density value predicting
Cosmological collapse.
79
i.e. the number of modes is inversely proportional to the energy density of the space-time
manifold.
80
i.e. a quantised representation of the gravitational field.
81
i.e. why does the vacuum become polarised?
82
i.e. expending energy.
77
45
from high to low energy, the Universe pushes back as it strives to find balance (i.e. equilibrium).
Thus, the matter-Universe interaction is a dynamic mass-energy-vacuum exchange system rather
than material inertly suspended in a vast expanse of nothingness.
EGM mathematically represents matter as radiating a spectrum of conjugate EM
frequencies. However, if we consider matter to radiate a spectrum of Gravitons83, the EGM
construct may be represented in quasi-physical form84 in equilibrium with its environment as a
system, such that Gravitons emerge as a vehicle for the feedback of information between the EGM
spectrum of matter and the QV spectrum of the local space-time manifold.
EGM considers the spectral energy of a gravitational field to be equivalent to the massenergy of the object generating the field, expressible in terms of a PV spectrum analogous to spacetime curvature within GR. It models each of the conjugate EM frequencies as two populations of
conjugate Photon pairs, i.e., each population is 180 out of phase with its conjugate, consistent
with a Fourier harmonics representation of a constant function in complex form (see: QE3). A
conjugate Photon pair constitutes the definition of a Graviton within the EGM construct.
The density of Gravitons surrounding a mass-object is maximal nearby, gradually
decreasing with radial distance; thus, the greater the population density of Gravitons, the stronger
the gravitational field. These factors are consistent with the manner in which the PV spectrum is
defined via Fourier harmonics, resulting in a spectrum which increases in mode number with radial
distance from the mass-object85.
The tendency of the space-time manifold is to expand; however, the presence of matter
interrupts this movement, polarising the QV. Energy is required to alter its state to fewer modes of
higher frequency, counteracting the thermodynamic tendency of any system to move towards a state
of lowest energy and greatest stability. Subsequently, an observer held fixed within a QV gradient
senses that the mode energy is asymmetrical86 and based upon the QVIH, vacuum asymmetry
results in an apparent acceleration force on the observer, perceived as gravity.
Rather than a geometric curvature of nothingness, the manifestation of g is better
represented as back-pressure from the vacuum as mass-energy exerts its influence upon it. Anything
caught in the inward flow of space-time, so to speak, is pulled along with the current. EGM
represents this process as the superposition of two spectra, resulting in a mathematical description
of g, utilising Fourier harmonics. Thus, it may be stated that the EGM construct yields a
quantised description of gravity.
The EGM interpretation of gravity is akin to Newtons conceptualisation of optical gravity.
According to Newton, the aether was presumed to be denser farther away from a mass-object and
less dense nearby. The change (i.e. gradient) in the density of the aether causes light and the
movements of objects through it, to follow trajectories characteristic of gravitational attraction. The
increasing density of Newtons aether may be substituted with the analogous concept of increasing
mode population in the QV, proportional to the distance from a mass-object.
The denser the mass, the fewer modes it has in its PV spectrum because each mode within it
possesses higher energy (i.e. frequency). The modal bandwidth of the PV spectrum for a very dense
object is narrower than that of a less dense object. Hence, the more massive the object, the steeper
the gradient (i.e. change) in mode number between its centre of mass and the edge of the Universe,
resulting in gravitational acceleration proportional to mass87.
83
i.e. the elementary particles presumed to mediate gravitational force.

Science has yet to detect or rigorously define Gravitons; consequently, sufficient latitude exists to
interpret the Graviton in a manner suitable to the EGM construct.
85
i.e. QV mode number decreases with Graviton density.
86
i.e. higher in the direction of the centre of mass of an object and lower out in space.
87
EGM derives the Casimir Force from first principles, demonstrating that it differs depending on
the gravitational field strength of where it is measured. For example, EGM asserts that the strength
of the Casimir Force on Jupiter will be smaller than on the surface of the Moon (see: QE3).
84
46
2.5
Elementary particles
Particle-Physicists research often involves the act of smashing subatomic particles together
at near light-speed velocities and analysing the bewildering array of debris formed in the collision.
This process is commonly described as being similar to smashing two cars together and attempting
to determine how they worked by analysing the pieces. The discipline of Particle-Physics is also
referred to as High-Energy Physics (HEP). This term is also applied because the particles resulting
from such collisions are only able to exist in extremely high energy environments.
Subatomic particles often only exist as interlinked components of another greater particle
system and not as free entities in and of themselves. They often only exist when we cause them to
exist. At the instant of a particle collision, each particles total kinetic energy and thus its mass, has
been greatly amplified. However, the subatomic particle products generated in the collision may
only be measured (or even be generated in the first place) by having increased the energy of the
environment in which the parent particles are smashed together.
A Proton is composed of three Quark subunits; however, Quarks themselves are not known
to exist as free Quarks. The configuration of the Proton system acts as a boundary condition,
containing the Quarks in a composite form called the Proton. Extremely high energies are thus
required to smash Protons into their individual Quark constituents and the Quarks released in the
collision can only exist freely for an extremely brief period of time88. The energy of any object,
whether particle or otherwise, is equilibrated by the ambient energy in its local environment.
However, only when equilibrium is artificially shifted, as occurs in a high energy collision, is the
energy balance destabilised sufficiently to allow high-energy Quarks to exist autonomously for a
brief moment.
Shortly after the Big-Bang, the Universe was a soup of free Quarks in a hot and dense
environment. In the first moments after the Big-Bang, the total energy of the early Universe was
much more densely packed than it is today. These Quarks could exist freely in the early Universe
because the ambient energy density allowed them to exist in this more energetic form. When
particles are accelerated to extremely high energies in a collider, we are re-creating the dense
energy conditions of the early Universe and free particles exist for a brief period89.
EGM models the energy-density environmental equilibrium dynamics of systems, where
matter is affected by ambient conditions, by mathematically decomposing its mass-energy into an
EGM spectrum of frequencies utilising Fourier harmonics. This is a mathematical construct only,
modelling the system as a whole, not specifically intended to be taken as physically representative.
Nevertheless, the process of mathematically translating units of mass into spectral information
articulates the equilibrium between matter and the QV, yielding a natural harmonic relationship
between all subatomic particles.
Note: where appropriate, due to the principle of mass-energy equivalence and the law of
conservation of energy90, the EGM spectrum may also be referred to as the PV spectrum.
The PV spectrum is derived as a representation of mass-energy density equilibration such
that spectral characteristics differ from object to object; e.g., the Proton possesses a lower harmonic
mode population and higher harmonic cut-off91 frequency than a star [see: Fig. (2.1, 2.2)]. However,
the PV spectra of fundamental particles may be characterised by their harmonic cut-off frequency
such that they may be represented as harmonic multiples of an arbitrarily selected reference particle.
88
i.e. until energy conditions return to normal.

As the Universe continued to expand and cool, its energy density decreased, subsequently
permitting the condensation of composite particles such as the Proton and Neutron, followed by
even more complex, low-energy composites (i.e. the atom) as the energy density decreased further.
90
In terms of equilibration.
91
Spectral limit.
89
47
Based upon this harmonic principle of order, a periodic table of subatomic particles may be
formulated [see: Tab. (4.5)] mirroring the hierarchical basis upon which the chemical elements are
arranged.
Note: the harmonic pattern is derived by considering all matter to be radiators of populations of
conjugate Photon pairs92, suggesting that the quintessential building-block of all atoms, chemical
elements, molecules and material forms in the Cosmos is the Photon energy itself!
2.6
Cosmology
EGM represents a single paradigm which may be applied to precisely derive Cosmological
measurements such as H0 and93 T0. The EGM harmonic representation of fundamental particles
serves to validate and substantiate the evolutionary epochs of our Universe, as science has come to
understand them, since the time of the Big-Bang.
The Planck blackbody radiation phenomenon demonstrates that matter radiates a spectrum
of EM radiation based upon its temperature. This principle of spectral information is mirrored by
the EGM construct because the PV spectra of mass-objects are generated by Fourier harmonics.
That is to say, each PV spectrum is a mathematical decomposition of the gravitational energy of a
mass-object into its cognate spectrum of harmonic frequencies.
Wiens displacement law describes the relationship between the temperature of an object
and its blackbody radiation spectrum. Comparing hot and cold objects, we see that the blackbody
spectrum for each object type possesses identical shape; depicting peak Photon prevalence at a
specific frequency range, trailing off at the high and low spectral limits. Differences in peak
emission frequencies obey a scaling factor relationship defined by Wiens displacement law.
(Right) Blackbody radiation curves depicting spectra from
objects of varying temperature. Wiens displacement law
describes the relationship between peak emissions (in
wavelength) vs. prevalence of Photons (Y-axis) according
to temperature (T).
When we directly measure the temperature of empty space,
we are in-fact measuring the residual energy from the Big-Bang.
The temperature of empty space is approximately 2.7(K) such
that the Planck blackbody radiation wavelength is about 1(mm)
(i.e. within the microwave frequency range of the EM spectrum).
At Bell Laboratories in 1964, while working with a large horn antenna designed for Radio
Astronomy and satellite communications, Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson discovered a
ubiquitous white-noise that could not be eliminated. It was audible day and night in all directions,
falling within the microwave frequency range. What Penzias and Wilson heard with their antenna
was the radiation left over from the birth of our Universe! The discovery of T0 earned Penzias and
Wilson the Nobel Prize in 1978.
The physical detection and measurement of T0 was momentous because at the time of its
discovery, the Big-Bang model of cosmic history was merely conjecture. The idea emerged from
Hubbles observation that the Universe was apparently expanding in all directions. It was presumed
that it should be possible to trace this expansion back in time when all the matter and energy in the
Universe was packed together in a much denser form. However, in the intervening decades between
92
The majority of energy contained within a PV spectrum occurs at the spectral limit; hence, the
spectrum may be usefully approximated by a single conjugate wavefunction pair at the harmonic
cut-off frequency. See: the chapter herein titled The Natural Philosophy of Fundamental Particles
or QE3 for further information.
93
It is demonstrated that T0 may be derived from H0.
48
the time Hubble expansion was discovered and T0 was measured94, the Big-Bang model was by
no means on solid ground. The favourable pairing of prediction and observation meant that, as
strange as it may seem, our Universe must have suddenly burst into being as if from nowhere. The
Universe could no longer be considered as a timeless, steady-state Universe, but was instead
finite having a beginning (and perhaps an end).
EGM models mass-objects as being in equilibrium with the QV such that the energy state of
matter describes the energy state of the vacuum. Hence, H0 and T0 represent observational
evidence of Cosmological mass-energy equilibration. Invoking principles of similitude, H0 is
derived by relating the PV spectrum of a Planck-Particle95 to the present-day utilising the MilkyWay Galaxy as a basis for comparison. Within the EGM construct, a Planck-Particle denotes the
condition of maximum permissible energy density, representing the Universe compacted to a point.
As mass-energy density increases, the PV modal bandwidth compresses such that for a PlanckParticle, the PV spectrum converges into a single mode approaching the Planck Frequency.
Galaxies are homogeneously distributed throughout the Universe and are approximately in
the same stage of evolution. Hence, it follows that we may utilise our own Milky-Way Galaxy as
a universal reference to yield an average value of Cosmological gravitational intensity. Utilising
astronomical estimates of total galactic mass and radius, we may represent the Milky-Way as a
particle at the centre of the galaxy, termed the Galactic Reference Particle (GRP). The radiant
gravitational intensity of the GRP may be calculated from its PV spectral limit. The GRP is
representative of the total mass-energy density and vacuum equilibrium state of the Universe at the
present time96; as viewed by instrumentation within our solar system. Thus, H0 is derived by
comparing the Planck-Particle Universe at the instant of creation to the GRP; facilitated by
utilisation of the harmonic representation of fundamental particles.
T0 is derived from H0; relating the Cosmological expansion of the primordial PlanckParticle Universe to the GRP yields an expansive scaling factor KT. Subsequently, Wiens
displacement law is applied to determine a thermodynamic scaling factor TW quantifying the
manner in which Photons radiated at the instant of the Big-Bang have red-shifted to the
microwave range after Hubble time. The microwave frequency is converted to temperature by
relating KT and TW, producing a value of T0 precisely matching measurement!
The EGM harmonic representation of fundamental particles facilitates the articulation of the
Hubble constant since the instant of the Big-Bang to the present day. The resulting history of the
CMBR temperature corroborates with all epochs of cosmic evolution as predicted by the SMoC.
The theory of early cosmic inflation is reinforced and the recently measured accelerated
expansion is derived. Cosmic inflation is an epoch thought to have occurred within the first
fractions of an instant after the Big-Bang.
Note: the Cosmological inflation and accelerated expansion phenomena emerge naturally within
the EGM construct and are not presumed a priori as part of the modelling process.
Cosmic inflation was originally introduced to the SMoC as a requisite so that the BigBang theory fits observational evidence. Without this inflationary epoch, the Universe would not
exist as observed; it would be flat and featureless, with no clumps of matter and would be so small
today that the entire Universe, after billions of years, would fit on the head of a pin. However, the
EGM construct generates the inflationary epoch from first principles, derived from Particle-Physics!
94
Representing the red-shifted (i.e. stretched-out) Photons of the early Universe; the EM waves we
observe today, were once extremely high-frequency Photons moments after Cosmological creation.
Billions of years later, those Photons have become stretched by cosmic expansion to such a degree
that now they are approximately 1(mm) in wavelength.
95
Representing the Universe at the instant of the Big-Bang.
96
As one homogeneous piece of the Cosmos.
49
Scientists wondered whether there might be enough matter in the Universe to halt cosmic
expansion, causing the Universe to meet its end in a Big Crunch. However, Astronomers were
vexed to discover that the Universe is actually accelerating at a rate exceeding predictions. The
discrepancy between prediction and observation within the SMoC is so vast, that Cosmologists
invented the concepts of dark energy and dark matter to make sense of the findings. Our best
measurements of expansion are so far from the predicted value that theorists estimate 72(%) of
the Universe must be composed of dark energy and 23(%) must be dark matter, meaning that
95(%) of our Universe exists in an unknown and unobservable form!
According to observation, it is thought that a substantial portion of matter is missing
because of the peculiar manner in which galaxies rotate. Instead of rotating fastest in the centre and
slower at the periphery, the spiral arms of galaxies rotate about the central axis at the same rate as
the stars near the centre. This suggests that something must be present in undetectable halos
surrounding galaxies. Thus, dark matter has been contrived to explain why galaxies rotate
uniformly.
Similarly, dark energy has been contrived to explain why the Universe continues to expand
at an accelerated rate, despite the addition of dark matter to the SMoC. Not withstanding dark +
visible matter, the remainder of the Universe is thought to be in the form of an energy field
inducing negative pressure in the space-time manifold, counteracting gravity on a very large scale,
causing intergalactic voids of space-time to expand like giant balloons.
Even though the cosmic inflation epoch is also a contrivance introduced to fit a theory,
EGM substantiates its existence because it emerges as a natural consequence of the derivation of
H0 and T0. However, the existence of dark energy / matter must be questioned due to the fact
that the EGM method requires no contrivances in order to predict H0, T0 and Cosmological
inflation / accelerated expansion, without invoking dark matter or energy; producing results
substantially more precise than the SMoC97.
We have come full circle, from alpha to omega and back, uncovering physical proof for
what the Pythagoreans and ancient Babylonians hypothesised millennia ago. We appreciate the
stark beauty of the Laws of Cosmic Harmony which Pythagoras exhorted with such passion. We
hold substantive evidence that authenticates the philosophical beliefs of our ancient scientific
predecessors, who contemplated and understood the Cosmos to be more than a void in which
matter resides. Their Cosmos encompassed all forms in the Universe, from the miniscule to
immense, both living and inert; it was an expression of the Laws of Musical Proportion and
sympathetic affinity connecting all things.
NOTES
97
Within the EGM construct, the contribution of dark matter / energy to the Cosmological model is
shown to be < 1(%).
50
2.7
Technical summary
2.7.1 Synopsis
Applicable definitions,
Quantum Vacuum (QV): a quantum representation of the space-time manifold within GR.
Quantum-Vacuum-Energy (QVE): the spectral energy associated with the QV.
Zero-Point-Field (ZPF): the QV field associated with globally flat space-time geometry.
However, such a configuration cannot physically exist; thus, the ZPF takes the form of a
generalised reference to the QV field throughout the Quinta Essentia series (i.e. QE2-4).
Zero-Point-Energy (ZPE): the spectral energy associated with the ZPF.
Polarisable Vacuum (PV): a polarised representation of the ZPF.
Electro-Gravi-Magnetics (EGM): a theoretical relationship between EM fields and g.
We shall outline the method developed in QE2-4 to describe g in harmonised terms,

yielding new predictions and highly precise experimentally verified results beyond the Standard
Models (SMs) of Particle-Physics and Cosmology. The EGM construct derives (see: QE3):
i. A harmonic representation of gravitational fields at a mathematical point arising from
geometrically spherical objects of uniform mass-energy distribution using modified
Complex Fourier series.
ii. Characteristics of the amplitude spectrum based upon (i).
iii. Derivation of the Fundamental harmonic frequency based upon (i).
iv. Characteristics of the frequency spectrum of an implied ZPF based upon (i) and the
assumption that an EM relationship exists over a change in displacement across a
practical benchtop test volume.
The derivational procedure obeys the following hierarchy,
v. A harmonic representation of g is developed.
vi. The frequency spectrum of (v) is derived by application of Buckingham Theory
(BPT) and dimensional similarity.
vii. The ZPF energy density is related to (vi) based upon the assumption that engineered EM
changes in g may be produced across the dimensions of a practical benchtop test
volume.
viii. Spectral characteristics of the PV98 are derived based upon (vii).
ix. A description of physical modelling criteria is presented.
x. A set of sample calculations and illustrational plots are presented.
Fourier series99 may be applied to represent a periodic function as a trigonometric
summation of sine and cosine terms. It may also be applied to represent a constant function over an
arbitrary period by the same method. Since the PV model is (historically) a weak field isomorphic
approximation of GR and the frequency spectrum is postulated to range from negative to positive
infinity, it follows that Fourier series represent a useful tool by which to describe gravity.
Time domain modelling may be applied over the displacement domain of a practical
benchtop test volume by considering the relevant changes over the dimensions of that volume.
Constant functions may be expressed as a summation of trigonometric terms; subsequently, it is
convenient to model a gravitational field utilising modified Complex Fourier series according to an
odd number harmonic distribution. Hence, g may be usefully represented by the magnitude of a
periodic square wave solution as the number of waves utilised to describe it, approaches infinity,
It is demonstrated in QE3 that dimensional similarity and the equivalence principle may be
applied to represent the magnitude of an acceleration vector such that an expression for the
98
Refer to the section titled The PV Model of Gravity for a complete description.
A Fourier series representation of a constant function involves the hybridisation of amplitude and
frequency spectra (i.e. a Fourier distribution contains two embedded spectra).
99
51
frequency spectrum is derived in terms of harmonic mode. This is achieved by assuming that
ElectroMagnetically induced acceleration is dynamically, kinematically and geometrically similar
to g as constructed by Fourier series wave summation.
The gravitational field surrounding a homogeneous solid spherical mass may be
characterised by its energy density. If the magnitude of this field is directly proportional to the
mass-energy density of the object, then the field energy density of the PV may be evaluated over the
difference between successive odd frequency modes. The reason for this is due to the mathematical
properties of Fourier series for constant functions. For such cases as appears in standard texts, the
summed contribution of all even modes equals zero. Subsequently, only odd mode contributions
need be considered when modelling a constant function.
Utilising the approximate rest mass-energy density of a solid spherical object, an expression
relating the terminating harmonic cut-off mode may be derived by assuming that the equivalent
quantity of mass-energy within an object is also stored in the gravitational field surrounding it.
Subsequently, the upper boundary of the frequency spectrum, termed the harmonic cut-off
frequency, may be calculated; the derivation is based upon the compression of energy density of the
random ZPF form to one change in odd harmonic mode whilst preserving dynamic, kinematic
and geometric similarity in accordance with BPT.
The compressed random ZPF form is subsequently decompressed over the Fourier domain
(assigning structure), yielding a highly precise reciprocal harmonic representation of g;
preserving dynamic, kinematic and geometric similarity to the Newtonian, PV and GR
representations. The cross-fertilisation of the amplitude and frequency characteristics of a constant
function described by Fourier series with the ZPF spectral energy density distribution derived by
Haisch and Rueda, is a useful tool by which to determine the spectral characteristics of the PV
representation of GR (proposed by Puthoff) at the surface of the Earth (for example) by assuming,
xi. The PV physically exists as a spectrum of frequencies and wave vectors.
xii. The sum of all PV wave vectors at the surface of the Earth is coplanar with the
gravitational acceleration vector. This represents the only vector of practical experimental
consequence.
xiii. A modified Complex Fourier series representation of g is representative of the
magnitude of the resultant PV wave vector.
xiv. A physical relationship exists between Electricity, Magnetism and Gravity such that g
may be investigated and modified.
Therefore, we may summarise the solution algorithm constituting the harmonically based
EGM construct by five simple steps as follows,
xv. Apply Dimensional Analysis Techniques (DAT's), BPT and similarity principles to
combine Electricity, Magnetism and resultant EM acceleration in the form of
groupings.
xvi. Apply the equivalence principle to the groupings formed in (xv).
xvii. Apply Fourier Harmonics to the equivalence principle.
xviii. Apply ZPF Theory100 to Fourier Harmonics.
xix. Apply the PV model of gravity to the ZPF.
Within the EGM construct, the Poynting Vector P represents the propagation of energy
(i.e. conjugate Photon pairs, see: QE3), radially outwards from the centre of mass; however, g is
the result of the change in P (i.e. P) between two points in the displacement domain. This
may appear counter-intuitive since P propagates away from the centre of mass, but g is a
consequence of P not P. A P arises due to the superposition of the P field upon the ZPF.
The ZPF acts to constrain the P field, yielding g as predicted by Newtonian mechanics and GR.
100
See also: ZPF equilibrium as described in the chapter titled The Natural Philosophy of
Fundamental Particles.
52
This principle may be demonstrated by a simple example; let the value of P at positive
radial displacements from a mass-object r1 and r2 be given by the positive values P1 and P2
respectively. Hence, if r2 > r1 then P2 < P1 because P2 0 as r2 such that the
difference between P1 and P2 is negative [i.e. (P = P2 P1) < 0], indicating that g acts
towards the centre of mass and opposite to the direction of propagation of P.
P represents the propagation of spectral mass-energy equivalence in the form of
populations of conjugate Photon pairs. An equilibrium gradient in the displacement domain arises
due to the mathematical interaction between the mass-energy and ZPF spectra, equivalent to spacetime curvature under GR because the intensity of P varies congruently with g. Hence, the radial
gradient in P is analogous to variations in the Refractive Index of the space-time manifold in an
optical model of gravity.
2.7.2 The QV spectrum
Historically, the QV has been considered to be composed of a near infinite spectrum of
randomly orientated wave functions, each of specific frequency and amplitude, analogous to the
static one observes on a dead television channel. However, the EGM construct disagrees with this
historical conception as it implies the existence of a near infinite quantity of energy in a vanishing
volume (i.e. free space contains a near infinite amount of energy).
EGM asserts that the QV is more appropriately described as a finite spectrum whose wave
function population is determined by the quantity of mass-energy occupying a specific volume (i.e.
free space contains a near zero amount of energy). Subsequently, the QV spectrum may be
characterised by the following statements,
xx. It is a generalised reference to a quantum description of the space-time manifold.
xxi. In flat space-time geometries, it transforms to the ZPF spectrum.
xxii. In curved geometries (i.e. gravitational fields), it transforms to the PV spectrum.
Note: a vanishing volume containing infinite energy does not exist within the EGM construct.
2.7.3 The EGM spectrum
The EGM spectrum is a harmonic description of mass-energy represented as conjugate EM
wavefunction pairs; incrementally above = 0(Hz), tending to the Planck Frequency h and
obeying a Fourier distribution. Key generalised spectral features are,
xxiii. It is discrete and harmonically continuous h +h.
xxiv. The terminating frequency is a harmonic multiple of the fundamental (i.e. lowest freq.).
xxv. Each wavefunction represents a population of Photons such that each conjugate Photon
pair constitutes a Graviton.
xxvi. Where appropriate, due to the principle of mass-energy equivalence and the law of
conservation of energy101, it may also be referred to as the PV spectrum.
2.7.4 The ZPF spectrum
The ZPF spectrum may be partially described by its contrast to the EGM spectrum. The
EGM spectrum relates the mass of an object to the gravitational field surrounding it utilising
Fourier harmonics; hence, it is somewhat localised. However, the energy of the ZPF is dispersed
homogenously throughout the Universe.
The historical conception of the ZPF implies the existence of a near infinite quantity of
energy in a vanishing volume (i.e. free space contains a near infinite amount of energy).
101
i.e. the mass-energy within an object is energetically equivalent to the gravitational field
surrounding the object.
53
Fortunately, EGM resolves this conflict such that a vanishingly small volume of flat space-time
does not contain an infinite amount of energy. This is achieved by merging the continuous cubic
frequency characteristic of the ZPF with a discrete and finite Fourier distribution such that,
xxvii. The number of harmonic modes approaches infinity.
xxviii. The highest frequency tends to zero.
A determination of available ZPF energy is demonstrated in the chapter titled The Natural
Philosophy of the Cosmos where it is shown that (i), the average value of ZPF energy density
UZPF throughout the Universe may be stated as UZPF < 2.52 x10-13(Pa) and (ii), the gradient of
the Hubble constant in the time domain is presently positive102. Hence,
On a human scale, this translates to levels of ZPF energy according to,
xxix. < 252(yJ/mm3): where, yJ = 10-24(Joule) and mm = millimetre.
On an astronomical scale, this becomes,
xxx. < 0.252(mJ/km3): where, mJ = 10-3(Joule) and km = kilometre.
xxxi. < 7.4 x1012(YJ/pc3): where, YJ = 1024(Joule) and pc = parsec.
On a Cosmological scale, this becomes,
xxxii. < 6.6 x1041(YJ/RU3): where, RU denotes the Hubble size of the visible Universe by
the EGM method (i.e. RU 14.58 Billion Light Years).
Note: although on the human scale the quantity of ZPF energy is trivial, on the astronomical or
Cosmological scale, it becomes extremely large when approaching the dimensions of the visible
Universe.
2.7.5 The PV spectrum
The PV spectrum may be formulated by merging the EGM and ZPF spectral distributions.
Energy condensed as mass is finite; representing a small fraction of the total energy in the Universe.
The finite parameters of matter dictate the form that the mass-energy spectrum will take. The
resulting harmonic description is termed the PV spectrum.
PV spectral formation may be conceptualised by considering a Universe populated by a
singular spherical object of homogeneous mass-energy density. When such an object is added to an
empty Universe, the EGM spectrum of the object is superimposed upon the background ZPF
spectrum. Merging the EGM and ZPF spectra results in the cross-fertilisation of characteristics; the
complete mathematical derivation is contained in QE3. Descriptions of the specific mathematical
events required are as follows,
xxxiii. Integrate the HRP spectral energy density equation over the frequency domain : [see:
Eq. (3.47, 3.293)].
xxxiv. Recognise that, for any Fourier summation resulting in a constant function, only odd
harmonic modes are required due to the null summation of even modes. This is a
fundamental property of Fourier mathematics and should not be dismissed103.
xxxv. Formulate an expression for the change in energy density with respect to odd harmonics,
in terms of , utilising the integrated HRP spectral energy density equation [see: Eq.
(3.294)].
xxxvi. Substitute the harmonic frequency PV relationship [see: Eq. (3.67)] into Eq. (3.294).
xxxvii. Solving appropriately, one obtains the harmonic cut-off mode and frequency (i.e. n
and respectively). n denotes the highest harmonic mode contained in the merged
spectra (i.e. the PV spectrum) and represents the terminating spectral frequency
relative to a fundamental value (i.e. its lowest permissible magnitude).
102
103
Facilitating an explanation of the accelerated Cosmological expansion phenomenon.

Refer to any standard text for further information regarding Fourier techniques.
54
Hence, all required attributes have been derived to completely describe g in harmonic
terms. The next step is to understand how the EGM method produces a PV spectrum such that the
infinite energy dilemma of ZPF Theory (derived by contemporary QM methods), is averted. The
deductive reasoning may be articulated as follows,
xxxviii. The HRP derivation implies that the majority of ZPE exists at the spectral limit104.
xxxix. Assume that the ZPE at an arbitrary mathematical point in the space-time manifold is
constant such that the associated spectrum may be described harmonically relative to the
magnitude of some fundamental frequency at the point under consideration.
xl. The Fourier characteristics of a constant function demonstrate that only odd harmonic
modes are required for summation.
xli. Principles of equivalence and similitude imply that the highest spectral transition of odd
harmonic mode may be utilised in the representation of the total localised ZPE.
xlii. Assume that the mass-energy density of an object is equal to the spectral energy density
of the gravitational field surrounding it.
xliii. Integrating the HRP spectral energy density relationship yields the total ZPE, which may
be expressed locally as a narrow high-frequency bandwidth of equivalent energy.
Equating this result to the mass-energy density of an object yields the PV spectrum
surrounding it, preserving similitude.
Therefore, when the EGM and ZPF spectra are merged, the continuous ZPF spectrum is
compressed and equated to the Fourier distribution of the EGM spectrum such that the resulting PV
spectrum is a decompressed form of the merged spectra and the properties of its spectral limits may
be determined. This process mathematically transforms the continuous ZPF spectrum to a discrete
and finite Fourier distribution of equivalent energy. Thus, as radial displacement r at a
mathematical point from a mass-object increases,
xliv. Gravitational field strength decreases.
xlv. Spectral energy density decreases.
xlvi. The number of harmonic modes increases (i.e. bifurcation).
xlvii. Greater numbers of modes are required to be summed for energetic equivalence.
The EGM interpretation of Gravity is similar to Newtons thoughts of an optical model such
that the aether was presumed to be denser farther away. The gradient in aether density causes
light and objects to follow trajectories characteristic of GR. EGM demonstrates that the increasing
density of Newtons aether is analogous to increases in mode population in the PV spectrum.
Hence, the PV is an EM frequency spectrum obeying a Fourier distribution at displacement r
describing a mass M induced gravitational field such that,
xlviii. It denotes a polarised form of the ZPF spectrum105.
xlix. The population of spectral modes n(r,M) decreases as mass increases.
l. Maximum spectral frequency (r,M) increases as mass increases.
li. The fundamental spectral frequency PV(1,r,M) increases as mass increases.
lii. Spectral frequency bandwidth106 increases as mass increases.
Sample calculations107,
PV(1,r,M) Hz
PV(1,RE,M0) 0
PV(1,RE,MM) 0.008
(r,M) YHz
(RE,M0) 0
(RE,MM) 196
n(r,M)
n(RE,M0)
n(RE,MM) 2.4x1028
104
i.e. low frequency energy contribution is comparatively trivial.

Mass pushes the ZPF surrounding it uphill, against the natural flux of space-time manifold
expansion.
106
i.e. the difference in magnitude between the highest and lowest frequencies PV.
107
The radius of the Earth RE has been applied as a standard unit of measure for demonstration
purposes only.
105
55
PV(1,RE,ME) 0.0358 (RE,ME) 520

PV(1,RE,MJ) 0.2445 (RE,MJ) 2x103
PV(1,RE,MS) 2.4841 (RE,MS) 9x103
Table 3.17,
where, YHz = 1024 (Hz).
Variable
r
RE
M0
MM, ME, MJ, MS
n(RE,ME) 1.5x1028
n(RE,MJ) 7.6x1027
n(RE,MS) 3.5x1027
Description
Magnitude of position vector relative to the centre of mass
Radius of the Earth
Zero mass condition of free space
Mass of the Moon, Earth, Jupiter and the Sun respectively
Table 2.1,
Units
m
kg
2.7.6 The EGM, PV and ZPF spectra

The difference between the EGM, PV and ZPF spectra is that the EGM spectrum
commences incrementally above 0(Hz) and approaches the Planck Frequency. The PV spectrum
is mass specific and represents a bandwidth of the EGM spectrum commencing at a non-zero
fundamental frequency. The EGM and PV spectra follow a Fourier distribution, whereas the ZPF
spectrum possesses the same frequency bandwidth of the EGM spectrum, but does not follow a
Fourier distribution. Thus, the EGM spectrum is the polarised form of the ZPF spectrum, whilst the
PV spectrum is an object specific subset of the EGM spectrum following a Fourier distribution.
Note: the EGM spectrum is a simple, but extreme, extension of the EM spectrum.
The Casimir Effect108 demonstrates that when small distances separate two flat neutral metal
plates, Photons in the PV field with wavelengths larger than the plate separation distance are
excluded from the spatial cavity, resulting in an attractive force between the plates due to the bias in
vacuum energy across the system109. Gravity, in this regard, is analogous to a long-range Casimir
effect because EGM asserts that mass induced gravitational effects may be described by changes in
mode population across a region of space.
The EGM construct was applied in QE3 to derive the Casimir Force from first principles,
demonstrating that it differs depending upon ambient gravitational field strength! For example, the
Casimir Force will be slightly different on Earth than Jupiter or the Moon. QE3 states that,
liii. . an Earth based equivalent Casimir experiment conducted on Jupiter will exclude
fewer low frequency modes preserving higher frequency modes that simply pass
through the plates, resulting in a smaller Casimir Force. By contrast, the same
experiment conducted on the Moon will produce a larger Casimir Force.
liv. . a Casimir Experiment conducted in free space will produce an extremely small force
(tending to zero) due to the lack of initial background field pressure. Since the Casimir
Force arises from a pressure imbalance, the lack of significant ambient field pressure
between the plates110 prevents the formation of large Casimir Forces.
108
Presently, it is only experimentally confirmed to exist in gravitational fields (i.e. PV fields).

The Effect has not been physically verified in flat space-time geometries (i.e. the free-space
0gcondition).
109
i.e. the vacuum energy density is lower between the plates.
110
i.e. in and around the experimental zone.
56
2.7.8 Comparative spectra

EGM bandwidth comparisons of PV spectra associated with physical categories of objects
may be formulated and represented graphically based upon ZPF equilibria. Determination of the
ZPF equilibrium radius of subatomic particles is a sophisticated process, summarised herein by the
chapter titled The Natural Philosophy of Fundamental Particles. A complete and rigorous
derivation is presented in QE3.
Note: the ZPF equilibrium radius of astronomical bodies coincides with the mean radius (see:
QE3), representing the mathematical boundary (within EGM) delineating mass composition and the
gravitational field surrounding it.
Utilising the EGM construct, the HRP spectral energy density equation with cubic frequency
distribution [see: Eq. (3.47)] may be graphically categorised into four regions (i.e. zones), these are;
Planck-Scale energy densities, Particle-Physics, Astro-Physics and Cosmology, subject to
the following generalised characteristics [see: Fig. (2.1, 2.2)],
lv. Planck Scale energy densities111 [see: QE4]
Narrowband high-frequency spectrum.
Narrowband modal spectrum.
lvi. Particle-Physics112 [see: Tab. (2.4)]
Broadband high-frequency spectrum.
Narrowband modal spectrum.
lvii. Astro-Physics [see: Tab. (2.2)]
Moderateband113 high-frequency spectrum.
Moderateband modal spectrum.
lviii. Cosmology [see: Tab. (2.6, 2.7)]
Narrowband low-frequency spectrum.
Broadband modal spectrum.
To demonstrate these characteristics in tabular form, the PV frequency and modal
bandwidths (PV and nPV respectively) are given by,
PV(r,M) = (r,M) PV(1,r,M)
(2.1)
where, (r,M) >> PV(1,r,M) hence PV(r,M) (r,M) and:

nPV(r,M) = n(r,M) 1
(2.2)
where, n(r,M) >> 1 hence nPV(r,M) n(r,M).

Sample results,
Astronomical Object
The Moon
The Earth
Jupiter
The Sun
PV(r,M) YHz
PV(RM,MM) 403
PV(RE,ME) 520
PV(RJ,MJ) 488
PV(RS,MS) 646
Table 2.2,
nPV(r,M)
nPV(RM,MM) 8.6x1027
nPV(RE,ME) 1.5x1028
nPV(RJ,MJ) 5.0x1028
nPV(RS,MS) 1.4x1029
111
Refers to particulate representations of maximum permissible energy densities (i.e. BlackHole singularities).
112
The radial dimension r denotes the position of ZPF equilibrium (refer to The Natural
Philosophy of Fundamental Particles or QE3).
113
A generalised reference to spectral bandwidth relative to narrow and broad descriptors.
57
PV(1,r,M) Hz
PV(1,RM,MM) 0.05
PV(1,RE,ME) 0.04
PV(1,RJ,MJ) 9.8x10-3
PV(1,RS,MS) 4.8x10-3
Particle
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Electron Neutrino
Muon
Muon Neutrino
Tau
Tau Neutrino
Up Quark
Down Quark
Strange Quark
Charmed Quark
Bottom Quark
W Boson
Z Boson
Higgs Boson
Top Quark
(r,M) YHz
(RM,MM) 403
(RE,ME) 520
(RJ,MJ) 488
(RS,MS) 646
Table 2.3,
PV(r,M) YHz
PV(r,mp) 2.6172x103
PV(r,mn) 2.6246x103
PV(r,me) 5.2337x103
PV(ren,men) 5.2348x103
PV(r,m) 2.0934x104
PV(rn,mn) 2.0939x104
PV(r,m) 3.1409x104
PV(rn,mn) 3.1409x104
PV(ruq,muq) 3.6636x104
PV(rdq,mdq) 3.6636x104
PV(rsq,msq) 7.3272x104
PV(rcq,mcq) 1.0991x105
PV(rbq,mbq) 1.4654x105
PV(rW,mW) 2.5645x105
PV(rZ,mZ) 2.9309x105
PV(rH,mH) 3.2972x105
PV(rtq,mtq) 3.6636x105
Table 2.4,
PV(1,r,M) THz
PV(1,r,mp) 0.0355
PV(1,r,mn) 0.0357
PV(1,r,me) 0.8421
PV(1,ren,men) 9.3719
PV(1,r,m) 8.0751
PV(1,rn,mn) 28.6052
PV(1,r,m) 12.1584
PV(1,rn,mn) 30.3949
PV(1,ruq,muq) 61.1401
PV(1,rdq,mdq) 53.2256
PV(1,rsq,msq) 160.8502
PV(1,rcq,mcq) 266.5401
PV(1,rbq,mbq) 414.2502
PV(1,rW,mW) 875.8276
PV(1,rZ,mZ) 1.1768x103
PV(1,rH,mH) 1.4920x103
PV(1,rtq,mtq) 1.7578x103
n(r,M)
n(RM,MM) 8.6x1027
n(RE,ME) 1.5x1028
n(RJ,MJ) 5.0x1028
n(RS,MS) 1.4x1029
nPV(r,M)
nPV(r,mp) 7.3723x1016
nPV(r,mn) 7.3452x1016
nPV(r,me) 6.2154x1015
nPV(ren,men) 5.5857x1014
nPV(r,m) 2.5924x1015
nPV(rn,mn) 7.3201x1014
nPV(r,m) 2.5833x1015
nPV(rn,mn) 1.0334x1015
nPV(ruq,muq) 5.9921x1014
nPV(rdq,mdq) 6.8831x1014
nPV(rsq,msq) 4.5553x1014
nPV(rcq,mcq) 4.1235x1014
nPV(rbq,mbq) 3.5376x1014
nPV(rW,mW) 2.9281x1014
nPV(rZ,mZ) 2.4906x1014
nPV(rH,mH) 2.2100x1014
nPV(rtq,mtq) 2.0842x1014
(r,M) YHz
(r,mp) 2.6172x103
(r,mn) 2.6246x103
(r,me) 5.2337x103
(ren,men) 5.2348x103
(r,m) 2.0934x104
(rn,mn) 2.0939x104
(r,m) 3.1409x104
(rn,mn) 3.1409x104
(ruq,muq) 3.6636x104
(rdq,mdq) 3.6636x104
(rsq,msq) 7.3272x104
(rcq,mcq) 1.0991x105
(rbq,mbq) 1.4654x105
(rW,mW) 2.5645x105
(rZ,mZ) 2.9309x105
(rH,mH) 3.2972x105
(rtq,mtq) 3.6636x105
Table 2.5,
58
n(r,M)
n(r,mp) 7.3723x1016
n(r,mn) 7.3452x1016
n(r,me) 6.2154x1015
n(ren,men) 5.5857x1014
n(r,m) 2.5924x1015
n(rn,mn) 7.3201x1014
n(r,m) 2.5833x1015
n(rn,mn) 1.0334x1015
n(ruq,muq) 5.9921x1014
n(rdq,mdq) 6.8831x1014
n(rsq,msq) 4.5553x1014
n(rcq,mcq) 4.1235x1014
n(rbq,mbq) 3.5376x1014
n(rW,mW) 2.9281x1014
n(rZ,mZ) 2.4906x1014
n(rH,mH) 2.2100x1014
n(rtq,mtq) 2.0842x1014
Sample plots,
Figure 2.1 (illustrational only - not to scale),

where,
Region / Zone
Applicable Category
Gravitational Model
Space-Time Geom.
A
Cosmology
ZPF
Flat
B
Astro-Physics
PV
Curved
Table 2.6,
C
Particle-Physics
PV
Flat
D
Planck Scale
PV
Curved
On a Cosmological scale114, the ZPF upper spectral limit is influenced by the average energy
density of the present Universe. The spectral density of the ZPF remains cubic; however, the upper
spectral frequency limit is lower than it was in the early Universe. Hence, the majority of ZPE is
presently in the form of low-frequency modes, each containing a relatively small amount of energy.
The few high-frequency modes characterising the early Universe have bifurcated into a very
large bandwidth of lower-frequency modes as the Universe expanded to its present form. The total
energy of the Universe remains constant, but is spread out over a much greater volume as
Cosmological expansion continues115. It is demonstrated by derivation in QE3 and confirmed in
114
i.e. on average, with a flat space-time manifold as determined by WMAP.

The information in this paragraph should not be confused with the PV spectrum of a specific
body such as a planet, in which case, the bulk of the gravitational energy [i.e. >> 99.99(%)] occurs
at the harmonic cut-off frequency. The low frequency modes do not contribute significantly and
may be usefully neglected from most calculations. This phenomenon has been thoroughly and
rigorously explored in QE3.
115
59
QE4, that the majority proportion of the gravitational effect in a field occurs at the harmonic cut-off
frequency such that all other frequencies may be usefully neglected.
Subsequently, utilising this proportional spectral frequency characteristic in the harmonic
representation of gravitational fields by the EGM method, the bifurcation phenomenon may be
mathematically articulated by a simple derivation as follows,
Utilising from QE3,
( r , M ) n ( r , M ) . PV( 1 , r , M )
(3.73)
Note: Eq. 3.xx, 4.xx denotes reference to QE3,4 respectively.

An expression for the Spectral Energy Density, as derived by HRP [see: Eq. (3.47)], per cubic mode
population 0() / n3 may be defined according to,
0 ( r, M )
n ( r, M )
2 .h . ( r , M )
n ( r, M )
2 .h .
3
PV( 1 , r , M )
c
(2.3)
Hence, the Spectral Energy Density per cubic mode population may be written in terms of the
fundamental harmonic PV spectral frequency PV(1,r,M) as,
3
2 .h .
PV( 1 , r , M )
c
0( r , M )
(2.4)
Associating the preceding expression with the energy density of a PV field U derived in QE3,
U ( r, M )
h .
4
PV( 1 , r , M )
3
2 .c
(3.69)
yields,
3
2 .c .U ( r , M )
PV( 1 , r , M )
c . 0( r , M )
2 . PV( 1 , r , M )
(2.5)
such that: the representation of Spectral Energy Density as a function of harmonic frequency may
be written as,
0 n PV, r , M
2
4 .c .U ( r , M )
PV n PV, r , M
(2.6)
where, the frequency spectrum of the harmonised gravitational field PV is given by Eq. (3.67),
PV n PV, r , M
n PV 3 2 . c . G. M
.
. K ( r, M )
PV
r
.r
(3.67)
Therefore: by substitution,
0 1 / nPV
(2.7)
Graphing yields,
60
Figure 2.2 (illustrational only - not to scale),

where,
Region / Zone
Applicable Category
Gravitational Model
Space-Time Geom.
E
F
Planck Scale Particle-Physics
PV
PV
Curved
Flat
Table 2.7,
G
Astro-Physics
PV
Curved
H
Cosmology
ZPF
Flat
2.7.9 Characterisation of the gravitational spectrum

Note: refer to the glossary of terms if required.
The EGM equations, utilised to describe fundamental particles in harmonic terms St, are
simplified for values of Refractive Index approaching unity KPV 1. This facilitates the
representation of g utilising the PV harmonic cut-off frequency , leading to the formulation
of a generalised cubic frequency expression g PV3. It is demonstrated that the PV spectrum is
dominated by such that the magnitude of the associated gravitational Poynting Vector S
is usefully approximated by the total energy density S cUm, resulting in an expression for
EGM Flux Intensity C_J. The derivation sequence proceeds as follows,
lix. Simplification of the EGM equations.
lx. Derivation of g in terms of .
lxi. Formulation of a generalised cubic frequency expression in terms of g: g PV3.
lxii. Determination of the gravitationally dominant EGM frequency: S cUm.
lxiii. Derivation of EGM Flux Intensity C_J.
61
2.7.10 Derivation of Planck-Particle and Schwarzschild-Black-Hole characteristics

The minimum physical dimensions of Schwarzschild-Planck-Particle mass and radius is
derived, leading to the determination of the value of KPV at the event horizon of a
Schwarzschild-Planck-Black-Hole (SPBH). Consequently, the magnitude of the harmonic cut-off
frequency at the event horizon RBH of a Schwarzschild-Black-Hole (SBH) is presented,
yielding the singularity radius rS and harmonic cut-off profiles (n and as r RBH).
The minimum gravitational lifetime of matter TL is also advanced such that the value of
generalised average emission frequency per Graviton g may be calculated. These determinations
assist in the supplemental EGM interpretation with respect to the visibility of Black-Holes
(BHs). The derivation sequence proceeds as follows,
lxiv. Derivation of the minimum physical Schwarzschild-Planck-Particle mass and radius.
lxv. Derivation of the value of the KPV at the event horizon of a Schwarzschild-PlanckBlack-Hole (SPBH).
lxvi. Derivation of at the event horizon of a SPBH.
lxvii. Derivation of at the event horizon of a SBH.
lxviii. Derivation of rS.
lxix. n and profiles (as r RBH) of SBHs.
lxx. Derivation of the minimum gravitational lifetime of matter TL.
lxxi. Derivation of the average emission frequency per Graviton g.
lxxii. Why can't we observe BHs?
2.7.11 Fundamental Cosmology
The primordial and present values of the Hubble constant are derived (H and HU
respectively), leading to the determination of the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation
(CMBR) temperature TU. This facilitates the determination of the impact of Dark Matter /
Energy on HU and TU such that a generalised expression for TU in terms of HU is
formulated. An experimentally implicit derivation of the ZPF energy density threshold UZPF is
also presented. The derivation sequence proceeds as follows,
lxxiii. Derivation of the primordial and present Hubble constants H, HU.
lxxiv. Derivation of the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR) temperature TU.
lxxv. Numerical solutions for H, AU, RU, U, MU, HU and TU.
lxxvi. Determination of the impact of Dark Matter / Energy on HU and TU.
lxxvii. TU as a function of a generalised Hubble constant TU TU2.
lxxviii. Derivation of Ro, MG, HU2 and U2 from TU2.
lxxix. Experimentally implicit derivation of the ZPF energy density threshold UZPF.
2.7.12 Advanced Cosmology
A time dependent derivation of TU is performed, including its rate of change and
relationship to HU. This facilitates the articulation of the Cosmological evolution process into four
distinct periods dealing with the inflationary and early expansive phases. Subsequently, the history
of the Universe116 is developed and compared to the Standard Model (SM) of Cosmology (SMoC).
This assists in determining the Cosmological limitations of the EGM construct. The question of the
practicality of utilising conventional radio telescopes for gravitational astronomy is also addressed.
The derivation sequence proceeds as follows,
lxxx. Time dependent CMBR temperature TU2 TU3.
lxxxi. Rates of change of CMBR temperature TU3 TU4 d1,2,3TU4/dt1,2,3.
116
As defined by the EGM construct.

62
lxxxii.
lxxxiii.
lxxxiv.
lxxxv.
lxxxvi.
Rates of change of the Hubble constant d1,2H/dt1,2.

Cosmological evolution process.
History of the Universe.
EGM Cosmological construct limitations.
Are conventional radio telescopes, practical tools for gravitational astronomy?
2.7.13 Gravitational Cosmology

An engineering model is developed to explain how gravitational effects are transmitted
through space-time in terms of EGM wavefunction propagation and interference. The derivation
sequence proceeds as follows,
lxxxvii. Gravitational propagation: the mechanism for interaction.
lxxxviii. Gravitational interference: the mechanism of interaction.
2.7.14 Particle Cosmology
The following characteristics are derived utilising EGM principles:
lxxxix. The Photon and Graviton mass-energies lower limit.
xc. The Photon and Graviton Root-Mean-Square (RMS) charge radii lower limit.
xci. The Photon charge threshold.
xcii. The Photon charge upper limit.
xciii. The Photon charge lower limit.
2.8
Key point summary
Under the EGM construct, the following assertions were derived:

xciv. The EGM spectrum is a harmonic description of mass-energy represented as conjugate
EM wavefunction pairs; incrementally above = 0(Hz), tending to the Planck
Frequency h and obeying a Fourier distribution. Key generalised spectral features are,
It is discrete and harmonically continuous h +h.
The highest frequency is a harmonic multiple of the fundamental (i.e. lowest freq.).
Each wavefunction represents a population of Photons such that each conjugate
Photon pair constitutes a Graviton.
Where appropriate, due to the principle of mass-energy equivalence and the law of
conservation of energy, it may also be referred to as the PV spectrum.
xcv. The ZPF is an EM frequency spectrum referring to the QV spectrum of globally flat
space-time geometry. However, such a configuration cannot physically exist; thus, the
ZPF takes the form of a generalised reference to the QV field throughout the Quinta
Essentia series (i.e. QE2-4) such that,
The number of harmonic modes approaches infinity.
The highest frequency tends to zero.
xcvi. The PV is an EM frequency spectrum obeying a Fourier distribution at displacement r
describing a mass M induced gravitational field such that,
It denotes a polarised form of the ZPF spectrum.
The population of spectral modes n(r,M) decreases as mass increases.
Maximum spectral frequency (r,M) increases as mass increases.
The fundamental spectral frequency PV(1,r,M) increases as mass increases.
Spectral frequency bandwidth increases as mass increases.
xcvii. A vanishing volume containing infinite energy does not exist under the EGM construct.
xcviii. Although on the human scale the quantity of ZPF energy is trivial, on the astronomical or
Cosmological scale, it becomes extremely large when approaching the dimensions of the
visible Universe.
63
xcix. The EGM spectrum is a simple, but extreme, extension of the EM spectrum.
c. The ZPF equilibrium radius of astronomical bodies coincides with the mean radius (see:
QE3), representing the mathematical boundary (within EGM) delineating mass
composition and the gravitational field surrounding it.
NOTES
64
3 The PV Model of Gravity

3.1
Synopsis
The Polarisable Vacuum (PV) representation of General Relativity (GR) is applied to derive
mathematical tools facilitating the formulation of metric engineering principles utilising
ElectroMagnetic (EM) fields. An Engineering interpretation of the PV model is articulated, termed
Electro-Gravi-Magnetics (EGM), demonstrating how transformations may be applied to the ZeroPoint-Field (ZPF) to describe variations in energy density as a superposition of EM waves.
3.2
Introduction
The Polarisable Vacuum (PV) model of Gravity is an optical representation of General

Relativity (GR) such that the curvature of the space-time manifold is expressed in terms of a
Refractive Index KPV yielding,
i. The potential to supplement GR in terms of the propagation of light through an optical
medium, with a scalar theory of gravitation featuring formal analogies with Maxwell's
theory of ElectroMagnetism.
ii. The potential to unify gravitation and ElectroMagnetism in a theory of Electro-Gravity by
quantising the field with populations of conjugate Photon pairs (i.e. Gravitons as defined
within the EGM construct).
iii. The potential to provide a physical mechanism for how space-time acquires curvature in
GR, suggesting the possibility of metric engineering for spacecraft propulsion etc.
The PV model has been shown to pass five crucial tests of GR: (i) predictions of
gravitational red shift, (ii) bending of light by a star, (iii) the advance of the perihelion of Mercury
(iv), a metric representation leading to the Schwarzschild solution of GR and (v), the inclusion of
charge leads to a representation of the Reissner-Nordstrom metric.
The success of the PV representation of GR is remarkable given that it is not a geometric
model. It is based upon the polarisability of the ZPF and described by variations in permeability
0 and permittivity 0 as a function of system co-ordinates, in accordance with TH
methodology117 and classical macroscopic theory of polarisable media.
3.3
Precepts and principles
Let us consider light bending around an influential gravitational body in a vacuum. One
expects that the velocity of light at infinity118 c0 should be modified by space-time curvature to
c; hence, the value of KPV of space-time may be described such that KPV = c0 / c. Since c0
is a definition (i.e. not a measurement), we conclude that KPV > 1 for any gravitational field.
However, when measurements of c are performed utilising instrumentation in the locally
inertial reference frame, the instruments (i.e. rulers and clocks) are also modified by the
gravitational field such that the measured value of Refractive Index is always unity. Hence, one
may intelligently question; what is the value of such an approach if the determination of the
Refractive Index is always unity (i.e. KPV = 1)?
The answer may be derived by considering a distant observer119 of an appropriate Gravity
well. In such a case, the observer conceptually introduces KPV by postulating that c0 is different
in the reference frame of the Gravity well. Thus, relative to the distant observer utilising a globally
117
In the Gaussian system of units, the values of inductance and capacitance are historically derived
from geometrical units of length and time.
118
i.e. in a globally flat space-time manifold.
119
i.e. approaching infinity.
65
flat coordinate system in the local rest frame, variations in the gravitational field strength manifest
as changes in the value of Refractive Index120 (i.e. KPV > 1).
The PV model theorizes that controlling the value of KPV affects aspects of Special
Relativity (SR) such as time dilation, length contraction and relativistic mass, thereby permitting
supraluminal travel as determined by the distant observer. Subsequently, the impact of this upon
space-time provokes the Electro-Gravi-Magnetic (EGM) construct, formulated utilising standard
engineering design methodologies and principles rather than GR such that,
i.
The PV model is a tool for understanding gravitation in terms of KPV, which
determines the intensity of space-time curvature.
ii.
The ZPF provides the refractive medium (i.e. KPV) required by the PV model in a
globally flat space-time manifold121.
iii.
EGM is a tool allowing KPV to be understood in terms of spectral energy122. The
physical definition of EGM may be stated as: the modification of vacuum polarisability
by application of ElectroMagnetic (EM) fields.123
iv.
EGM relates gravitational acceleration g to locally applied EM fields via the
equivalence principle124, utilising Dimensional Analysis Techniques (DATs) and
Buckingham Theory (BPT).
v.
EGM is a discrete interpretation of classical EM field theory where the ZPF is
considered to be an EM field with a continuous spectrum of frequency modes.
vi.
EGM describes the PV as an EM field of densely packed discrete frequencies obeying a
Fourier distribution.
vii.
EGM demonstrates that the PV may be usefully represented by a superposition of EM
fields, interpreted theoretically as the local Spectral Energy Density of the vacuum state
as derived in Quantum ElectroDynamics (QED).
viii.
EGM theorizes metric engineering of local vacuum polarisability by the manipulation
of energy density via by the superposition of applied EM fields.
3.4
ZPF transformations
If the ZPF is an EM field with Lorentz invariant Spectral Energy Density125 0, existing as
a continuous cubic frequency distribution126 3, the relationship between them may be written as
follows,
0( )
2 .h .
3
c0
(3.47)
where, h denotes Plancks Constant [6.6260693 x10-34(Js)] and is in (Hz).

Relating the preceding equation to an elemental cubic volume (i.e. a box) of
homogeneous127 Photon population, the cubic wavelength transforms analogously such that 0 is
Lorentz invariant. Therefore, in all locally inertial reference frames, one expects to observe constant
0 at each harmonic frequency mode nPV. To articulate variations in the energy density of the
120
Its value may be determined by measurements of gravitational red shift by the distant observer.
The presence of gravitational fields significantly modifies the Spectral Energy Density of the
ZPF. This is rigorously explored in QE3.
122
Resulting in a well defined local representation of the PV.
123
i.e. affecting the state of the PV medium.
124
By dynamic, kinematic and geometric similarity.
125
i.e. each nPV in the field possesses a minimum energy of h/2.
126
Distinct from the discrete PV spectrum derived in QE3 utilising Eq. (3.47).
127
Inferring a constant g environment.
121
66
ZPF, nPV transforms128 by wavefunction superposition such that 0 remains Lorentz

invariant129.
Therefore, given that the PV model passes several crucial tests of GR utilising KPV, it
follows that the EGM construct also passes these tests because rulers and clocks depend upon the
local value of 0 (by wavefunction superposition within the EGM construct), just as they depend
upon KPV in the PV model. Hence, it is conjectured that the presence of matter or energy results
in discrete variations in the spectrum, thereby breaking the symmetry of the ZPF ground state
resulting in gravitational effects via the equivalence principle described by similitude techniques.
3.5
PV transformations
The historical derivation of the PV model exhibits isomorphism to GR in weak field

approximation. By comparison, the similarities between EGM and the PV model demonstrate that
EGM is also isomorphic to GR in the weak field. However, differences exist between the two
representations, primarily due to the introduction of a superposition of fields, facilitating the
formulation of engineering tools which may be utilised in practical applications.
Within the EGM construct, KPV is a function of 0 by wavefunction superposition at
each point in a gravitational field. EGM supports the conjecture of the PV model such that
measurements by rulers and clocks depend upon KPV of the medium, by applying
transformations to the ZPF. Hence, utilising the weak field approximation Eq. (3.55) or the
assigned form of the Depp solution130 Eq. (4.106), a PV transformation table for application to
metric engineering effects may be formulated utilising,
2.
K PV( r , M ) e
G .M
r .c 0
(3.55)
1
K Depp ( r , M )
1
2 .G.M
r .c 0
(4.106)
For weak field applications, it may be proven by numerical evaluation131 that Eq. (4.106) is
usefully approximated by Eq. (3.55) such that,
K PV( r , M )
K PV( r , M )
K Depp ( r , M )
K Depp ( r , M )
(4.110)
where, r and M denote the magnitude of the position vector from the centre of mass of the
object to the observer and object mass respectively.
Note:
For strong fields, KPV << KDepp2 and KDepp2 [i.e. Eq. (4.106)] must be applied. Whilst
KDepp2 is valid for all gravitational field strengths compliant with the Schwarzschild limit,
the exponential form of Refractive Index KPV [i.e. Eq. (3.55)] is only valid in the weak
field.
It is the preference of the primary author, for no reason other than scientific respect, to
apply the historically original weak field approximation of Refractive Index KPV derived
by Puthoff et. Al., throughout the Quinta Essentia series (i.e. QE2-4); where appropriate.
128
It is demonstrated in QE3 that nPV is also a function of coordinates.

Quantised within the applied boundary conditions.
130
The assigned form of the Schwarzschild solution specified in QE4 for purposes of convenience
with application to Eq (3.67), from the original derivation by Depp et. Al.
131
Refer to QE4.
129
67
A transformation table articulating the weak field exponential approximation132 of the PV

Representation of GR may be generated as follows133,
Physical Constant
Velocity of light
Planck
Dirac134
Gravitation
Permeability
Permittivity
Impedance
Unit of Measure135
Mass (m)
Length (r)
Time (t)
Energy (E)
Planck Measure136
Mass (mh)
Length (h)
Time (th)
Energy (Eh)
Relative Measure137
Mass
Length
Time
Energy
PV Representation of GR
c(KPV) = KPV-1c0
h(KPV) = h0 = h
(KPV) = 0 =
G(KPV) = G0 = G
(KPV) = KPV0
(KPV) = KPV0
Z(KPV) = Z0 = (0/0)
m(KPV) = KPV3/2m0
r(KPV) = KPV-r0
t(KPV) = KPVt0
E(KPV) = KPV-E0
mh(KPV) = KPV-mh_0
h(KPV) = KPV3/2h_0
th(KPV) = KPV5/2th_0
Eh(KPV) = KPV-5/2Eh_0
m(KPV)/mh(KPV) = KPV2(m0/mh_0)
r(KPV)/h(KPV) = KPV-2(r0/h_0)
t(KPV)/th(KPV) = KPV-2(t0/th_0)
E(KPV)/Eh(KPV) = KPV2(E0/Eh_0)
Table138 2.8,
where, Eh = mhc02 and,

th
G.h
5
c0
mh
(4.16)
h .c 0
G
(4.18)
G.h
3
c0
(4.19)
Hence, the preceding table permits Engineers (in principle) to design and develop new
technologies within the EGM construct, to affect the PV medium controlling relative polarisability
(i.e. KPV, KDepp2), at any point in a gravitational field by the superposition of applied EM
wavefunctions.
Note: to apply the preceding table to strong fields, KPV must be replaced by the assigned form of
the Depp Schwarzschild solution (i.e. KDepp2).
132
i.e. the historically original form derived by Puthoff et. Al.

The subscript 0 relates to values in a globally flat space-time manifold. The non-subscripted
parameters of , and Z do not refer to the classical representation of relative permeability,
permittivity and impedance (i.e. they are generalised references to the constants only).
134
Where, denotes Diracs Constant (i.e. h / 2).
135
PV transformations at the physical scale (i.e. rulers and clocks).
136
PV transformations at the Planck scale.
137
This demonstrates the consistency of relative measures of the PV model (i.e. the relationship
between the physical and Planck scales).
138
By Desiato et. Al.
133
68
3.6
The Schwarzschild solution
3.6.1 Special note

i.
ii.
This section is based upon formalisms by Joseph G. Depp.

All mathematical statements herein were formulated utilising MathCad 8 Professional
and appear in standard product notation. It is a MathCad computational environmental
requirement to specify all derivatives utilising full differential form. However, the
notation utilised within this section refers to partial derivatives where appropriate (i.e.
dKPV KPV).
3.6.2 Abstract
The PV model is scrutinised for mathematical equivalence to the Schwarzschild GR
solution. An alternative is proposed such that the resulting Lagrangian Density and equation of
motion are presented for further investigation.
3.6.3 Introduction
In 1957, Dicke et. Al. published an oft-cited paper139 investigating the possibility that GR
could be derived from field theory. The form of the Lagrangian Density LD for the Refractive
Index was taken as,
L D K PV
K L.F K PV . K PV
K PV d
. K
PV
c 0 dt
(2.8)
where, KPV is a generalised reference140 to Refractive Index, KL and F(KPV) represent a

constant and scalar function respectively.
Dicke et. Al. formalised a solution such that F(KPV) 1/KPV, whilst Puthoff et. Al.
investigated F(KPV) 1/KPV2. Herein, it is concluded that the form F(KPV) 1/KPV4 satisfies
the Schwarzschild solution for congruence with GR.
3.6.4 KPV
The development of the Schwarzschild metric is found in many introductory texts to GR141.
The generalised spherically symmetric, time-independent metric line element may be written
according to,
ds
A ( r ) . c 0 .dt
B( r ) .dr
2
2
r . d
( sin ( ) .d)
(2.9)
where, A(r) and B(r) are intrinsically positive functions such that the metric element is typically
solved obtaining the solution by means of c0 = G = 1 as follows,
A( r)
1
B( r )
2 .G.M
r .c 0
2 .M
r
(2.10)
139
R. H. Dicke, Gravitation without a principle of equivalence, Rev. Mod. Phys. 29, 363376,
(1957).
140
i.e. not specifically relating to the weak field exponential approximation shown by Eq. (3.55).
141
R. Adler, M. Bazin, M. Schiffer, Introduction to General Relativity, McGraw-Hill 1994 Ch 6,
164-173.
69
where, Desiato et. Al. assert142 that the Schwarzschild solution of the Refractive Index takes the
form KPV(r,M) A(r,M)-1 = B(r,M) hence,
1
2 .G.M
KPV(r,M)
1
1
1
r .c 0
2 .M
r
(2.11i)
3.6.5 F(KPV)
The PV equation of motion with scalar function F(KPV) may be written as,
2
K PV
K PV
c0
2
.d K
PV
d t2
1 . f K PV .
K PV
2 F K PV
K PV
K PV f K PV
.
. 1 . d K
PV
2 F K PV c 2 d t
0
(2.12)
where, f(KPV) = F`(KPV) such that for a spherically symmetric time-independent solution the
preceding equation reduces to,
d
d r2
K PV
2 .d
r dr
1 . f K PV . d
K PV
2 F K PV d r
K PV
(2.13)
As stated in the introduction, Dicke et. Al. formalised a solution where F(KPV) 1/KPV,
whilst Puthoff et. Al. investigated F(KPV) 1/KPV2. Hence, based upon the Dicke / Puthoff et. Al.
formalisms, an obvious evolutionary proposition to investigate is F(KPV) 1/KPV4.
To test the stated Desiato et. Al. assertion, we hypothesise that the result F(KPV) = 1/ KPV4
may be obtained by substitution of Eq. (2.11i) into Eq. (2.13); executing the procedure yields,
f K PV
F K PV
K PV
(2.14)
143
Solving for F(KPV) with a constant of integration set to zero
produces,
F K PV
K PV
(2.15)
Therefore, the Desiato et. Al. assertion is validated and the assigned form of the Refractive
Index articulated by Eq. (4.106) (i.e. KDepp2) is verified as a satisfactory Schwarzschild GR
solution.
3.6.6 LD(KPV)
Substituting F(KPV) = 1/ KPV4 into Eq. (2.8, 2.12) yields,
L D K PV
K PV
142
143
KL
. K
PV
4
K PV
K PV
c0
K PV d
. K
PV
c 0 dt
2
2 . K PV
.d K
PV
K PV
d t2
K PV d
. K
PV
2
c 0 dt
(2.16)
2
(2.17)
T. J. Desiato, R. C. Storti, Event horizons in the PV model, E-print 2003.

Due to the inclusion of the arbitrary constant KL in LD.
70
3.6.7 Conclusion
Eq. (2.16) differs from the Lagrangian Densities utilised by Dicke / Puthoff et. Al. However,
it produces an expression for the Refractive Index in exact agreement with the Schwarzschild GR144
solution. Moreover, the Desiato et. Al. assertion implies that co-ordinates (r,,,t) in Eq. (2.16,
2.17) are equivalent to those in the metric element defined in Eq. (2.8), implicitly satisfying
dynamic, kinematic and geometric similarity associated with the utilisation of DATs and BPT
within the EGM construct.
3.7
The Reissner-Nordstrom solution
3.7.1 Special note

i.
ii.
This section is based upon formalisms by Joseph G. Depp.

dKPV KPV).
3.7.2 Abstract
The PV model is scrutinised for mathematical equivalence to the Reissner-Nordstrom GR
solution. An alternative is proposed such that the resulting Lagrangian Density and equation of
motion are presented for further investigation.
3.7.3 LD(KPV)
Utilising Eq. (2.8), LD for the Refractive Index of an EM field may be written as,
L D K PV
KL
. K
PV
4
K PV
K PV d
. K
PV
c 0 dt
1.
B( r )
2 K PV. 0
2
K PV. 0 .E( r )
(2.18)
For a static point charge (i.e. B = 0), the field is given in MKS units by,
E( r )
Q
2
4 . .K PV. 0 .r
(2.19)
where, only non-source terms such as c, and transform (i.e. incorporate KPV).
3.7.4 1,2
Utilising Eq. (2.18), the PV equation of motion may be written according to,
2 .K L
2
2
d
. 2 K
K PV .
K PV
PV
4
d ( c .t ) 2
K PV
144
2 .
K PV
K PV
d
K PV.
K PV
d ( c .t )
.1 0
4
2 .K PV ( 4 . ) . 0 r
(2.20)
.
The Dicke / Puthoff et. Al. formalisms do not achieve Schwarzschild compliance.
71
Simplifying yields,
2 .K L
2
. d K
PV
4
K PV d r 2
d r2
K PV
2 .d
K PV
r dr
2 . d
K PV
K PV d r
2 .d
K PV
r dr
2 . d
K PV
K PV d r
.1 0
4
2 .K PV ( 4 . ) 0 r
.
2.
K
. PV
2
64. . 0 .K L
(2.21)
(2.22)
Let,
2 . 2
2
64. . 0 .K L
(2.23)
Hence,
d
d r2
K PV
2 .d
r dr
K PV
2 . d
K PV
K PV d r
2
2 .K PV . 2
4
(2.24)
Pursuant to the Desiato et. Al. Schwarzschild assertion in the preceding section, the
Reissner-Nordstrom metric line element takes the following Refractive Index form,
ds
K PV( r )
. c .dt
0
K PV( r ) .dr
2
2
r . d
( sin ( ) .d)
(2.25)
such that:
KPV(r) = [1 (1/r) (2/r2)]-1
where, by means of c0 = G = 1,
1
2 .G.M
(2.26)
2 .M
c0
(2.27)
3.7.5 Conclusion
It has been demonstrated that the modified PV Lagrangian Density presented in the
preceding section yields the Reissner-Nordstrom metric line element.
NOTES
72
3.8
The generalised PV equations of motion
3.8.1 Special note

i.
ii.
iii.
This section is based upon formalisms by Todd J. Desiato.

The Schwarzschild solution for the Refractive Index is utilised in this section. Desiato
et. Al. derived (i.e. in addition to Depp et. Al.) the Schwarzschild solution KDesiato by
unique means. The derivation of KDesiato has been omitted for brevity which is
intended to foster an appreciation for the identical PV representations of GR formulated
by two independent sources, reinforcing the EGM construct.
dKPV KPV).
3.8.2 Abstract
Time-independent solutions of the equations of motion for the Refractive Index in the PV
model are derived by Desiato et. Al. It is demonstrated that these equations may be applied to obtain
solutions and equations of motion for the metric component functions, identical to GR. The
equations of motion in the PV model are easier to solve than the equations of GR as they do not
require Tensor mathematics or geometric interpretations to be understood.
3.8.3 Time-independent solutions
The time-independent equations of motion for the Refractive Index in the PV model are
found from the Laplace equation, 2(r) = 0 as follows,
2
( r )
c0
K PV( r )
K PV
(2.28)
where, (r) = c0 / KPV(r) is abbreviated to 1/KPV by means of c0 = G = 1.

3.8.4 Co-ordinate systems
3.8.4.1 Cartesian
In Cartesian co-ordinates (x1,x2,x3), solutions for 1/KPV are a family of straight lines of
the form145 1/KPV = ax1,2,3 + b.
3.8.4.2 Spherical
In spherical co-ordinates (r,,) for a symmetric potential, Eq. (2.28) becomes,
d
d r2
K PV
2 .d
K PV
r dr
2 . d
K PV
K PV d r
(2.29)
where, the solution for KPV is identical to the Schwarzschild GR solution as follows146,
145
146
From the generalised classical representation of y = mx + c.

i.e. derived by Depp / Desiato et. Al. independently.
73
1
2 .G.M
KPV(r,M) KDepp(r,M)2 KDesiato(r,M)

1
1
1
r .c 0
2 .M
r
(2.11ii)
The Schwarzschild metric component is then interpreted as the Refractive Index of the ZPF
surrounding a spherical homogeneous mass M, centred at the origin of the co-ordinate system.
Moreover, if we include an ElectroMagnetic (EM) source term such as charge Q located at the
origin of the coordinate system, Eq. (2.29) becomes,
d
d r2
2 .d
K PV
r dr
K PV
2 . d
K PV
K PV d r
2
2 .K PV . 2
4
(2.24)
where, any value of KPV of the form KPV(r) = [1 (1/r) (2/r2)]-1 is a solution such that147,
2
2
G.Q
4 . . 0 .c 0
(2.30)
3.8.4.3 Cylindrical
In cylindrical co-ordinates (,,z), the equation of motion for an infinite wire is derived
from Eq. (2.28) as follows,
d
d2
K PV
1 .d
d
K PV
2 . d
K PV
K PV d
(2.31)
Eq. (2.31) is identical to that derived under GR; thus, possessing identical Refractive Index
solutions.
3.8.5 KL
Equating Eq. (2.23, 2.30), a solution for KL may be determined according to,
2
G.Q
2
4
128. . 0 .K L 4 . . 0 .c 0
(2.32)
Hence,
4
KL
c0
32. .G
(2.33)
Therefore, KL is in agreement with the value suggested by Dicke et. Al. based on heuristic
arguments, demonstrating that the PV model satisfies the Schwarzschild and Reissner-Nordstrom
GR solutions.
3.8.6 Conclusion
Three different coordinate systems were utilised to determine the equations of motion of the
Refractive Index. In all cases, the solutions were found to be identical to those under GR. Therefore,
the PV model may provide insight into alternative models of Quantum Gravity (QG), without the
need for cumbersome geometric interpretations of the space-time manifold, simply the consistent
application of the Refractive Index to typical scalar field theories.
147
Including the Reissner-Nordstrom solution, identical to GR.

74
4 The Natural Philosophy of Fundamental Particles

The alpha males of academia [on occasion], project the convenience that
Nature is beyond simplicity and its secrets are only privy to themselves.
Riccardo C. Storti
Taken from Quinta Essentia Part 3, 4 (QE3,4)
Abstract
Electro-Gravi-Magnetics (EGM) is a term describing a hypothetical harmonic relationship
between Electricity, Gravity and Magnetism. The hypothesis may be mathematically articulated by
the application of Dimensional Analysis Techniques (DATs) and Buckingham Theory (BPT),
both being well established and thoroughly tested geometric engineering principles, via Fourier
harmonics. The hypothesis may be tested by the correct derivation of experimentally verified
fundamental properties not predicted within the Standard Model (SM) of Particle-Physics.
Theoretical estimates and correlations, based upon the EGM method, are presented for the RootMean-Square (RMS) charge radius and mass-energy of many well established subatomic particles.
The estimates and correlations coincide to astonishing precision with experimental data presented
by the Particle Data Group (PDG), CDF, D0, L3, SELEX and ZEUS Collaborations. Our tabulated
results clearly demonstrate a possible natural harmonic pattern representing all fundamental
subatomic particles. In addition, our method predicts the possible existence of several other
subatomic particles not contained within the Standard Model (SM). The accuracy and simplicity of
our computational estimates demonstrate that EGM is a useful tool to gain insight into the domain
of subatomic particles.
75
4.1
Harmonic representation of gravitational acceleration
It is demonstrated in Quinta Essentia Part 3 (QE3) that a theoretical representation of

constant acceleration at a mathematical point in a gravitational field may be defined by a
summation of trigonometric terms utilising modified complex Fourier series in exponential form,
according to the harmonic distribution nPV = -N, 2 - N ... N, where N is an odd number
harmonic. Hence, the magnitude of the gravitational acceleration vector g (via the equivalence
principle) may be usefully represented by Eq. (3.63) as |nPV| ,
g( r , M )
G. M .
2
n PV
2 . i . .n PV .
e
. n PV
..
PV ( 1 , r , M ) t i
(3.63)
such that, the frequency spectrum of the harmonic gravitational field PV is given by Eq. (3.67),
PV n PV, r , M
n PV 3 2 . c . G. M
.
. K ( r, M )
PV
r
.r
(3.67)
where: c0 c,
Variable
PV(1,r,M)
KPV
nPV
r
M
G
Description
Units
Fundamental spectral frequency
Hz
Refractive Index of a gravitational field in the Polarisable Vacuum
(PV) model of Gravity, only contributing significantly when a large
gravitational mass (i.e. a strong gravitational field) is considered. For
None
all applications herein, the effect is approximated to KPV(r,M) = 1.
Harmonic modes of the gravitational field
Magnitude of position vector from centre of mass
m
Mass
kg
Gravitational constant
m3kg-1s-2
Table 4.3,
Subsequently, the harmonic (Fourier) representation of the magnitude of the gravitational

acceleration vector (in the time domain) at the surface of the Earth up to N = 21 is graphically
shown to be,
Gravitational Acceleration
Time
Figure 4.3: harmonic representation of gravitational acceleration,

As N , the magnitude of the gravitational acceleration vector becomes measurably constant.
Hence, Eq. (3.63, 3.67) illustrate that the Newtonian representation of g is easily harmonised over
the Fourier domain, from geometrically based methods (i.e. DATs and BPT). Therefore, unifying
(in principle) Newtonian, geometric (relativistic) and quantum (harmonised) models of Gravity.
QE3 demonstrates that the spectrum defined by Eq. (3.67) is discrete and finite. The lower
boundary value is given by PV(1,r,M), whilst the upper boundary value (also termed the
harmonic cut-off frequency) is given by Eq. (3.73),
76
( r , M ) n ( r , M ) . PV( 1 , r , M )
(3.73)
supported by the following equation set,

n ( r, M )
( r, M )
12
( r, M )
(3.71)
( r, M )
108.
U m( r , M )
12. 768 81.
U ( r , M )
U m( r , M )
U ( r , M )
3 .M .c
U m( r , M )
U ( r , M )
(3.72)
4 . .r
(3.70)
h .
4
PV( 1 , r , M )
3
2 .c
(3.69)
where,
Variable
n
Um
U
h
Description
Units
None
Harmonic cut-off mode [mode number at ]
Harmonic cut-off function
Mass-energy density of a solid spherical gravitational object
Pa
Energy density of mass induced gravitational field scaled to
the fundamental spectral frequency
Plancks Constant [6.6260693 x10-34]
Js
Table 4.4,
Since the relationship between trigonometric terms, at each amplitude and corresponding
frequency, is mathematically defined by the nature of Fourier series, the derivation of Eq. (3.71,
3.72) is based on the compression of energy density to one change in odd harmonic mode whilst
preserving dynamic, kinematic and geometric similarity in accordance with BPT.
The preservation of similarity across one change in odd mode is due to the mathematical
properties of constant functions utilising Fourier series as discussed in QE3. The subsequent
application of these results to Eq. (3.63) acts to decompress the energy density over the Fourier
domain yielding a highly precise reciprocal harmonic representation of g whilst preserving
dynamic, kinematic and geometric similarity to Newtonian Gravity, identified by the compression
technique stated above.
Key gravitational characteristics for the Earth148 in the displacement domain may be
graphically represented as follows,
Fundamental Frequency
RE
PV 1 , r , M E
PV 1 , R E , M E
r
Radial Distance
Figure149 3.7,
148
149
RE and ME denote the radius and mass of the Earth respectively.

Fundamental frequency (|nPV| = 1) as a function of planetary radial displacement.
77
RE
n R E, M E
n r, M E
r, M E
R E, M E
r
Radial Distance
Cutoff Mode
Cutoff Frequency
Figure150 3.8,
4.2
Poynting Vector S
Haisch, Puthoff and Rueda conjectured that Inertia may have ElectroMagnetic (EM)
origins due to the Zero-Point-Field (ZPF) of Quantum-ElectroDynamics (QED), manifested by the
Poynting Vector, via the equivalence principle. Hence, it follows that gravitational acceleration may
also be EM in nature and the Polarisable Vacuum (PV) model of Gravity is an EM polarised state of
the ZPF with a Fourier distribution, assigning physical meaning to Eq. (3.63).
Subsequently, it follows that the energy density of a mass induced gravitational field may be
scaled to changes in odd harmonic mode numbers satisfying the mathematical properties of any
constant function described in terms of Fourier series utilising Eq. (3.69) - such that,
U n PV, r , M
U ( r , M ) .
n PV
n PV
(3.68)
151
Therefore, the Poynting Vector

of the polarised Zero-Point (ZP) gravitational field S
surrounding a solid spherical object with homogeneous mass-energy distribution is given by,
S n PV, r , M
c .U n PV, r , M
(3.74)
ZPF Poynting Vector
and may be graphically represented as follows,
S n PV , R E , M E
n PV
Harmonic
Figure 3.9,
Fig. (3.9) illustrates that the Poynting Vector of the ZP gravitational field increases with
nPV. Further work in QE3 showed that >>99.99(%) of the effect in a gravitational field exists
150
151
Harmonic cut-off mode n and frequency as a function of planetary radial displacement.

Per change in odd harmonic mode number.
78
well above the THz range. Hence, it becomes apparent that n and are important
characteristics of gravitational fields and were used to quasi-unify Particle-Physics in harmonic
form.
4.3
The size of the Proton, Neutron and Electron (radii: r, r, r)
QE3 derives the mass-energy threshold of the Photon utilising n and the classical
Electron radius, to within 4.3(%) of the Particle Data Group (PDG) value152 stated in [1], then
proceeds to derive the mass-energies and radii of the Photon and Graviton by the consistent
utilisation of n.
The method developed was utilised to derive the sizes153 of the Electron, Proton and
Neutron. The motivation for this was to test the hypothesis presented by direct comparison of the
computed size values to experimentally measured fact. One may argue that highly precise
computational predictions, agreeing with experimental evidence beyond the abilities of the SM to
do so, is conclusive evidence of the validity of the harmonic method developed in QE3.
To date, highly precise measurements have been made of the Root-Mean-Square (RMS)
charge radius of the Proton by [2] and the Mean-Square (MS) charge radius of the Neutron as
demonstrated in [3]. However, the calculations presented in QE3 are considerably more accurate
than the physical measurements articulated in [2,3], lending support for the harmonic representation
of the magnitude of the gravitational acceleration vector stated in Eq. (3.63).
The basic approach utilised in QE3 was to determine the equilibrium position between the
polarised state of the ZPF and the mass-energy of the fundamental particle inducing space-time
curvature as would appear in General Relativity (GR). In other words, one may consider the
curvature of the space-time manifold surrounding an object to be a virtual fluid in equilibrium
with the object itself154.
This concept is graphically represented in Fig. (4.4). A free fundamental particle with
classical form factor is depicted in equilibrium with the surrounding space-time manifold. The ZPF
is polarised by the presence of the particle in accordance with the PV model of Gravity, which is (at
least) isomorphic to GR in the weak field.
Figure 4.4: free fundamental particle with classical form factor,

In the case of the Proton, the ZPF equilibrium radius coincides with the RMS charge radius
r [Eq. (3.199)] producing the experimentally verified result rp by the SELEX Collaboration as
stated in [2]155,
152
Consistent with experimental evidence and interpretation of data.

From first principles and from a single paradigm.
154
The intention is not to suggest that the space-time manifold is actually a fluid, it is merely to
present a method by which to solve a problem.
155
r = 0.8306(fm), rp = 0.8307 0.012(fm).
153
79
h .m e
. . m
. 27 h c . e
2
3
4 . .G m p
16.c . .m p
(3.199)
where, me and mp denote Electron and Proton rest-mass respectively.

In the case of the Neutron, the ZPF equilibrium radius coincides with the radial position of
zero charge density r [Eq. (3.200)] with respect to the Neutron charge distribution as illustrated
in Fig. (4.5). It is shown in QE3 that r relates to the MS charge radius KS by a simple formula
[Eq. (3.396)] producing the experimentally verified result KX as presented in [3]156,
h .m e
. . m
. 27 h c . e
r
2
3
4 . .G m n
16.c . .m n
(3.200)
where, mn denotes Neutron rest-mass.

Neutron Charge Distribution
Charge Density
r dr
ch( r )
ch r 0
r dr
5.
3
ch r dr
r
Radius
Charge Density
Maximum Charge Density
Minimum Charge Density
Figure 4.5: Neutron charge distribution,

KS
157
where, x is solved numerically
3. .r
8
. (1
x) . x
x x
(3.396)
within the MathCad environment by the following algorithm,
Given
2
ln( x) .
2
x
x
(3.398)
1 3
(3.399)
Find ( x)
Utilising KS, KX may be converted to determine an experimental zero charge density radial
position value rX according to Eq. (3.418),
156
157
r = 0.8269(fm), KS = -0.1133(fm2), KX = -0.113 0.005(fm2).

x = 0.6829, rX = 0.8256 0.018(fm).
80
rX
KS
. K .K
S X
(3.418)
In the case of the Electron (as with the Proton), the ZPF equilibrium radius coincides with
the RMS charge radius r [Eq. (3.203)] producing an experimentally implied result158 as stated in
[4],
9
r r e.
1.
2
ln 2 .n r e , m e
(3.203)
where, re and [5] denote the classical Electron radius and Euler-Mascheroni constant
respectively.
4.4
The harmonic representation of fundamental particles
4.4.1 Establishing the foundations

Motivated by the physical validation of Eq. (3.199, 3.200), Storti et. Al. conducted thought
experiments in QE3 to investigate harmonic and trigonometric relationships by analysing various
forms of radii combinations for the Electron, Proton and Neutron consistent with the DATs and
BPT derivations yielding the following useful approximations,
r , m e
r , m e
r , m p
r ,mn
r
r
(4.1)
(3.214)
2
.e
(3.204)
where,
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
and e denote the fine structure constant and exponential function respectively.
Eq. (4.1) error:
(a) Associated with (r,me)/(r,mp) = 2 is 8.876 x10-3(%)
(b) Associated with (r,me)/(r,mn) = 2 is 0.266(%).
Eq. (3.214) error is 2.823(%).
Eq. (3.204) error is 0.042(%).
4.4.2 Improving accuracy

Since the experimental value of the RMS charge radius of the Proton is considered by the
scientific community to be precisely known159, the accuracy of Eq. (3.214, 3.204) may be improved
by re-computing the value of r and r. This action further strengthens the validity of Eq. (4.1)
by verifying trivial deviation utilising the re-computed values.
Hence, it follows that numerical solutions for r and r, constrained by exact
mathematical statements [Eq. (3.203, 3.204, 3.214, 4.1)], suggests that the gravitational relationship
between the Electron and Proton, as inferred by the result (r,me)/(r,mp) = 2, is harmonic.
158
159
r 0.0118(fm), = 0.577215664901533.
To a degree of accuracy significantly greater than the Electron or Neutron.
81
The computational algorithm supporting this contention may be stated as follows,

Given
r r , m e
r e r , m p
r
r
r
r
r
r
.e
1.
2
ln 2 .n r e , m e
Find r , r
(4.2)
(4.3)
yields,
r
0.826838
0.011802
.( fm)
(4.4)
where,
i.
ii.
iii.
Eq. (4.1) error:

(a) Associated with (r,me)/(r,mp) = 2 is 4.493 x10-7(%).
(b) Associated with (r,me)/(r,mn) = 2 is 0.282(%).
Eq. (3.214) error is 1.11 x10-13(%).
Eq. (3.204) error is 0.026(%).
4.4.3 Formulating an hypothesis

In the preceding calculations utilising known particle mass and radii as a reference, it was
found that the harmonic cut-off frequency ratio of an Electron to a Proton was precisely 2. This
provokes the hypothesis that a simple harmonic pattern may exist describing the relationship of all
fundamental particles relative to an arbitrarily chosen base particle according to,
r 1, M 1
r 2, M 2
St
(3.230i)
Performing the appropriate substitutions utilising Eq.(3.69 3.73), Eq. (3.230i) may be simplified
to,
M1
M2
r2
r1
St
(3.230ii)
where, St represents the ratio of two particle spectra. Subsequently, r may be simply
calculated according to,
5
1 . me
r r .
9
2 mp
(3.231)
4.4.4 Identifying a mathematical pattern

Utilising Eq. (3.230ii), Storti et. Al. identify mathematical patterns in QE3 showing that
St may be represented in terms of the Proton, Electron and Quark harmonic cut-off frequencies
derived from the respective particle. Potentially, three new Leptons (L2, L3, L5 and associated
Neutrinos: 2, 3, 5) and two new Quark / Bosons (QB5 and QB6) are predicted, beyond the SM
as shown in table (4.5).
82
The EGM Harmonic Representation of Fundamental Particles (i.e. table (4.5)) is applicable
to the size relationship between the Proton and Neutron (i.e. to calculate r from r and viceversa utilising St = 1) as an approximation only. For precise calculations based upon similar
forms, the reader should refer to Eq. (3.199, 3.200).
Note: although the newly predicted Leptons are within the kinetic range160 and therefore should
have been experimentally detected, there are substantial explanations discussed in the proceeding
sections.
Proton
Electron
Quark
Harmonics Harmonics Harmonics
Proton (p), Neutron (n)
St = 1
St = 1/2
St = 1/14
2
1
1/7
Electron (e), Electron Neutrino (
e)
4
2
2/7
L2, 2 (Theoretical Lepton, Neutrino)
6
3
3/7
8
4
4/7
Muon (
), Muon Neutrino (
)
10
5
5/7
12
6
6/7
Tau (), Tau Neutrino (
)
Up Quark (uq), Down Quark (dq)
14
7
1
Strange Quark (sq)
28
14
2
Charm Quark (cq)
42
21
3
Bottom Quark (bq)
56
28
4
QB5 (Theoretical Quark or Boson)
70
35
5
QB6 (Theoretical Quark or Boson)
84
42
6
W Boson
98
49
7
Z Boson
112
56
8
Higgs Boson (H) (Theoretical)
126
63
9
Top Quark (tq)
140
70
10
Table 4.5: harmonic representation of fundamental particles,
Existing and Theoretical Particles
4.4.5 Results
4.4.5.1 Harmonic evidence of unification
Exploiting the mathematical pattern articulated in table (4.5), EGM predicts the RMS charge
radius and mass-energy of less accurately known particles, comparing them to expert opinion. The
values of St shown in table (4.5), predict possible particle mass and radii for all Leptons,
Neutrinos, Quarks and Intermediate Vector Bosons (IVBs), in complete agreement with the SM,
PDG estimates and studies by Hirsch et. Al in [6] as shown in table (4.6),
Particle
Proton (p)
Neutron (n)
Electron (e)
Muon (
)
Tau ()
Electron Neutrino (
e)
Muon Neutrino (
)
160
EGM Radii
x10-16(cm)
r = 830.5957
r = 826.8379
r = 11.8055
r = 8.2165
r = 12.2415
ren 0.0954
rn 0.6556
EGM Mass-Energy
(computed or utilised)
PDG Mass-Energy Range

(2005 Values)
Mass-Energy precisely known,

See: National Institute of Standards and Technology
(NIST) [7]
Note: m = 10-100
men(eV) 3 - m
mn(MeV) 0.19 - m
men(eV) < 3
mn(MeV) < 0.19
A region extensively explored in Particle-Physics experiments.

83
Tau Neutrino (
)
rn 1.9588
mn(MeV) 18.2 - m mn(MeV) < 18.2
Up Quark (uq)
1.5 < muq(MeV) < 4
ruq 0.7682
muq(MeV) 3.5060
Down Quark (dq)
3 < mdq(MeV) < 8
rdq 1.0136
mdq(MeV) 7.0121
Strange Quark (sq)
80 < msq(MeV) < 130
rsq 0.8879
msq(MeV) 113.9460
1.15 < mcq(GeV) < 1.35
Charm Quark (cq)
mcq(GeV) 1.1833
rcq 1.0913
Bottom Quark (bq)
4.1 < mbq(GeV) < 4.4
rbq 1.071
mbq(GeV) 4.1196
Top Quark (tq)
169.2 < mtq(GeV) < 179.4
rtq 0.9294
mtq(GeV) 178.4979
W Boson
80.387 < mW(GeV) < 80.463
rW 1.2839
mW(GeV) 80.425
Z Boson
91.1855 < mZ(GeV) < 91.1897
rZ 1.0616
mZ(GeV) 91.1876
Higgs Boson (H)
mH(GeV) 114.4 + m mH(GeV) > 114.4
rH 0.9403
Photon ()
r = Kh
m 3.2 x10-45(eV)
m < 6 x10-17(eV)
No definitive commitment
Graviton (g)
rgg = 2(2/5)r
mgg = 2m
L2 (Lepton)
mL(2) 9(MeV)
rL 10.7518 mL(3) 57(MeV)
L3 (Lepton)
L5 (Lepton)
mL(5) 566(MeV)
2 (L2 Neutrino)
r2,3,5
m2 men
Not predicted or considered
3 (L3 Neutrino)
m3 mn
ren,n,n
5 (L5 Neutrino)
m5 mn
QB5 (Quark or Boson) rQB 1.0052 mQB(5) 10(GeV)
QB6 (Quark or Boson)
mQB(6) 22(GeV)
Table 4.6: RMS charge radii and mass-energies of fundamental particles,
where,
i.
K denotes a Planck scaling factor, determined to be (/2)1/3 in QE3.
ii.
h denotes Planck Length [4.05131993288926 x10-35(m)].
iii.
rL and rQB denote the average radii of SM Leptons and Quark / Bosons
(respectively) utilised to calculate the mass-energy of the proposed new particles.
Note:
iv.
A formalism for the approximation of 2, 3 and 5 mass-energy is shown in QE3.
v.
It is shown in QE3 that the RMS charge diameters of a Photon and Graviton are h
and 1.5h respectively, in agreement with Quantum Mechanical (QM) models.
4.4.5.2 Recent developments
4.4.5.2.1 PDG mass-energy ranges
The EGM construct was finalized by Storti et. Al. in 2004 and tested against published PDG
data of the day [i.e. the 2005 values shown in table (4.6)]. Annually, as part of their continuous
improvement cycle, the PDG reconciles its published values of particle properties against the latest
experimental and theoretical evidence. The 2006 changes in PDG mass-energy range values not
impacting EGM are as follows:
i.
Strange Quark = 70 < msq(MeV) < 120.
ii.
Charm Quark = 1.16 < mcq(GeV) < 1.34.
iii.
W Boson = 80.374 < mW(GeV) < 80.432.
iv.
Z Boson = 91.1855 < mZ(GeV) < 91.1897.
Therefore, we may conclude that the EGM construct continues to predict experimentally verified
results within the SM to high computational precision.
84
4.4.5.2.2 Electron Neutrino and Up / Down / Bottom Quark mass

Particle-Physics research is a highly dynamic field supporting a landscape of constantly
changing hues. The EGM construct relates mass to size in harmonic terms. If one applies Eq.
(3.230ii) and utilizes the Proton as the reference particle in accordance with table (4.5), one obtains
a single expression with two unknowns, as implied by Eq. (3.231).
Since contemporary Physics is currently incapable of specifying the mass and size of most
fundamental particles precisely and concurrently, EGM is required to approximate values of either
mass or radius to predict one or the other (i.e. mass or size). Subsequently, the EGM predictions
articulated in table (4.6) denote values based upon estimates of either mass or radius.
Hence, some of the results in table (4.6) are approximations and subject to revision as new
experimental evidence regarding particle properties (particularly mass), come to light. The 2006
changes in PDG mass-energy values affecting table (4.6) are shown below. In this data set, the
EGM radii are displayed as a range relating to its mass-energy influence.
Note: the average value of EGM Up + Down Quark mass from table (4.6) [i.e. 5.2574(MeV)]
remains within the 2006 average mass range specified by the PDG [i.e. 2.5 to 5.5(MeV)].
EGM Radii x10-16(cm)
PDG Mass-Energy
Range (2006 Values)
men(eV) < 2
Electron Neutrino (
e) ren < 0.0811
PDG Mass-Energy
Up Quark (uq)
1.5 < muq(MeV) < 3
0.5469 < ruq < 0.7217
Range
(2006
Values)
Down Quark (dq)
3 < mdq(MeV) < 7
0.7217 < rdq < 1.0128
Bottom Quark (bq)
1.0719 > rbq > 1.0863
4.13 < mbq(GeV) < 4.27
Table 4.7: RMS charge radii and mass-energies of fundamental particles,
Particle
EGM Mass-Energy
(utilised)
The predicted radii ranges above demonstrate that no significant deviation from table (4.6)
values exists. This emphasizes that the EGM harmonic representation of fundamental particles is a
robust formulation and is insensitive to minor fluctuations in particle mass, particularly in the
absence of experimentally determined RMS charge radii.
Therefore, we may conclude that the EGM construct continues to predict experimentally verified
results within the SM to high computational precision.
4.4.5.2.3 Top Quark mass
4.4.5.2.3.1 The dilemma
The Collider Detector at Fermilab (CDF) and D-ZERO (D0) Collaborations have recently
revised their world average value of Top Quark mass from 178.0(GeV/c2) in 2004 [8] to,
172.0 in 2005 [9], 172.5 in early 2006, then 171.4 in July 2006. [10]
Note: since the precise value of mtq is subject to frequent revision, we shall utilise the 2005 value
in the resolution of the dilemma as it sits between the 2006 values.
4.4.5.2.3.2 The resolution
The EGM method utilizes fundamental particle RMS charge radius to determine mass.
Currently, Quark radii are not precisely known and approximations were applied in the formulation
of mtq displayed in table (4.6). However, if one utilizes the revised experimental value of mtq =
172.0(GeV/c2) to calculate the RMS charge radius of the Top Quark rtq, based on Proton
85
harmonics, it is immediately evident that a decrease in rtq of < 1.508(%) produces the new
world average value precisely. The relevant calculations may be performed simply as follows,
The revised Top Quark radius based upon the new world average Top Quark mass,
5
GeV
172.
2
1 .
c
r .
9
mp
140
= 0.9156 10
16 .
cm
(4.5)
The decrease in Top Quark RMS charge radius [relative to the table (4.6) value] based upon the
new world average Top Quark mass becomes,
r tq
1 = 1.5076 ( % )
GeV
172.
2
1 .
c
r .
9
mp
140
(4.6)
where, rtq denotes the RMS charge radius of the Top Quark from table (4.6).
Therefore, since the change in rtq is so small and its experimental value is not precisely known,
we may conclude the EGM construct continues to predict experimentally verified results within the
SM to high computational precision.
Note: the 2006 value for revised mtq modifies the error defined by Eq. (4.6) to < 1.65(%).
4.4.6 Discussion
4.4.6.1 Experimental evidence of unification
Table (4.5, 4.6, 4.7) display mathematical facts demonstrating that all fundamental particles
may be represented as harmonics of an arbitrarily selected reference particle, in complete agreement
with the SM. Considering that the EGM method is so radically different and quantifies the physical
world beyond contemporary solutions, one becomes tempted to disregard table (4.5, 4.6, 4.7) in
favour of concluding these to be coincidental.
However, it is inconceivable that such precision from a single paradigm spanning the entire
family of fundamental particles could be coincidental. The derivation of the Top Quark massenergy is in itself, an astonishing result that the SM is currently incapable of producing.
Moreover, the derivation of (a), EM radii characteristics of the Proton and Neutron (rE, rM
and rM) (b), the classical RMS charge radius of the Proton (c), the 1st term of the Hydrogen atom
spectrum A and (d), the Bohr radius rx: all from the same paradigm, strengthens the harmonic
case.
Additionally, QE3 demonstrates that the probability of coincidence is << 10-38 based upon
the results shown in table (4.8),
Particle / Atom EGM Prediction (QE3)
Proton (p)
r = 830.5957 x10-16(cm)
rE = 848.5274 x10-16(cm)
rM = 849.9334 x10-16(cm)
rp = 874.5944 x10-16(cm)
Neutron (n)
r = 826.8379 x10-16(cm)
KS = -0.1133 x10-26(cm2)
Experimental Measurement
r = 830.6624 x10-16(cm) [2]
rE = 848 x10-16(cm) [11,12]
rM = 857 x10-16(cm) [11,12]
rp = 875.0 x10-16(cm) [7]
rX 825.6174 x10-16(cm)
KX = -0.113 x10-26(cm2) [3]
86
(%) Error
< 0.008
< 0.062
< 0.825
< 0.046
< 0.148
< 0.296
Neutron (n)
Top Quark (tq)
Hydrogen (H)
where,
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
rM = 878.9719 x10-16(cm)
rM = 879 x10-16(cm) [11,12]
mtq(GeV) 178.4979
mtq(GeV) 172.0 [9]
A = 657.3290(nm)
B = 656.4696(nm) [13]
rx = 0.0527(nm)
rBohr = 0.0529(nm) [7]
Table 4.8: experimentally verified EGM predictions,
< 0.003
< 3.64
< 0.131
< 0.353
rE and rM denote the Electric and Magnetic radii of the Proton respectively.
rX denotes the conversion of the experimentally determined implicit conventional form
KX to the explicit EGM form.
rM denotes the Magnetic radius of the Neutron.
A and B denote the first term of the Hydrogen atom spectrum (Balmer series).
rp = 875.0 x10-16(cm) and rBohr = 0.0529(nm) are not experimental values, they
denote the classical RMS charge radius of the Proton and the Bohr radius, i.e. the official
values listed by NIST.
Note: numerical simulations generating all values in table (4.5, 4.6, 4.8) can be found in QE3.
4.4.6.2 The answers to some important questions
4.4.6.2.1 What causes harmonic patterns to form?
4.4.6.2.1.1 ZPF equilibrium
A free fundamental particle is regarded by EGM as a bubble of energy equivalent mass.
Nature always seeks the lowest energy state: so surely, the lowest state for a free fundamental
particle should be to diffuse itself to non-existence in the absence of something acting to
keep it contained?
This provokes the suggestion that a free fundamental particle is kept contained by the
surrounding space-time manifold. In other words, free fundamental particles are analogous to
neutrally buoyant bubbles floating in a locally static fluid (the space-time manifold). EGM is an
approximation method, developed by the application of standard engineering tools, which finds the
ZPF equilibrium point between the mass-energy equivalence of the particle and the space-time
manifold (the ZPF) surrounding it - as depicted by Fig. (4.4).
4.4.6.2.1.2 Inherent quantum characteristics
If one assumes that the basic nature of the Universe is built upon quantum states of
existence, it follows that ZPF equilibrium is a common and convenient feature amongst free
fundamental particles by which to test this assumption. Relativity tells us that no absolute frames of
reference exist, so a logical course of action is to define a datum as EGM is derived from a
gravitational base. In our case, it is an arbitrary choice of fundamental particle.
To be representative of the quantum realm, it follows that ZPF equilibrium between free
fundamental particles should also be analogous to quantum and fractional quantum numbers as
one finds with the Quantum Hall Effect. Subsequently, the harmonic patterns of table (4.5) form
because the determination of ZPF equilibrium is applied to inherently quantum characteristic
objects i.e. fundamental particles.
Hence, it should be no surprise to the reader that comparing a set of inherently quantum
characterised objects to each other, each of which may be described by a single wavefunction at its
harmonic cut-off frequency, results in a globally harmonic description. That is, the EGM harmonic
representation of fundamental particles is a quantum statement of ZPF equilibrium as one would
expect. In-fact, it would be alarming if table (4.5), or a suitable variation thereof, could not be
formulated.
87
Therefore, harmonic patterns form due to inherent quantum characteristics and ZPF equilibrium.
4.4.6.2.2 Why havent the new particles been experimentally detected?
EGM approaches the question of particle existence, not just by mass as in the SM, but also
harmonic cut-off frequency (i.e. by mass and ZPF equilibrium). Storti et. Al. showed in QE3
that the bulk of the PV spectral energy161 at the surface of the Earth exists well above the THz
range. Hence, generalizing this result to any mass implies that the harmonic cut-off period162 T
defines the minimum detection interval to confirm (or refute) the existence of the proposed L2, L3,
L5 Leptons and associated 2, 3, 5 Neutrinos. In other words, a particle exists for at least the
period specified by T i.e. its minimum lifetime.
Quantum Field Theory (QFT) approaches this question from a highly useful, but extremely
limited perspective compared to the EGM construct. QFT utilizes particle mass to determine the
minimum detection period (in terms of eV) to be designed into experiments. To date, this approach
has been highly successful, but results in the conclusion that no new Leptons exist beyond the SM
in the mass-energy range specified by the proposed Leptons. Whilst QFT is a highly useful
yardstick, it is by no means a definitive benchmark to warrant termination of exploratory
investigations for additional particles.
Typically in the SM, short-lived particles are seen as resonances in cross sections of data
sets and many Hadrons in the data tables are revealed in this manner. Hence, the SM asserts that the
more unstable particles are, the stronger the interaction and the greater the likelihood of detection.
The EGM construct regards the existing Leptons of the SM as long-lived particles. It also
asserts that the SM does not adequately address the existence or stability of the extremely shortlived Leptons proposed. This assertion is supported by the fact that detection of these particles is
substantially beyond current capabilities due to:
i.
The minimum detection interval (with negligible experimental error) being < 10-29(s).
ii.
The possibility that the proposed Leptons are transient (intermediate) states of particle
production processes, which decay before detection. For example, perhaps an Electron
passes through an L2 phase prior to stabilization to Electronic form (for an appropriate
production process). Subsequently, this would be not be detected if the transition process
is very rapid and the accelerator energies are too low.
iii.
The possibility of statistically low production events.
Hence:
iv.
The proposed Leptons are too short-lived to appear as resonances in cross-sections.
v.
The SM assertion that the more unstable particles are, the stronger the interaction and
the greater the likelihood of detection is invalid for the proposed Leptons.
Therefore, contemporary particle experiments are incapable of detecting the proposed Leptons at
the minimum accelerator energy levels required to refute the EGM construct.
4.4.6.2.3 Why can all fundamental particles be described in harmonic terms?
Because of the precise experimental and mathematical evidence presented in table (4.5, 4.6,
4.8). These results were achieved by construction of a model based upon a single gravitational
paradigm. Moreover, Storti et. Al. also derives the Casmir force in QE3 utilising Eq. (3.63, 3.67,
3.73).
161
162
>> 99.99(%).
The inverse of .
88
4.4.6.2.4 Why is EGM a method and not a theory?

EGM is a method and not a theory because: (i) it is an engineering approximation and (ii),
the mass and size of most subatomic particles are not precisely known. It harmonizes all
fundamental particles relative to an arbitrarily chosen reference particle by parameterising ZPF
equilibrium in terms of harmonic cut-off frequency .
The formulation of table (4.5) is a robust approximation based upon PDG data. Other
interpretations are possible, depending on the values utilised. For example, if one re-applies the
method presented in QE3 based upon other data; the values of St in table (4.5) might differ.
However, in the absence of exact experimentally measured mass and size information, there is little
motivation to postulate alternative harmonic sequences, particularly since the current formulation
fits the available experimental evidence extremely well.
If all mass and size values were exactly known by experimental measurement, the main
sequence formulated in QE3 (or a suitable variation thereof) will produce a precise harmonic
representation of fundamental particles, invariant to interpretation. Table (4.5) values cannot be
dismissed due to potential multiplicity before reconciling how:
i. , which is the basis of the table (4.5) construct, produces Eq. (3.199, 3.200) as
derived in QE3. These generate radii values substantially more accurate than any other
contemporary method. In-fact, it is a noteworthy result that EGM is capable of
producing the Neutron MS charge radius as a positive quantity. Conventional techniques
favour the non-intuitive form of a negative squared quantity.
ii. is capable of producing a Top Quark mass value the SM cannot.
iii. EGM produces the results defined in table (4.8).
iv. Extremely short-lived Leptons [i.e. with lifetimes of < 10-29(s)] cannot exist, or do not
exist for a plausible harmonic interpretation.
v. Any other harmonic interpretation, in the absence of exact mass and size values
determined experimentally, denote a superior formulation.
Therefore, EGM is a method facilitating the harmonic representation of fundamental particles.
4.4.6.2.5 What would one need to do, in order to disprove EGM?
Explain how experimental measurements of charge radii and mass-energy by international
collaborations such as CDF, D0, L3, SELEX and ZEUS in [2,8-10,14-17], do not correlate to EGM
calculations.
4.4.6.2.6 Why does EGM produce current and not constituent Quark masses?
The EGM method is capable of producing current and constituent Quark masses; only
current Quark masses are presented herein. This manuscript is limited to current Quark masses
because it is the simplest example of ZPF equilibrium applicable whereby a particle is treated as a
system and the equilibrium radius is calculated.
Determination of the constituent Quark mass is a more complicated process, but the method
of solution remains basically the same. For example, Storti et. Al. calculate an experimentally
implicit value of the Bohr radius in QE3 by treating the atom as a system in equilibrium with the
polarised ZPF.
4.4.6.2.7 Why does EGM yield only the three observed families?
This occurs because it treats all objects with mass as a system (e.g. the Bohr atom) in
equilibrium with the polarised ZPF (the objects own gravitational field). Therefore, since
89
fundamental particles with classical form factor denote fundamental states (or systems: Quarks in
the Proton and Neutron) of polarised ZPF equilibrium, it follows that only the three families will be
predicted.
4.5
What may the periodic table of elementary particles look like under EGM?
Assuming QB5,6 to be Intermediate Vector Bosons (IVB's), we shall conjecture that the
periodic table of elementary particles may be constructed as follows,
Types of Matter
Group II
Group III
Up
14 Charm
42 Top
140
+2/3,1/2,[R,G,B]
+2/3,1/2,[R,G,B]
+2/3,1/2,[R,G,B]
uq
cq
tq
1.5 < muq(MeV) < 3
1.1833(GeV)
172.0(GeV)
56
Down
14 Strange
28 Bottom
-1/3,1/2,[R,G,B]
-1/3,1/2,[R,G,B]
-1/3,1/2,[R,G,B]
dq
sq
bq
3 < mdq(MeV) < 7
4.13 < mbq(GeV) < 4.27
113.9460(MeV)
Electron
2 Muon
8 Tau
12
-1,1/2
-1,1/2
-1,1/2
e
= 0.5110(MeV)
= 105.7(MeV)
= 1.777(GeV)
Electron Neutrino
2 Muon Neutrino
8 Tau Neutrino
12
0,1/2
0,1/2
0,1/2
e
< 2(eV)
< 0.19(MeV)
< 18.2(MeV)
L2
4 L3
6 L5
10
-1,1/2
-1,1/2
-1,1/2
L2
L3
L5
9(MeV)
57(MeV)
566(MeV)
L2 Neutrino
4 L3 Neutrino
6 L5 Neutrino
10
0,1/2
0,1/2
0,1/2
2
3
5
men
mn
mn
Standard Model and EGM Bosons
Photon
N/A Gluon
? QB6
84 Z Boson
112
-6
1,Colour,1
1,Weak Charge,10
1,Weak Charge,10-6
1,Charge,
gl
Q B6
Z
-45
<
10(MeV)
22(GeV)
91.1875(GeV)
3.2 x10 (eV)
Graviton
N/A QB5
70 W Boson
98 Higgs Boson
126
2,Energy,10-39
1,Weak Charge,10-6
1,Weak Charge,10-6
0,Higgs Field,?
QB 5
W
H
g
10(GeV)
80.27(GeV)
> 114.4(GeV)
= 2m
Table 4.9: predicted periodic table of elementary particles,
E GM
Leptons
Standard
Model
Leptons
Quarks
Group I
Quarks
Legend
Leptons
Bosons
St Name
St Name
St
Charge(e),Spin,Colour
Charge(e),Spin
Spin,Source,*SC
Symbol
Symbol
Symbol
Mass-Energy
Mass-Energy
Mass-Energy
Name
90
(i) *Where, SC denotes coupling strength at 1(GeV). [18]

(ii) The values of St in table (4.9) utilise the Proton as the reference particle. This is due to its
RMS charge radius and mass-energy being precisely known by physical measurement.
Table 4.9: particle legend,
4.6
Graphical representation of fundamental particles under EGM
Illustrational (only) wavefunction [Eq. (3.458)] based on Proton harmonics,

sin St .2 . . r , m p .t
St , t
(3.458)
1.
T r ,m p
2
( 1, t )
( 2, t )
( 4, t )
5 .10
29
1 .10
28
1.5 .10
28
2 .10
28
2.5 .10
28
3 .10
28
3.5 .10
28
( 6, t )
Proton, Neutron
Electron, Electron Neutrino
L2, v2
L3, v3
Figure 3.44,
1 .
T r ,m p
16
( 8,t)
( 10 , t )
( 12 , t )
5 .10
30
1 .10
29
1.5 .10
29
2 .10
29
2.5 .10
29
3 .10
29
3.5 .10
29
4 .10
29
4.5 .10
29
( 14 , t )
Muon, Muon Neutrino

L5, v5
Tau, Tau Neutrino
Up and Down Quark
Figure 3.45,
91
1 .
T r ,m p
56
( 28 , t )
( 42 , t )
( 56 , t )
1 .10
30
2 .10
30
3 .10
30
4 .10
30
5 .10
30
6 .10
30
30
7 .10
8 .10
30
9 .10
30
3 .10
30
1 .10
29
1.1 .10
29
1.2 .10
29
1.3 .10
29
( 70 , t )
Strange Quark
Charm Quark
Bottom Quark
QB5
Figure 3.46,
1 .
T r ,m p
168
( 84 , t )
( 98 , t )
( 112 , t )
( 126 , t )
5 .10
31
1 .10
30
1.5 .10
30
2 .10
30
2.5 .10
30
3.5 .10
30
4 .10
30
4.5 .10
30
( 140 , t )
QB6
W Boson
Z Boson
Higgs Boson
Top Quark
Figure 3.47,
4.7
Concluding remarks
A concise mathematical relationship has been used to combine gravitational acceleration and
ElectroMagnetism into a method producing fundamental particle properties to extraordinary
precision. This also results in the representation of fundamental particles as harmonic forms of each
other, beyond the Standard Model suggesting the following:
i.
The potential for new Physics at higher accelerator energies.
ii.
Physical limitations on the value of two extremely important mathematical constants [i.e.
and ] at the QM level subject to uncertainty principles.
92
5 The Natural Philosophy of the Cosmos

Neither fame, nor station, nor reputation is a scientific compass.
Riccardo C. Storti
Taken from Quinta Essentia Part 4 (QE4)
Abstract
We utilise principles of mass-energy distribution and similitude by ZPF equilibria to derive
the values of the present Hubble constant H0 and CMBR temperature T0. It is demonstrated that
a mathematical relationship exists between the Hubble constant and CMBR temperature such that
T0 is derived from H0. The values derived are 67.0843(km/s/Mpc) and 2.7248(K)
respectively. The derivations are possible by assuming that, instantaneously prior to the BigBang, the Primordial Universe was analogous to a homogeneous Planck scale particle of
maximum permissible energy density, characterised by a single wavefunction. Simultaneously, we
represent the Milky-Way as a Planck scale object of equivalent total Galactic mass MG, acting
as a Galactic Reference Particle (GRP) characterised by a large number of wavefunctions with
respect to the solar distance from the Galactic centre Ro. This facilitates a comparative analysis
between the Primordial and Galactic particle representations by application of a harmonic
relationship, yielding H0 in terms of Ro and MG. Consequently, utilising the experimental
value of T0, we derive improved estimates for Ro and MG as being 8.1072(kpc) and
6.3142 x1011(solar-masses) respectively. The construct herein implies that the observed
accelerated expansion of the Universe is attributable to the determination of the ZPF energy
density threshold UZPF being < -2.52 x10-13(Pa). Moreover, it is graphically illustrated that the
gradient of the Hubble constant in the time domain is presently positive.
93
5.1
Introduction
We extend the principles of Electro-Gravi-Magnetics (EGM) to two important aspects of

Cosmology [i.e. the present value of the Hubble constant H0 and Cosmic Microwave Background
Radiation (CMBR) temperature T0]. Subsequently, the reader is actively encouraged to review
QE3,4, to obtain a full appreciation of the EGM method.
QE3 develops an equation facilitating the harmonic representation of all fundamental
particles relative to an arbitrarily chosen base particle. It is demonstrated, for example, that the
EGM wavefunction frequency of an Electron (r,me) is twice that of the Proton (r,mp),
and the harmonic relationship between them St has a value of 2. Hence, a table of fundamental
particle harmonics was formulated.
This resulted in a relationship between the mass-energy and size of fundamental particles
based upon Zero-Point-Field (ZPF) equilibria. Although the EGM harmonic representation is an
approximation derived from basic engineering principles, it produces experimentally verified
results substantially beyond the current abilities of the Standard Model (SM) of Particle-Physics to
do so, to at least four orders of magnitude.
We utilise the principles of mass-energy distribution and similitude by ZPF equilibria
developed in QE3, to derive H0 and T0. It is demonstrated that a mathematical relationship
exists between the Hubble constant and CMBR temperature such that T0 is derived from H0.
Consequently, this enables the complete and precise specification of the thermodynamic,
inflationary and expansive history of the Universe from the Big-Bang to the present day.
Astonishingly, the application of the EGM construct to Cosmology produces Black-BodyRadiation curve characteristics, without the application of the Black-Body-Law, further
reinforcing the validity of the H0 and T0 formulations of approximately 67.0843(km/s/Mpc)
and 2.7248(K) respectively. Considering that the experimental tolerance of the CMBR
temperature is presently 2.725 0.001(K), it is obvious that any determination within such a
narrow band should be given serious consideration.
The derivation of H0 and T0 is possible assuming that, instantaneously prior to the BigBang, the Primordial Universe was analogous to a homogeneous Planck scale particle of
maximum permissible energy density, characterised by a single EGM wavefunction.
Simultaneously, we represent the Milky-Way as a Planck scale object of equivalent total Galactic
mass MG, acting as a Galactic Reference Particle (GRP) characterised by a large number of EGM
wavefunctions with respect to the solar distance from the Galactic centre Ro.
This facilitates a comparative analysis between the Primordial and Galactic particle
representations utilising the harmonic equation derived in QE3, yielding H0 in terms of Ro and
MG. Moreover, we extend the analysis by determining the theoretical frequency shift of a
fictitious EGM wavefunction being radiated from the Primordial particle, yielding T0 in terms of
H0. Consequently, by utilising the measured value of T0, we derive improved estimates for Ro
and MG as being approximately 8.1072(kpc) and 6.3142 x1011(solar-masses) respectively.
Because the value of H0 is still widely debated and the associated experimental tolerance
is much broader than T0, the EGM construct implies that the observed accelerated expansion of
the Universe is attributable to the determination of the ZPF energy density threshold UZPF being
< -2.52 x10-13(Pa). Moreover, it is graphically illustrated that the gradient of the Hubble constant
in the time domain is presently positive.
Subsequently, it is demonstrated that the majority of what is currently conjectured to
constitute Dark Matter / Energy by the scientific community, is nothing more than Photons due to
the definition of a Graviton under the EGM construct. In addition, it is mathematically shown that
the magnitude of the impact of Dark Matter / Energy on the value of the Hubble constant and
CMBR temperature is < 1(%) such that the Universe is composed of:
> 94.4(%) Photons.
< 1(%) Dark Matter / Energy.
4.6(%) Atoms.
94
5.2
Objectives and scope
Note: all chapter citations refer to QE4.

5.2.1 What is derived?
The present Hubble constant H0 and Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR)
temperature T0 denote two of the most important Cosmological phenomenon to have been
identified in the last hundred years and may hold significant insight into the natural philosophy of
the Cosmos. Experimental measurements of H0 and T0 are advancing dramatically and have
raised some important aspects regarding the nature of the Cosmological evolution process.
QE4 is a companion to QE3, applying a method termed Electro-Gravi-Magnetics (EGM).
Storti et. Al. derived the EGM construct, utilising Dimensional Analysis Techniques (DATs) and
Buckingham Theory (BPT)163, to represent fundamental particles in harmonic form to high
computational precision in favourable agreement with the Standard Model (SM) of Particle-Physics
and experimental measurement.
One of the key findings was that, at a fundamental physical level, mass-energy is distributed
over space-time in only one manner164. The EGM construct has been re-applied to Cosmology with
the following derivational objectives (within experimental tolerance where applicable):
i. The Hubble constant (see: Ch. 7.1, 7.3, 7.6, 8.3).
ii. The CMBR temperature (see: Ch. 7.2, 7.3, 7.5, 8.1, 8.2).
iii. The ZPF energy density threshold (see: Ch. 7.7).
iv. The Cosmological evolution process (see: Ch. 8.4).
v. The history of the Universe (see: Ch. 8.5).
5.2.2 How is it achieved?
The primary tool employed to achieve our objectives is similitude165, subject to the
following simplified constraints (see: Ch. 6.1, 7.1 7.3),
i. The Cosmos at an instant prior to the Big-Bang is termed the Primordial Universe. It
was characterised by a single wavefunction with maximum permissible energy density
distributed homogeneously, analogous to a Planck scale particle of radius xh and mass
mxmh such that it was dynamically, kinematically and geometrically similar to a
Schwarzschild-Black-Hole (SBH).
ii. The relationship between the Primordial Universe and its present visible size obeys the
EGM harmonic representation of fundamental particles.
iii. The Milky-Way (MW) Galaxy may be represented as a Planck scale particle of
homogeneous energy density and equivalent total mass. This configuration has been
termed the Galactic Reference Particle (GRP), such that dynamic, kinematic and
geometric similarity exists between the Primordial Universe and the GRP.
5.3
Derivation process
5.3.1 Hubble constant HU

i. Utilising harmonic cut-off frequency in _3 form (see: Ch. 5.2.2), derive an expression
for EGM Flux Intensity C_J1: (see: Ch. 5.5),
Output:
163
Refer to the many standard texts relating to DATs and BPT.

In accordance with Zero-Point-Field equilibria.
165
A reference to DATs and BPT.
164
95
St J
C _J1( r , M )
. M
(4.52)
where,
St J
9 .c .
St G
4 .
St G
3.
2
9
(4.51)
2
3 . h
. c
2
4 . .h
(4.35)
c = 299792458(m/s).
h = 6.6260693 x10-34(Js).
h = 1 / th = 1 / (Gh/c5), G = 6.6742 x10-11(m3kg-1s-2).
ii. Derive an expression for the minimum gravitational lifetime of matter TL:
(see: Ch. 6.7.2.2),
Output:
TL
h
m
(4.196)
where,
m denotes the mass-energy of a Photon defined in QE3.
m = 3.195095 x10-45(eV).
iii. Derive an expression for the EGM Hubble constant HU utilising the EGM harmonic
representation of fundamental particles: (see: Ch. 7.1),
Output:
y r 2, M 2
K U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
ln
1
ln n _2 r 2 , M 2
(4.229)
y r 2, M 2
.M
C _J1 y r 2 , M 2 .r 3 ,
3
2
C _J1 r 2 , M 2
A U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
H U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
(4.231)
TL
K U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
(4.233)
1
A U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
(4.235)
where, n_2 denotes the non-refractive form of n defined in QE3.

5.3.2 CMBR temperature TU
iv. Derive an expression for the average number of Gravitons ng radiated by a SBH at
frequency : (see: Ch. 6.7.1.1),
Output:
n g , M BH
E M BH
E g( )
(4.177)
where, MBH denotes SBH mass.

96
v. Derive an expression for the value of the EGM Hubble constant at the instant of the BigBang, termed the primordial Hubble constant H: (see: Ch. 7.1.3.2),
Output:
H r 3, M 3
2.
2. . .
G m r 3, M 3
3
(4.237)
vi. Derive an expansive scaling factor KT incorporating ng, H and HU:

(see: Ch. 7.2.3),
Output:
K T r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
n g _3 r 3 , M 3 , M 3 .ln
H r 3, M 3
H U r 2, r 3 , M 2, M 3
(4.240)
where, _3 has a generalised definition according to,

9
_3( r , M )
M
St G.
5
r
(4.36)
vii. Derive a thermodynamic scaling factor TW incorporating Wiens displacement constant

KW and EGM wavelength of the form _3: (see: Ch. 7.2.3),
Output:
T W r 2, r 3, M 2 , M 3
KW
_3 R U r 2 , r 3 , M 2 , M 3 , M 3
(4.241)
where,
_3(r,M) _3(RU(r2,M2,r3,M3),M3)
_3(RU(r2,M2,r3,M3),M3) = c / _3(RU(r2,M2,r3,M3),M3)
R U r 2, r 3 , M 2, M 3
c .A U r 2 , r 3 , M 2 , M 3
(4.234)
KW = 2.8977685 x10-3(mK).
viii. Derive an expression for EGM Cosmological temperature TU utilising KT and TW:
(see: Ch. 7.2.3),
Output:
T U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
K T r 2 , r 3 , M 2 , M 3 .T W r 2 , r 3 , M 2 , M 3
(4.242)
5.3.3 HU HU2, TU TU2 TU3

ix. Derive the minimum physical dimensions of mass and radius for a SBH with maximum
permissible energy density at the Planck scale: (see: Ch. 6.1.3),
Output:
mx
x
2
(4.71)
4 . 2
6
3
(4.72)
97
Hence, the dimensions of a SBH at maximum permissible energy density at the Planck scale
is given by,
Mass = mxmh when mh = (hc/G).
Radius = xh when h = (Gh/c3).
x. Assume that the Primordial Universe (i.e. the Universe instantaneously prior to the
Big-Bang) is analogous to a SBH of Planck scale dimensions at a condition of maximum
permissible energy density, with radius r3 = xh and mass M3 = mxmh = xmh / 2:
(see: Ch. 7.3.1),
xi. Formulate generalised expressions for r2 and M2 incorporating the EGM adjusted
Planck Length and mass: (see: Ch. 7.3.1),
Output:
r2(r) = Kr
(4.247)
M2(M) = KmM = KM
(4.248)
where, K = Km = [ / 2](1 / 3) 1.162447 as defined in QE3.

xii. Simplify ng: (see: Ch. 7.3.1, 7.6),
Output:
For r3 = xh and M3 = mxmh = xmh / 2: ng[,MBH] = ng[_3(r3,M3),M3] = 8 / 3.
xiii. Simplify H: (see: Ch. 7.3.2),
Output:
H x. h , m x.m h
h
x
(4.249)
For brevity in future applications, let: H = h / x.

xiv. Transform HU to HU2: (see: Ch. 7.6.1),
Output:
H U K .r , x. h , K m.M , m x.m h
H U2( r , M )
(4.276)
xv. Transform TU to TU2: (see: Ch. 7.5),

Output:
T U2( H )
K W .St T .ln
h
x.H
. H5
(4.275)
where, H denotes a generalised reference to Hubble constant and StT is a constant

according to.
9
4. 3. 1 . x
3 4 c5 . 2
h
3
St T
98
(4.274)
xvi. Transform TU2 to TU3: (see: Ch. 8.1.3),

Output:
T U3 H
K W .St T .ln
1
H
. H .H

5 .
(4.318)
where, = 1 / 3 and H denotes a dimensionless range variable such that 1 H > 0.

xvii. Select values of r and M for application to r2(r), M2(M) utilising the following
measures: (see: Ch. 7.3.2):
Input:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
r = Ro denotes the mean distance from the Sun to the MW Galactic centre.
Ro = 8(kpc) as defined by the PDG [19] (kpc = kilo-parsec).
M = MG denotes the total mass (i.e. visible + dark) of the MW Galaxy.
MG 6 x1011 solar masses as defined by [20].
H0 = 71(km/s/Mpc) as defined by the PDG [21] (Mpc = Mega-parsec).
T0 = 2.725(K) as defined by the PDG. [19]
5.3.4 Rate of change dHdt

xviii. Derive a generalised expression for the rate of change of the EGM Hubble constant in the
time domain dHdt as a function of the dimensionless range variable H such that:
1 H > 0 and H H: (see: Ch. 8.3.3),
Output:
dH dt H
2
H .H
. 5 .ln 1 . 2
2
H
5 .
H
(4.361)
Note: dHdt is alternative notation introduced to replace the typical differential form
dH/dt, for application in the MathCad 8 Professional computational environment.
xix. For solutions where the deceleration parameter is zero, derive an expression for the
magnitude of the EGM Hubble constant |H| in the time domain166: (see: Ch. 8.3.3),
Output:
d
H
dt
(4.378)
xx. Devise a numerical approximation method facilitating the graphical representation of |H|
in terms of an indicial power (see: Ch. 8.3.3) such that,
Input:
t
1
H .H
H H
(4.359)
(4.376)
166
This terminology is an abbreviated reference to the square-root of the magnitude of the rate of
change of the Hubble constant in the time domain, as indicated by the equation.
99
xxi. For non-zero deceleration parameter solutions, derive the ZPF energy density threshold
UZPF (see: Ch. 7.7),
Output:
3 .c .
H U2 R o , M G
ZPF .
8 . .G
2
U ZPF
(4.315)
where,
ZPF
EGM
(4.313)
U2 r x5.R o , m g5 .M G
EGM
U2 R o , M G
(4.308)
xxii. Reduce the expression for the EGM Hubble constant and Cosmological temperature to
their simplest functionally dependent forms: HU5 and TU5 respectively (see: App. 4.B:
MathCad 8 Professional b. Calculation engine xi, MathCad 12 c. High precision
calculation engine iv).
Output:
H U5( r , M )
1 .
ln
TL
T U5( r , M )
( 3 . )
32
256
KW
c
5.4
7 . .
. m
.ln ( 3 ) . h
4
M
.
.ln
. 4
H U5( r , M ) h
H
2 .
7 .
. r
h
1
.H
2
7 .
mh
5 .
. r
h
M
2 .
2
26 .
(4.529)
. 2
.H ( r , M ) 5
U5
(4.530)
Sample results
5.4.1 Numerical evaluation and analysis

5.4.1.1 Cosmological properties
Evaluating AU, RU, HU and TU yields,
9
A U K .R o , x. h , K m.M G, m x.m h = 14.575885 10 .yr
(4.250)
9
R U K .R o , x. h , K m.M G, m x.m h = 14.575885 10 .Lyr
(4.251)
H U K .R o , x. h , K m.M G, m x.m h = 67.084304
km
s .Mpc
(4.254)
T U K .R o , x. h , K m.M G, m x.m h = 2.724752 ( K )
(4.255)
The EGM construct error associated with HU and TU with respect to expert opinion and
physical measurement is given by,
1 .
H U K .R o , x. h , K m.M G, m x.m h
1 = 5.515064 ( % )
H0
(4.256)
1 .
T U K .R o , x. h , K m.M G, m x.m h
T0
.
1 = 9.08391310
(%)
(4.257)
100
It is possible to calculate the value of HU and TU based upon the visible mass only of
the MW Galaxy by a simple substitution of values (i.e. M2 / 3 = KmMG / 3) as follows,
1
km
H U K .R o , x. h , .K m.M G, m x.m h = 67.753267
.
3
s Mpc
(4.262)
1
T U K .R o , x. h , .K m.M G, m x.m h = 2.739618 ( K )
3
(4.263)
Hence, the magnitude of the impact of Dark Matter / Energy on the value of HU and TU is
demonstrated to be < 1(%) when compared to the previously derived value according to,
1 = 0.987352 ( % )
1
H U K .R o , x. h , .K m.M G, m x.m h
3
(4.264)
1 = 0.542607 ( % )
1
T U K .R o , x. h , .K m.M G, m x.m h
3
(4.265)
A simple test verifying TU2 is demonstrated below. Since the computed value of
TU2[HU2(Ro,MG/3)] based upon visible MW Galactic mass MG/3 is exactly compliant with TU
(i.e. TU = TU2), no technical error exists. Moreover, the result TU2(H0) T0 agrees precisely
with historical expectation (i.e. prior to measurement by satellite) of T0.
1
T U2 H U2 R o , .M G
3
T U2 H 0
2.739618
2.810842
( K)
(4.277)
Note: the validation of TU = TU2 above, also verifies that HU = HU2. In addition, it is also
demonstrated and numerically verified in App. 4.B that HU2 = HU5.
The preceding results demonstrate that the impact of Dark Matter / Energy on HU and
TU is very small. This implies that the constitution of the Universe under the EGM construct is
quite different from current thinking. The contemporary view167 is that the constitution of the
Universe is,
i. 72(%) Dark Energy.
ii. 23(%) Dark Matter.
iii. 4.6(%) Atoms.
However, the EGM construct generalises the constitution of the Universe as being,
iv. > 94.4(%) Photons.
v. < 1(%) Dark Matter / Energy.
vi. 4.6(%) Atoms.
For solutions where the deceleration parameter is zero, may be numerically
approximated utilising the Given and Find commands within the MathCad 8 Professional
computational environment, subject to the constraint that dHdt as a function of the present value
of H [i.e. HU2(Ro,MG) / H] raised to an indicial power, is equal to the square of the present
Hubble constant as determined by the EGM construct HU2(Ro,MG)2 according to the following
algorithm,
167
http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/m_mm.html
101
Given
dH dt
H U2 R o , M G
H U2 R o , M G
(4.379)
Find( )
(4.380)
Hence, = 4.595349.
5.4.1.2 Significant temporal ordinates
(See: Ch. 8.3.4)
Significant temporal ordinates of Cosmological evolutionary events (marked on the
proceeding graphs) are given in matrix form as follows,
1
t1
2
5 . .
H
10 .
t2
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
2
15 . . 5 .
t3 e
. 1
H
2.206287 2.206287
4.196153 4.196153
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
. 1
H
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
2
5 . . 5 .
t5 e
10
42 .
20.932666 20.932666
8.385263 8.385263
t4
= 6.205726 6.205726
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
. 1
H
. 1
H
(4.384)
where, t5 denotes the temporal ordinate of the local minima of the 2nd time derivative of the
Hubble constant (see: Ch. 8.3.3, 8.3.6.10).
102
5.4.2
5.4.2.1
Graphical evaluation and analysis

Average Cosmological temperature vs. age
(See: Ch. 8.2.5.1, 8.2.5.2)

Av. Cosmological Temperature vs. Age
1
H
Av. Cosmological Temperature (K)
T U3 H
t1
3 .1031
1
T U3 e
T U3 e
T U3 e
5 .
2 .1031
2
10 .
1
2
2
5 . . 5 .
1
2
2
15 . . 5 .
2
2
2
2
2
.
.
.
.
.
2
5 5 5
3
1 .1031
1 .10
43
1 .10
42
1 .10
41
1 .10
40
1 .10
1
39
1 .10
38
1 .10
37
1 .10
36
H .H
Cosmological Age (s)
Figure 4.24,
t2t3
3 .1031
T U3 H
1
T U3 e
T U3 e
T U3 e
5 .
2 .1031
2
1
10 .
2
2
5 . . 5 .
1
2
2
2
2
15 . . 5 .
2
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
3
1 .1031
1 .10
43
1 .10
42
1 .10
41
1 .10
40
1 .10
1
39
1 .10
38
1 .10
37
1 .10
36
H .H
Figure 4.25,
103
5.4.2.2
Magnitude of the Hubble constant vs. Cosmological age
(See: Ch. 8.3.6.11, 8.3.6.12)

Mag. of Hubble Cons. vs. Cosm. Age
2.5 .10
dH dt H
dH dt e
1
2
5 .
2 .10
(Hz)
dH dt e
1
H
t1
42
1
1.5 .1042
1
dH dt e
42
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
2
5 . . 5 .
4
2
2
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
1
1 .1042
5 .10
41
0
43
42
41
40
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
30
1 .10 1 .10 1 .10 1 .10 1 .10 1 .10 1 .10 1 .10 1 .10 1 .10 1 .10 1 .10 1 .10 1 .10
1
H .H
Figure 4.46,
2.5 .10
dH dt H
dH dt e
1
2
5 .
2 .10
(Hz)
dH dt e
1
H
t4
42
1
1.5 .1042
1
dH dt e
42
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
2
2
4
5 . . 5 .
2
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
1
1 .1042
5 .10
41
0
43
42
41
40
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
30
1 .10 1 .10 1 .10 1 .10 1 .10 1 .10 1 .10 1 .10 1 .10 1 .10 1 .10 1 .10 1 .10 1 .10
1
H .H
Figure 4.47,
104
5.4.3 Cosmological evolution process

Based upon the preceding graphical output, the Cosmological evolution process may be
categorised into two regimes, comprised of four distinct periods (i.e. three inflationary and one
expansive) as follows,
Time
Temperature
Hubble Constant
-1
- < TU2 < 0
+ > |H| > H
0 < t < H
0 H-1
- 0
+ H
-1
-1
0 TU2 < TU2(t1 )
H |H| > 0
H t < t1
H-1 t1
0 TU2(t1-1)
H 0
-1
-1
t1 t < t4
TU2(t1 ) TU2 > TU2(t4 )
0 |H| < |dHdt[(t4H)-1]|
-1
-1
t1 t4
TU2(t1 ) TU2(t4 )
0 |dHdt[(t4H)-1]|
t4 t < AU
TU2(t4-1) TU2 TU2(HU2)
|dHdt[(t4H)-1]| |H| HU2
-1
t4 AU
TU2(t4 ) TU2(HU2)
|dHdt[(t4H)-1]| HU2
Description
Primordial Inflation (prior to the Big-Bang): the Universe may be described as
inverted and non-physical such that the interior of the Cosmos existed outside
the exterior boundary RBH in accordance with the Primordial Universe model
described in Ch. (7, 8) such that:
1. TU2 increases from negative infinity to zero.
2. dHdt increases from negative infinity to -H2.
3. |H| decreases from positive infinity to H.
Thermal Inflation: the period from the instant of the Big-Bang to the instant of
maximum Cosmological temperature such that:
4. TU2 increases from zero to its maximum value TU2(t1-1).
5. dHdt increases from -H2 to zero.
6. |H| decreases from H to zero.
Hubble Inflation: the period from the instant of maximum Cosmological
temperature to the instant of maximum post-primordial |H| such that:
7. TU2 decreases from its maximum value to TU2(t4-1).
8. dHdt increases from zero to its maximum physical value dHdt[(t4H)-1].
9. |H| increases from zero to its maximum physical value |dHdt[(t4H)-1]|.
Hubble Expansion: the period from the maximum post-primordial |H| to the
present day such that:
10. TU2 decreases from TU2(t4-1) to TU2(HU2).
11. dHdt decreases from its maximum physical value to HU22.
12. |H| decreases from its maximum physical value to HU2.
Symbol
Definition / Value
The EGM Hubble constant at the instant of the Big-Bang:
H
2.742004 x1042(Hz) 8.460941 x1061(km/s/Mpc)
-H2
-7.518587 x1084(Hz2) -7.158752 x10123(km/s/Mpc)2
HU2
The present value of the EGM Hubble constant:
= HU2(Ro,MG) 67.084304(km/s/Mpc)
HU22
4.500304 x103(km/s/Mpc)2
H0
The PDG Hubble constant: 71(km/s/Mpc)
2
H0
5.041 x103(km/s/Mpc)2
H-1
The instant of the Big-Bang: 3.646967 x10-43(s)
t1
The instant of max. Cosmological temperature: 2.206287 x10-42(s)
t4
The instant of maximum physical |H|: 2.093267 x10-41(s)
Physical @ {RBH rS}
Non-Physical
@ {RBH < rS}
Period
Primordial
Inflation
Thermal
Inflation
Hubble
Inflation
Hubble
Expansion
Regime
105
AU
TU2(H)
TU2(t1-1)
TU2(t4-1)
TU2(HU2)
T0
dHdt[(t4H)-1]
|dHdt[(t4H)-1]|
RU
2
H (dHdt[(t4H)-1])-1
H(|dHdt[(t4H)-1]|)-1
The EGM Cosmological age: = HU2-1 14.575885 x109(yr)

The EGM Cosmological temperature at the instant of the Big-Bang:
= 0(K)
The Maximum EGM Cosmological temperature:
3.195518 x1031(K)
The EGM Cosmological temperature at the instant of maximum physical
|H|: 2.059945 x1031(K)
The present EGM Cosmological temperature:
= TU3(HU2H-1) 2.724752(K)
The present experimentally measured CMBR temperature: 2.725(K)
The approximated maximum rate of change of the physical EGM
Hubble constant:
1.553518 x1084(Hz2) 1.479167 x10123(km/s/Mpc)2
The approximated maximum physical |H|:
1.246402 x1042(Hz) 3.845994 x1061(km/s/Mpc)
The EGM Cosmological size: = cHU2-1 14.575885 x109(Lyr)
4.839718
2.199936
Table 4.10,
Time
0
H-1 3.646967 x10-43(s)
t1 2.206287 x10-42(s)
t4 2.093267 x10-41(s)
AU 14.575885 x109(yr)
TU2 (K)
dHdt (km/s/Mpc)2
-
-
0
-7.158752 x10123
0
3.195518 x1031
31
2.059945 x10
1.479167 x10123
2.724752
4.500304 x103
Table 4.11,
|H|| (km/s/Mpc)
+
8.460941 x1061
0
3.845994 x1061
67.084304
5.4.4 History of the Universe according to EGM

Utilising TU2, the history of the Universe may be articulated as follows,
Epoch or Event
Time Domain
t
Primordial epoch
Grand unification epoch
Electroweak / Quark Epoch
Lepton Epoch
Boundary Temperature Value
T U2 H = 0 ( K )
H
1
< t 10
34 .
(s)
10-34 < t(s) 10-10
10-10 < t(s) 102
T U2
10
10
10 .
T U2
( K)
(s)
T U2
.
= 1.92400510
28
34 .
. 15 ( K )
= 3.43308810
(s)
1
2.
. 9 ( K)
= 1.01325410
10 ( s )
106
Photon Epoch
Universe becomes transparent
102 < t(s) 1013

1013(s) 3 x105(yr)
T U2
3 x105 < t(yr) 109
T U2
1
13 .
10
= 978.724031 ( K )
(s)
1
9.
= 11.838588 ( K )
10 ( yr )
109 < t(yr) 5 x109
First Supernovae
T U2
5 x109 < t(yr) 14.58 x109
Present Epoch
1
9.
5 .10 ( yr )
= 4.898955 ( K )
T U2 H U2 R o , M G
= 2.724752 ( K )
Table 4.12,
T U2
T U2
T U2
1 .( day )
1
.
31 ( day )
T U2
T U2
T U2
1
1 .( s )
1
1 .( yr )
1
2
10 .( yr )
1
3.
1
4.
10 ( yr )
5.5
5.
10 ( yr )
1
T U2
6.
10 ( yr )
1
T U2
7.
10 ( yr )
T U2
T U2
T U2
10 ( yr )
T U2
T U2
. 7
2.52413210
521.528169
.
3.86401510
147.71262
= 1.00307810
. 6
41.823796
. 4
8.07751510
11.838588
9
10 .( yr )
.
2.29089210
3.35005
.
6.49496110
0.947724
8
10 .( yr )
4
3
( K)
10 .
10
T U2
. 10 1.84076810
. 3
1.2497710
( yr )
1
11 .
10
( yr )
(4.405)
Discussion
5.5.1 Conceptualization
5.5.1.1 x
A physical interpretation of x is possible utilising the Stefan-Boltzmann Law by
considering the energy flux emitted from a Black-Body and equating it to the peak average
Cosmological temperature. x is shown to be proportional to the 4th power-root of the energy
flux of the Universe at the peak average Cosmological temperature (see: App. 4.A).
107
5.5.1.2 TL
The minimum gravitational lifetime of matter TL is a simple concept to embrace by
considering all matter to represent a vast store of Gravitons within, being ejected at a uniform rate
with an emission frequency of g (see: Ch. 6.7.2.2, 6.8).
5.5.1.3 C_J
The initial step in conceptualizing the method of solution for the derivation of the Hubble
constant and CMBR temperature presented herein is to understand the nature of EGM Flux
Intensity C_J. The EGM construct represents gravitational fields as a spectrum of conjugate
wavefunction pairs, each comprising of a population of Photons.
The spectrum is gravitationally dominated by the energy of the population of conjugate
Photon pairs at the harmonic cut-off frequency168 (see: Ch. 5.4). Subsequently, all
gravitational objects may be usefully represented by approximation as wavefunction radiators of a
single population of conjugate Photon pairs (see: Ch. 9.2.2.2, 9.2.3.2).
The EGM spectrum is derived from the application of Fourier series Harmonics, involving
the hybridization of 2 spectra (i.e. an amplitude spectrum and a frequency spectrum). The
relationship between C_J and harmonic cut-off mode n (which also denotes the total number
of modes in the PV spectrum169) is analogous to the relationship between the amplitude and
frequency spectra inherent in Fourier series Harmonics. Thus,
i. C_J decreases with Cosmological expansion and is analogous to the decrease in PV
spectral amplitude as the distance to the subject increases (i.e. the gravitational influence
decreases).
ii. Instantaneously after the Big-Bang, there were no Galaxies and as the Universe
expanded, energy condensed into matter and the EGM spectrum developed into its current
form such that matter radiates a spectrum of conjugate wavefunction pairs, each
comprising of a population of Photons. Therefore, a single frequency mode describing the
Primordial Universe becomes many modes when describing matter in the present state
of the Universe. Hence, n increases with Cosmological expansion as the distance to the
subject increases.
iii. EGM finds the convergent solution relating 2 spectra of opposing gradient. That is,
C_J decreases and n increases as the Universe expands.
iv. For solutions to where the Refractive Index KPV approaches unity170, it is
demonstrated that _3 (see: Ch. 5.1, 5.2), consequently C_J may be simplified
to C_J1 (see: Ch. 5.5.1) and a definition stated as follows: EGM Flux Intensity is a
representation of gravitational field strength (i.e. the gradient in the energy density of the
space-time manifold) expressed in Janskys (Jy).
v. The gravitational forces governing the formation of the Milky-Way Galaxy are
equivalent to the gravitational forces responsible for the current state of the Universe as a
whole. Subsequently, the average EGM Flux Intensity of the Milky-Way Galaxy is
proportional to the average value of the present Universe and the peak value of the
Primordial Universe instantaneously prior to the Big-Bang. This means that the EGM
Flux Intensity of the Milky-Way Galaxy acts a baseline reference.
168
i.e. the high-end terminal spectral frequency.

The PV spectrum is a bandwidth of the EGM spectrum.
170
The typical representation of KPV is an isomorphic weak field approximation to General
Relativity (GR).
169
108
5.5.1.4 St
The EGM harmonic representation of fundamental particles St demonstrates that the
mass-energy distribution over the space-time manifold at the elementary level, utilising the
condition of ZPF equilibria, occurs in only one manner. The significance of this is that it provokes
an obvious question with respect to Cosmology. That is: perhaps it applies on a Cosmological
scale? Simply described, the representation works by expressing the values of of two
fundamental particles171, as an integer ratio (i.e. a harmonic of the reference particle).
Subsequently, it follows that C_J may be expressed in a similar manner as it is derived
utilising . Thus, if the EGM harmonic representation of fundamental particles with respect to
mass-energy distribution over the space-time manifold were universally valid, we would expect that
in order to apply it cosmologically:
i. The ratio of the presently observable Cosmological size rf, to the initial size ri of the
Primordial Universe instantaneously prior to the Big-Bang, is proportional to the
corresponding EGM Flux Intensity {i.e. (rf / ri) [C_J1(rf) / C_J1(ri)]}.
ii. The value of C_J at the periphery of the Primordial Universe (i.e. instantaneously
prior to the Big-Bang) is substantially greater than the value at the edge of the presently
observable Universe. That is, the gradient of the energy density of the Primordial
Universe, instantaneously prior to the Big-Bang, was substantially greater than the
gradient of the energy density at the periphery of the presently observable Universe.
iii. Since the values of wavefunction amplitude in the EGM spectrum decrease inversely with
n, and n increases with radial displacement, it follows that some sort of naturally
logarithmic or exponential relationship should exist between the ratio of the sizes
described above and the associated EGM Flux Intensities.
iv. St9 represents the harmonic relationship between the values of of two
dimensionally similar particles. Hence, recognising that the frequency and time domains
are interchangeable, we may apply St9 as the ratio of TL to the present Hubble age
of the Universe by the EGM method AU. Hence, it follows that the ratio of the sizes
described above is proportional to the ratio TL : AU (see: Ch. 6.7.2.2).
5.5.2 Dynamic, kinematic and geometric similarity
5.5.2.1 HU
The Primordial Universe was analogous to a spherical particle on the Planck scale with
radius r1 and homogeneous mass distribution M1, described by a single wavefunction whereas
the presently observable Universe is described by a spectrum of wavefunctions. The maximum
EGM Flux Intensity measured by an observer at the edge of the Primordial Universe is given by
C_J1(r1,M1).
Matter radiates Gravitons172 at a spectrum of frequencies such that the Cosmological
majority of it exists in Photonic form, resulting in an approximately homogeneous mass-energy
distribution throughout the Universe whereby any Galactic formation is dynamically, kinematically
and geometrically equivalent to a spherical particle of homogeneous mass distribution and may be
represented as a Planck scale object to be utilised as a Galactic Reference Particle (GRP).
The associated EGM Flux Intensity of the GRP is given by C_J1(r2,M2) where, r2
denotes the mean H0 measurement distance173 to the Galactic centre and M2 represents total
171
One of them being an arbitrarily selected reference particle from which to compare all others.
Coherent populations of conjugate Photon pairs for a minimum period of TL.
173
i.e. the distance relative to the Galactic centre from where a physical measurement of H0 is
performed.
172
109
Galactic mass (i.e. visible + dark). The definition of r2 comes from the scientific requirement to
compare calculation or prediction to measurement. Subsequently, one should also utilise parameters
within the same frame of reference as the measurement, against which the construct is being tested.
It is not known by physical validation that H0 is measured as being the same from all
locations in the Universe. It is believed to be the case by contemporary theory; however it is not
factually known to be true. To verify it physically, one would be required to perform the H0
measurement from a significantly different location in space. Thus, to minimise potential modelling
errors, we shall confine r2 to the same frame of reference174 as the measurement of H0 (see: Ch.
7.1).
5.5.2.2 TU
EGM defines the Primordial Universe as a single mode wavefunction, therefore any
temperature calculation must be scaled accordingly for application to black-body radiation (i.e.
black-bodies emit a spectrum of thermal frequencies, not just one). Hence, we would expect that the
peak CMBR temperature since the Big-Bang is proportional to the average number of Gravitons
being radiated per harmonic period by the Primordial Universe instantaneously prior to the BigBang (see: Ch. 7.2).
5.6
Concluding remarks
The CBMR temperature is a function of the Hubble constant.
The Hubble constant and CBMR temperature instantaneously prior to the Big-Bang is
calculated to be:
H = h / x 8.460941 x1061(km/s/Mpc).
TU2[H] = 0(K).
Physical Laws become real instantaneously after the Big-Bang. For example, the 2nd Law
of Thermodynamics is not violated at TU2[H > H] because TU2 > 0(K).
The magnitude of the EGM Hubble constant175 at the instant of maximum EGM
Cosmological temperature is graphically illustrated to be:
|H(t1)| = 0(km/s/Mpc).
The maximum EGM Cosmological temperature is calculated to be:
TU2(t1-1) 3.195518 x1031(K).
The magnitude of the maximum physical (i.e. post Big-Bang) EGM Hubble constant
(abbreviated reference) is calculated to be:
|H(t4)| = |dHdt[(t4H)-1]| 3.845994 x1061(km/s/Mpc).
The EGM Cosmological temperature at the instant of maximum physical EGM Hubble
constant (abbreviated reference) is calculated to be:
TU2(t4-1) 2.059945 x1031(K).
174
The solar system.

This terminology is an abbreviated reference to the square-root of the magnitude of the rate of
change of the Hubble constant in the time domain.
175
110
The present EGM Hubble constant and average EGM Cosmological temperature is
calculated to be:
HU2(Ro,MG) 67.084304(km/s/Mpc).
TU2[HU2(Ro,MG)] 2.724752(K).
The present CMBR temperature is measured to be:
T0 2.725 0.001(K).
The present Hubble constant is stated by the PDG176 to be:
H0 = 71, +1/-2(km/s/Mpc).
The EGM Cosmological temperature based upon the PDG Hubble constant is calculated to
be:
TU2[H0] 2.810842(K).
The Universe is composed of:
> 94.4(%) Photons.
< 1(%) Dark Matter / Energy.
4.6(%) Atoms.
The magnitude of the impact of Dark Matter / Energy on the value of the Hubble constant
and CMBR temperature is < 1(%).
The EGM construct exhibits characteristics satisfying the observed phenomena of
accelerated Cosmological expansion due to:
The ZPF energy density threshold value UZPF < -2.52 x10-13(Pa).
The gradient of the Hubble constant in the time domain is presently positive.
On a human scale, this translates to levels of ZPF energy according to,
i. < -252(yJ/mm3).
On an astronomical scale, this becomes,
ii. < -0.252(mJ/km3).
iii. < -7.4 x1012(YJ/pc3).
On a Cosmological scale, this becomes,
iv. < -6.6 x1041(YJ/RU3).
The deceleration parameter,
v. EGM may be utilised to obtain non-zero deceleration parameter solutions.
Note: although on the human scale the quantities of ZPF energy are extremely small, on the
astronomical or Cosmological scales, they become extremely large when approaching the
dimensions of the visible Universe according to RU RU(KRo,xh,KmMG,mxmh).
176
http://pdg.lbl.gov/2006/reviews/hubblerpp.pdf (pg. 20 - WMAP + All).
111
5.7
Graphical summary
5.7.1
TU3 vs. H: Figure 4.22

Av. Cosmological Temperature
31
3.5 .10
e
5 .
3 .1031
2.5 .1031
31
2 .10
T U3 H
1
T U3 e
5 .
2
1.5 .1031
31
1 .10
5 .1030
0.1
0.01
1 .10 3
H
Dimensionless Range Variable
1 .10 4
1 .10 5
1 .10 6
Average Cosmological Temperature

Maximum Av. Cosmological Temperature
112
Maximum Av. Cosrature
5.7.2
TU3 vs. t = (HH)-1 (i): Figure 4.23

31
3.5 .10
1
H
5 . . 1
H
3 .1031
2.5 .1031
31
2 .10
T U3 H
1
T U3 e
5 .
1.5 .1031
31
1 .10
5 .1030
1 .10 43
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1 .10 40
1 .10 39
1 .10 38
1 .10 37
1 .10 36
H .H
113
5.7.3
TU3 vs. t = (HH)-1 (ii): Figure 4.24

1
H
31
3.5 .10
t1
3 .1031
2.5 .1031
T U3 H
1
T U3 e
T U3 e
T U3 e
5 .
2
31
2 .10
2
10 .
1
2
2
5 . . 5 .
1
1.5 .1031
2
2
15 . . 5 .
2
2
2
2
2
.
.
.
.
.
2
5 5 5
3
31
1 .10
5 .1030
1 .10 43
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1 .10 40
1 .10 39
1 .10 38
1 .10 37
1 .10 36
H .H
114
5.7.4
TU3 vs. t = (HH)-1 (iii): Figure 4.25

t2
31
3.5 .10
t3
3 .1031
2.5 .1031
T U3 H
1
T U3 e
T U3 e
T U3 e
5 .
2
31
2 .10
2
10 .
1
2
2
5 . . 5 .
1
1.5 .1031
2
2
15 . . 5 .
2
2
2
2
2
.
.
.
.
.
2
5 5 5
3
31
1 .10
5 .1030
1 .10 43
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1 .10 40
1 .10 39
1 .10 38
1 .10 37
1 .10 36
H .H
115
5.7.5
TU3 vs. H = (HH) (i): Figure 4.26

Av. Cosmological Temp. vs. Hubble Cons.
31
3.5 .10
1
t1
31
3 .10
2.5 .1031
T U3 H
1
T U3 e
2
5 .
2 .1031
2
T U3 e
T U3 e
10 .
1
2
2
5 . . 5 .
1
31
2
2
1.5 .10
2
15 . . 5 .
2
2
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
3
31
1 .10
5 .1030
1 .1043
1 .1042
1 .1041
1 .1040
1 .1039
1 .1038
1 .1037
1 .1036
H .H
Hubble Constant (Hz)
116
5.7.6
TU3 vs. H = (HH) (ii): Figure 4.27

31
3.5 .10
1
1
t2 t3
31
3 .10
2.5 .1031
T U3 H
1
T U3 e
2
5 .
2 .1031
2
T U3 e
T U3 e
10 .
1
2
2
5 . . 5 .
1
31
2
2
1.5 .10
2
15 . . 5 .
2
2
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
3
31
1 .10
5 .1030
1 .1043
1 .1042
1 .1041
1 .1040
1 .1039
1 .1038
1 .1037
1 .1036
H .H
117
5.7.7
TU3 vs. r = (HH)-1c (i): Figure 4.28

Av. Cosmological Temperature vs. Size
c
H
31
3.5 .10
t 1 .c
31
3 .10
2.5 .1031
T U3 H
1
T U3 e
2
5 .
2 .1031
2
T U3 e
T U3 e
10 .
1
2
2
5 . . 5 .
1
31
1.5 .10
2
2
2
15 . . 5 .
2
2
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
3
31
1 .10
5 .1030
1 .10 34
1 .10 33
1 .10 32
1 .10 31
1 .10 30
1 .10 29
1 .10 28
1 .10 27
1.
c
H .H
EGM Cosmological Size (m)
118
5.7.8
TU3 vs. r = (HH)-1c (ii): Figure 4.29

Av. Cosmological Temperature vs. Size
31
3.5 .10
t 2 .c t 3 .c
31
3 .10
2.5 .1031
T U3 H
1
T U3 e
2
5 .
2 .1031
2
T U3 e
T U3 e
10 .
1
2
2
5 . . 5 .
1
31
1.5 .10
2
2
2
15 . . 5 .
2
2
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
3
31
1 .10
5 .1030
1 .10 34
1 .10 33
1 .10 32
1 .10 31
1 .10 30
1 .10 29
1 .10 28
1 .10 27
1.
c
H .H
EGM Cosmological Size (m)
119
5.7.9
dTU4/dt vs. t = (HH)-1 (i): Figure 4.30

1st Derivative of Av. Cosmological Temp.
1 .1072
t1
t2
71
8 .10
6 .1071
4 .1071
71
2 .10
dT dt
H .H
1
0
(K/s)
dT dt t 1
dT dt t 2
dT dt t 3
2 .1071
4 .1071
71
6 .10
71
8 .10
1 .1072
72
1.2 .10
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1 .10 40
1 .10 39
H .H
120
5.7.10
dTU4/dt vs. t = (HH)-1 (ii): Figure 4.31

1st Derivative of Av. Cosmological Temp.
1 .1072
t2
t3
71
8 .10
6 .1071
4 .1071
71
2 .10
dT dt
H .H
1
0
(K/s)
dT dt t 1
dT dt t 2
dT dt t 3
2 .1071
4 .1071
71
6 .10
71
8 .10
1 .1072
72
1.2 .10
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1 .10 40
1 .10 39
H .H
121
5.7.11
d2TU4/dt2 vs. t = (HH)-1 (i): Figure 4.32

2nd Derivative of Av. Cosmological Temp.
113
5 .10
t1
t2
113
5 .10
(K/s^2)
dT2 dt2
H .H
1
1 .10114
dT2 dt2 t 1
dT2 dt2 t 2
dT2 dt2 t 3
114
1.5 .10
2 .10114
114
2.5 .10
114
3 .10
2 .10 42
3 .10 42
4 .10 42
5 .10 42
6 .10 42
7 .10 42
8 .10 42
9 .10 42
1 .10 41
1
H .H
122
1.1 .10 41 1.2 .10 41 1.3 .10 41 1.4 .10 41 1.5 .10 41
5.7.12
d2TU4/dt2 vs. t = (HH)-1 (ii): Figure 4.33

2nd Derivative of Av. Cosmological Temp.
113
5 .10
t2
t3
113
5 .10
(K/s^2)
dT2 dt2
H .H
1
1 .10114
dT2 dt2 t 1
dT2 dt2 t 2
dT2 dt2 t 3
114
1.5 .10
2 .10114
114
2.5 .10
114
3 .10
2 .10 42
3 .10 42
4 .10 42
5 .10 42
6 .10 42
7 .10 42
8 .10 42
9 .10 42
1 .10 41
1
H .H
123
1.1 .10 41 1.2 .10 41 1.3 .10 41 1.4 .10 41 1.5 .10 41
5.7.13
|d3TU4/dt3| vs. t = (HH)-1 (i): Figure 4.34

3rd Derivative of Av. Cosmological Temp.
157
1 .10
t1
t2
156
1 .10
(K/s^3)
dT3 dt3
H .H
1 .10155
1
dT3 dt3 t 1
dT3 dt3 t 2
1 .10154
153
1 .10
152
1 .10
2 .10 42
3 .10 42
4 .10 42
5 .10 42
6 .10 42
7 .10 42
8 .10 42
9 .10 42
1 .10 41
1
1.1 .10 41
1.2 .10 41
1.3 .10 41
1.4 .10 41
1.5 .10 41
H .H
124
5.7.14
|d3TU4/dt3| vs. t = (HH)-1 (ii): Figure 4.35

3rd Derivative of Av. Cosmological Temp.
157
1 .10
t2
t3
156
1 .10
(K/s^3)
dT3 dt3
H .H
1 .10155
1
dT3 dt3 t 1
dT3 dt3 t 2
1 .10154
153
1 .10
152
1 .10
2 .10 42
3 .10 42
4 .10 42
5 .10 42
6 .10 42
7 .10 42
8 .10 42
9 .10 42
1 .10 41
1
1.1 .10 41
1.2 .10 41
1.3 .10 41
1.4 .10 41
1.5 .10 41
H .H
125
5.7.15
dH/dt vs. (HH)-1 (i): Figure 4.36

1st Derivative of the Hubble Constant
1.6 .1084
t1
t4
84
1.4 .10
84
1.2 .10
dH dt H
(Hz^2)
dH dt e
dH dt e
dH dt e
5 .
1
2
1 .1084
1
1
2
2
5 . . 5 .
8 .1083
2
2
5 . . 5 .
4
2
2
2
2
1
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
2
83
6 .10
83
4 .10
2 .1083
0
0
1 .10 43
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1 .10 40
1 .10 39
1 .10 38
1 .10 37
1 .10 36
H .H
126
5.7.16
dH/dt vs. (HH)-1 (ii): Figure 4.37

2 .1084
1
H
t1
84
1 .10
0
0
dH dt H
(Hz^2)
dH dt e
5 .
1
2
1 .1084
84
2 .10
1
dH dt e
2
2
5 . . 5 .
3 .1084
2
dH dt e
1
2
5 . . 5 .
4
2
2
2
2
1
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
2
84
4 .10
5 .1084
6 .1084
84
7 .10
1 .10 43
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1 .10 40
1 .10 39
1 .10 38
1 .10 37
1 .10 36
H .H
127
5.7.17
dH/dt vs. (HH)-1 (iii): Figure 4.38

2 .1084
t2
t3
84
1 .10
0
0
dH dt H
(Hz^2)
dH dt e
5 .
1
2
1 .1084
84
2 .10
1
dH dt e
2
2
5 . . 5 .
3 .1084
2
dH dt e
1
2
5 . . 5 .
4
2
2
2
2
1
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
2
84
4 .10
5 .1084
6 .1084
84
7 .10
1 .10 43
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1 .10 40
1 .10 39
1 .10 38
1 .10 37
1 .10 36
H .H
128
5.7.18
dH/dt vs. (HH)-1 (iv): Figure 4.39

2 .1084
t5
t4
84
1 .10
0
0
dH dt H
(Hz^2)
dH dt e
5 .
1
2
1 .1084
84
2 .10
1
dH dt e
2
2
5 . . 5 .
3 .1084
2
dH dt e
1
2
5 . . 5 .
4
2
2
2
2
1
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
2
84
4 .10
5 .1084
6 .1084
84
7 .10
1 .10 43
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1 .10 40
1 .10 39
1 .10 38
1 .10 37
1 .10 36
H .H
129
5.7.19
d2H/dt2 vs. (HH)-1 (i): Figure 4.40

2nd Derivative of the Hubble Constant
1
H
4 .10127
t1
127
3.5 .10
3 .10127
(Hz^3)
2.5 .10127
dH2 dt2 H
127
2 .10
127
1.5 .10
1 .10127
5 .10126
0
0
1 .10 43
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1 .10 40
H .H
130
5.7.20
d2H/dt2 vs. (HH)-1 (ii): Figure 4.41

t2
4 .10127
t3
127
3.5 .10
3 .10127
(Hz^3)
2.5 .10127
dH2 dt2 H
127
2 .10
127
1.5 .10
1 .10127
5 .10126
0
0
1 .10 43
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1 .10 40
H .H
131
5.7.21
d2H/dt2 vs. (HH)-1 (iii): Figure 4.42

t5
4 .10127
t4
127
3.5 .10
3 .10127
(Hz^3)
2.5 .10127
dH2 dt2 H
127
2 .10
127
1.5 .10
1 .10127
5 .10126
0
0
1 .10 43
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1 .10 40
H .H
132
5.7.22
d2H/dt2 vs. (HH)-1 (iv): Figure 4.43

125
8 .10
t1
t2
7 .10125
125
6 .10
dH2 dt2 H
(Hz^3)
dH2 dt2 e
dH2 dt2 e
dH2 dt2 e
5 .
1
2
125
5 .10
1
2
2
5 . . 5 .
4 .10125
2
2
5 . . 5 .
4
2
2
2
2
.
.
.
.
.
2
5 5 5
1
125
3 .10
2 .10125
1 .10125
0
0
1 .10125
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1
H .H
133
1 .10 40
5.7.23
d2H/dt2 vs. (HH)-1 (v): Figure 4.44

125
8 .10
t3
t4
7 .10125
125
6 .10
dH2 dt2 H
(Hz^3)
dH2 dt2 e
dH2 dt2 e
dH2 dt2 e
5 .
1
2
125
5 .10
1
2
2
5 . . 5 .
4 .10125
2
2
5 . . 5 .
4
2
2
2
2
.
.
.
.
.
2
5 5 5
1
125
3 .10
2 .10125
1 .10125
0
0
1 .10125
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1
H .H
134
1 .10 40
5.7.24
d2H/dt2 vs. (HH)-1 (vi): Figure 4.45

125
8 .10
t5
7 .10125
125
6 .10
dH2 dt2 H
(Hz^3)
dH2 dt2 e
dH2 dt2 e
dH2 dt2 e
5 .
1
2
125
5 .10
1
2
2
5 . . 5 .
4 .10125
2
2
5 . . 5 .
4
2
2
2
2
.
.
.
.
.
2
5 5 5
1
125
3 .10
2 .10125
1 .10125
0
0
1 .10125
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1
H .H
135
1 .10 40
5.7.25
|H| vs. (HH)-1 (i): Figure 4.46

2.5 .1042
1
H
t1
42
2 .10
dH dt H
dH dt e
5 .
1
2
1
1.5 .1042
(Hz)
1
dH dt e
dH dt e
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
2
5 . . 5 .
4
2
2
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
1
42
1 .10
5 .1041
0
1 .10 43
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1 .10 40
1 .10 39
1 .10 38
1 .10 37
1 .10 36
1
1 .10 35
1 .10 34
1 .10 33
1 .10 32
1 .10 31
1 .10 30
H .H
136
5.7.26
|H| vs. (HH)-1 (ii): Figure 4.47

2.5 .1042
1
H
t4
42
2 .10
dH dt H
dH dt e
5 .
1
2
1
1.5 .1042
(Hz)
1
dH dt e
dH dt e
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
2
5 . . 5 .
4
2
2
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
1
42
1 .10
5 .1041
0
1 .10 43
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1 .10 40
1 .10 39
1 .10 38
1 .10 37
1 .10 36
1
1 .10 35
1 .10 34
1 .10 33
1 .10 32
1 .10 31
1 .10 30
H .H
137
5.7.27
TU2,3 vs. |H|: Figure 4.48

31
3.5 .10
1
t1
H
31
3 .10
2.5 .1031
T U2
dH dt H
2 .1031
T U3 H
1
T U3 e
5 .
2
31
1.5 .10
31
1 .10
5 .1030
1 .1043
1 .1042
1 .1041
1 .1040
1 .1039
1 .1038
1 .1037
1 .1036
dH dt H
, H .H
138
5.7.28
TU2 vs. |H|: Figure 4.49

31
3.5 .10
1
t1
H
31
3 .10
2.5 .1031
T U2
dH dt H
2 .1031
1
T U3 e
5 .
2
31
1.5 .10
31
1 .10
5 .1030
1 .1043
1 .1042
1 .1041
1 .1040
1 .1039
1 .1038
1 .1037
1 .1036
dH dt H
139
NOTES
140
6 q0, 0
6.1
SMoC
Two of the most important aspects of Cosmology are the present values of the deceleration
parameter q0 and the Cosmological constant 0. In-fact, both these values are so important that
this chapter discusses them exclusively. q0177 is a dimensionless measure of the cosmic
acceleration associated with the expansion of the Universe. Recent measurements imply that the
expansion of the Universe is accelerating; q0 was initially thought to be positive, now it is
believed to be negative. 0178 was proposed by Albert Einstein as a modification of his original
theory of General Relativity (GR) to achieve a stationary Universe.
The contemporary view [i.e. the Standard Model (SM) of Cosmology] is that a problem
exists because most Quantum Field Theories (QFTs) predict a huge value of 0 from the energy
of the Zero-Point-Field (ZPF). This would need to be cancelled almost, but not exactly, by an
equally large term of opposite sign. Some SuperSymmetric theories require a value of 0 to be
exactly zero. This is known as the 0 problem179 and no known natural manner exists in which to
derive the miniscule 0 used in Cosmology from Particle-Physics. The SM of Cosmology
(SMoC) defines q0 as follows180,
q0
3 .H 0
(2.34)
where, 0 and H0 denote the present values of the density parameter and Hubble constant
respectively.
Note: astronomical observations imply that 0 cannot exceed 10-46(km-2) 181,182.
6.2
EGM
6.2.1 Ro, MG, EGM, ZPF

Fortunately, the Electro-Gravi-Magnetic (EGM) construct does not suffer from the same
afflictions as the SMoC regarding q0 and 0. That is, precise and meaningful values of q0 and
0 may be derived in agreement with physical observation, from the EGM Particle-Physics model
derived in QE3. Therefore, EGM demonstrates that the SMoC assertion of no known natural
manner exists in which to derive the miniscule 0 used in Cosmology from Particle-Physics is
incorrect.
An algorithm is presented in QE4 such that the value of the ZPF density parameter ZPF is
derived utilising the difference between the predicted Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation
(CMBR) temperature by the EGM method TU2 and its presently measured value T0, facilitated
by improved determinations of Milky-Way Galactic radius Ro and total mass MG from the
177
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deceleration_parameter
Einstein abandoned the concept after the observation of the Hubble red-shift indicated that the
Universe might not be stationary. However, the discovery of cosmic acceleration in the 1990s
has renewed interest in 0 (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmological_constant).
179
Believed to be the worst problem of fine-tuning in Physics.
180
http://radio.astro.gla.ac.uk/page184.gif
181
Michael, E., University of Colorado, Department of Astrophysical and Planetary Sciences, The
Cosmological Constant (http://super.colorado.edu/~michaele/Lambda/lambda.html).
182
i.e. approximately 4.815526 x10-10(Pa).
178
141
application of EGM principles.

Utilising the algorithm defined in QE4 (i.e. considerate of the experimental tolerance of
T0)183, a table of corresponding Ro, MG, EGM and ZPF = 1 EGM values may be
formulated according to,
Ro (kpc)
M G / MS
7.996943 6.331133 x1011
8.107221 6.314167 x1011
8.218926 6.296982 x1011
EGM
ZPF
0.998993 1.006904 x10-3
1.000331 -3.314007 x10-4
1.001671 -1.671006 x10-3
Table 2.9,
CMBR Temp. (K)

T0 T0 = 2.724
T0 = 2.725
T0 + T0 = 2.726
where, MS and EGM denote solar mass (i.e. a standard value) and net Cosmological density
parameter as defined by the EGM method respectively.
6.2.2 ZPF q0 qSM_1
T0 is higher than the EGM determination184 of 2.724752(K); this implies that, because
the Universe is hotter than the EGM prediction, it is slightly smaller than expected. This
expectation is clearly set by the TU2(H) curve demonstrating that the Universe cools down as it
expands (i.e. as it gets bigger) over time. Subsequently, something is acting to retard the
expansion of the Universe.
QE4 attributes this effect to the ZPF energy density threshold value UZPF derived from
ZPF. Hence, assuming null experimental error associated with T0, the retardation energy is
negative (i.e. UZPF < 0). Subsequently, by precise measurement of T0, the EGM construct
facilitates the calculation of Cosmological size. Thus;
i. If the Universe is smaller (i.e. hotter) than predicted by the EGM construct then, q0 > 0
and UZPF < 0.
ii. If the Universe is larger (i.e. cooler) than predicted by the EGM construct then, q0 < 0
and UZPF > 0.
Assuming |ZPF| = |q0|, a generalised representation of q0 may be formulated in
accordance with the EGM construct as follows,
q0 = ZPF
(2.35)
Note: the EGM construct mathematically derives the experimentally observed accelerated
Cosmological expansion phenomenon hence, q0 is positive from the EGM perspective (i.e.
presently dH/dt > 0: refer to QE4).
However, within the framework of the SMoC, the present observational situation should be
dH/dt < 0, but this has been experimentally determined to be incorrect in favour of the EGM
prediction of dH/dt > 0 (i.e. from the perspective of the SMoC, q0 is negative opposite to the
EGM perspective). Hence, it is necessary to differentiate between the EGM and SMoC perspectives
of the deceleration parameter. Thus, let the SMoC deceleration parameter qSM_1 be written as,
qSM_1 = q0
(2.36)
Tabulating an EGM and SMoC deceleration parameter comparison (i.e. q0 and qSM_1
respectively) yields,
183
Refer to Appendix 2.A.

Produced by utilising a deceleration parameter of zero (i.e. q0 = 0), representing the vanilla
solution which may be utilised as a baseline reference for many other calculations as
demonstrated in QE4.
184
142
q0185
-1.006904 x10-3
3.314007 x10-4
1.671006 x10-3
qSM_1186
1.006904 x10-3
-3.314007 x10-4
-1.671006 x10-3
Table 2.10,
CMBR Temp. (K)

T0 T0 = 2.724
T0 = 2.725
T0 + T0 = 2.726
6.2.3 0
0 may be easily calculated utilising the SMoC relationship187 [i.e. Eq. (2.34)] such that:
0 EGM, q0 (qSM_1 = ZPF) and ZPF = 1 EGM according to,
0
EGM
3 .H
ZPF
EGM 2 . ZPF EGM 2 . 1

2
EGM
3.
EGM 1
2
(2.37)
where, H denotes a generalised reference to the Hubble constant.

If H = HU2(Ro,MG) = 67.084304(km/s/Mpc), 0 may be written according to,
0 EGM
0 (km/s/Mpc)2
6.730065 x103
6.757167 x103
6.784296 x103
0 (km/s/Mpc)
82.036971
82.20199
82.366838
2 3
3 .H U2 R o , M G . . EGM 1
2
0 / c2 (km-2)
7.864602 x10-47
7.896273 x10-47
7.927975 x10-47
Table 2.11,
(2.38)
CMBR Temp. (K)

T0 T0 = 2.724
T0 = 2.725
T0 + T0 = 2.726
1/HU2 1/
0 (yr)
1/
0 (yr)
11.919176 x109
2.656709 x109
11.895249 x109
2.680636 x109
11.871442 x109
2.704443 x109
Table 2.12,
CMBR Temp. (K)

T0 T0 = 2.724
T0 = 2.725
T0 + T0 = 2.726
6.2.4 U, UZPF, U
The Big-Bang was an explosion of space-time such that the Cosmological expansion of
the Universe is expected, by the SMoC, to be slowing down (i.e. dH/dt < 0) whilst the EGM
construct predicts188 that dH/dt > 0. If we view the Big-Bang through a force pairing
Newtonian lens, expansive Cosmological pressure U must be counter represented by contractive
Cosmological pressure189 interpreted by EGM to be approximately equal to the ZPF energy
density threshold UZPF derived in QE4.
185
The experimentally observed accelerated expansion phenomenon was correctly predicted by

the EGM construct (i.e. dH/dt > 0). Hence, the deceleration parameter is positive because (at a
CMBR temperature of T0) the Universe is smaller (i.e. hotter) than the CMBR temperature
solution derived utilising the EGM method, for q0 = 0.
186
The SMoC predicts that the deceleration parameter should be positive, but it has been
experimentally observed to be negative. Hence, the SMoC perceives the deceleration parameter
by the EGM construct to be negative.
187
Where, the deceleration parameter is considered to be negative.
188
(i) confirmed by experimental observation; (ii) no requirement for the existence of Dark Matter
/ Energy.
189
i.e. the resistance of the space-time manifold to being stretched by Cosmological expansion.
143
0 may be utilised to determine the net expansive Cosmological pressure U as follows,

2
U EGM
c .
0 EGM
.
8 .G
(2.39)
The contractive Cosmological pressure UZPF is given by,

3 .c .
ZPF .
H U2 R o , M G
8 . .G
2
U ZPF ZPF
(4.315)
Note: UZPF is derived from the critical Cosmological mass density by the EGM method
U2(Ro,MG) = 3HU2(Ro,MG) / (8G): refer to QE4, Eq. (4.304).
The expansive Cosmological pressure U is given by,
U(EGM,ZPF) = U(EGM) UZPF(ZPF)
U (Pa)
3.787219 x10-10
3.802471 x10-10
3.817737 x10-10
UZPF (Pa)
7.649839 x10-13
-2.51778 x10-13
-12.695284 x10-13
U (Pa)
3.77957 x10-10
3.804989 x10-10
3.830432 x10-10
Table 2.13,
|U / UZPF|
494.071804
1.511247 x103
301.720886
(2.40)
CMBR Temp. (K)
T0 T0 = 2.724
T0 = 2.725
T0 + T0 = 2.726
6.2.5 T0
At this juncture, it is important to review the results presented in the preceding table. One
should note that the results corresponding to T0 T0 demonstrate positive values of ZPF
pressure. This implies that (@ T0 T0), the effects of the ZPF are expansive, not contractive.
Consequently, if EGM insists upon the ZPF applying a Cosmological contractive influence, we may
interpret this contradiction as evidence of Dark Matter / Energy. Thus, two distinct physical
possibilities exist dependent upon the precise measurement of the CMBR temperature as follows,
i. If a precise measurement of the CMBR temperature190 demonstrates that T0 TU2, then
Dark Matter / Energy does not exist as described by the SMoC because the EGM
construct naturally derives the experimentally confirmed accelerated expansion
phenomenon (i.e. dH/dt > 0). However, the SMoC requires the existence of Dark
Matter / Energy to account for accelerated Cosmological expansion191.
ii. If a precise measurement of the CMBR temperature demonstrates that T0 < TU2, then
Dark Matter / Energy does exist, but in substantially less quantity than required by the
SMoC. In-fact, for a worse case scenario192 of T0 T0, the influence of Dark Matter /
Energy upon the CMBR temperature by the EGM method is < 1(%)193.
Thus, insisting upon the ZPF possessing negative energy density facilitates the estimation of
an improved T0 tolerance as follows,
TU2 < T0 (T0 + T0)
(2.41)
Therefore,
iii. We may advance the CMBR temperature prediction by approximately one-order-ofmagnitude to be: 2.7254 0.0006(K).
iv. 1 {[TU2 (T0 T0)] / [2T0]} demonstrates that the probability of the ZPF acting as
a Cosmological contractive force is > 62(%).
190
i.e. beyond the present resolution of T0 T0.

This is a major failing of the SMoC.
192
In relation to TU2.
193
As demonstrated in QE4.
191
144
6.2.6 ZPF qSM_2

Many contemporary Cosmologists believe that ZPF energy is a positive quantity pseudonym
for 0, considering it to be responsible for the experimentally observed accelerated expansion
phenomenon. Utilising this notion (i.e. from this perspective), we may determine the value of
deceleration parameter qSM_2 in SMoC terms as follows,
0 ZPF ZPF
8 . .G .
U ZPF ZPF
2
c
(2.42)
Substituting into Eq. (2.34) yields,

ZPF (km/s/Mpc)2
-13.594118
4.474212
22.560109
ZPF (km/s/Mpc)
3.68702i
2.115233
4.749748
qSM_2
ZPF / c2 (km-2)
-49
-1.588578 x10
0.500503
0.522846 x10-49 0.499834
2.636323 x10-49 0.499164
Table 2.14,
CMBR Temp. (K)
1/HU2 1/
ZPF (yr)
(14.575885+265.20416i) x109
-447.696095 x109
-191.290414 x109
Table 2.15,
1/
ZPF (yr)
-265.20416i x109
462.27198 x109
205.866299 x109
CMBR Temp. (K)
: calculation deferred until proceeding section.

Note: UZPF is multiplied by a negative operator; as required by the SMoC due to the
accelerated Cosmological expansion phenomenon (i.e. dH/dt > 0) suggesting that 0 > 0.
Analysis of the preceding tables demonstrates that the EGM construct, by application of
UZPF, may be easily transformed into SMoC terms. However, in doing so, one directly attributes
ZPF energy to being the cause of the experimentally observed accelerated Cosmological expansion
phenomenon, rather than being a force pairing consequence of dH/dt > 0194 as presented in the
qSM_1 solution. Hence,
i. ZPF becomes complex for solutions where T0 < TU2 suggesting that, for SMoC
transformations of EGM construct predictions, qSM_2 .
ii. It is known by physical measurement (i.e. from measurements by the WMAP satellite)
that the Universe is flat; hence, qSM_2 and the preceding tables of results are
supported by Kellermann et. al.195
6.2.7 qSM_2
6.2.7.1 Construct
Utilising the EGM construct, it is possible to qualitatively analyse the applicability of a
range of deceleration parameters within the SMoC by applying the relationship196,
q
1 . d
H
2
H dt
(W.3)
194
Which the EGM construct naturally derives.

http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v361/n6408/abs/361134a0.html
196
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubble_parameter; see also: QE4.
195
145
However, we shall commence the analysis by validating Eq. (W.3) against expected results
derived in QE4. The solution algorithm articulated in Appendix 2.A to facilitate the validation
process is a generalisation of the rigorously tested numerical approximation technique (i.e. a
secondary derivation of HU2) also presented in QE4. Hence, assuming q qSM_1 ZPF yields
H(ZPF) as follows,
ZPF
d
H
dt
2
1 . d
H
2
H dt
(2.43)
1 ZPF
d
H
dt
2
(2.44)
ZPF
H
2
(2.45)
1
ZPF
. d H
1 dt
(2.46)
Hence, let:
H
1
ZPF
. d H
dt
(2.47)
6.2.7.2 Sample calculations

Evaluating the preceding equation in accordance with the solution algorithm articulated in
Appendix 2.A yields the following table of results,
Note: the proceeding table is formulated utilising the derivation of TU2 in QE4 (i.e. for q0 = 0)
as a point of reference and transforming the SMoC range of qSM_2 relative to the TU2
solution.
dHdt (km/s/Mpc)
1/
dHdt (yr)
67.050522
14.583229 x109
67.095419
14.57347 x109
67.14033
14.563722 x109
dHdt (km/s/Mpc)
1/
dHdt (yr)
47.411877
20.623801 x109
47.443626
20.609999 x109
47.475383
20.596213 x109
dHdt (km/s/Mpc)
1/
dHdt (yr)
82.174949
11.899163 x109
82.15662
11.901818 x109
82.138273
11.904476 x109
q qSM_1 ZPF
qSM_1
dHdt/HU2 1 (%)
-0.050358
1.006904 x10-3
0.016569
-3.314007 x10-4
0.083515
-1.671006 x10-3
q qSM_2 +
qSM_2
dHdt/HU2 1 (%)
-29.324934
0.500503
-29.277606
0.499834
-29.230268
0.499164
q qSM_2 -
qSM_2
dHdt/HU2 1 (%)
22.495045
-0.500503
22.467722
-0.499834
22.440373
-0.499164
Table 2.16,
146
CMBR Temp. (K)

T0 T0 = 2.724
T0 = 2.725
T0 + T0 = 2.726
CMBR Temp. (K)
2.252547
2.253374
2.254201
CMBR Temp. (K)
3.045402
3.045029
3.044656
where,
i. q qSM_1 ZPF denotes the reference calculation.
ii. qSM_2 denotes the SMoC deceleration range under consideration for comparison to
the reference calculation.
iii. dHdt is a convenient notational representation of dH/dt for application within the
MathCad 8 Professional computational environment.
iv. dHdt HU2: the Hubble constant by the EGM method.
v. 1/dHdt: the Hubble age by the EGM method.
vi. dHdt/HU2 1: the error between two EGM methods of Hubble constant determination.
6.2.7.3 Analysis
i. The values of dHdt/HU2 1 associated with q qSM_1 ZPF (i.e. the reference
calculation) demonstrate that the SMoC interpretation of the deceleration parameter, as
derived by the EGM method, is consistent with the physical determination of the CMBR
temperature. Hence, the approach utilised to produce the tabulated results is valid.
ii. The values of dHdt/HU2 1 associated with qSM_2 demonstrate that the
solutions are approximately symmetrical.
iii. The boundary conditions qSM_2 exhibit over / under estimation of the Hubble age.
iv. The values of CMBR temperature associated with qSM_2 span a thermal bandwidth
of 0.8(K) and possess an average value of 2.649202(K)197.
v. As a generalisation, the tabulated results imply that the SMoC values of qSM_2 are
subjectively reasonable198 for Cosmological application within contemporary frameworks.
However, from the perspective of the highly precise correlation to experimental
observations produced by the EGM construct, these mathematically convenient limits
are rough approximations and should not be utilised beyond qualitative analysis.
vi. Proposed SMoC values of deceleration parameter should be tested against the solution
algorithm defined in Appendix 2.A for validity in theoretical Cosmological constructs.
6.3
EGM vs. SMoC

Key Mathematical Fact
Dark matter / energy required
Max Cosmological Temp 1031(K)
Big-Bang Temperature = 0(K)
Unification with Particle-Physics
Relationship between H0 and T0
H0 and T0 are calculable to high precision
H0 and T0 were derived from Particle-Physics
Precise determination of distinct Cosmological evolutionary phases
Sign of the deceleration parameter is in agreement with expectation
Prediction of accelerated Cosmological expansion (i.e. dH/dt > 0)
Experimentally implicit determination of H0, q0 , 0 from T0
Table 2.17,
SMoC
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
EGM
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
197
To within approximately 2.781592(%) and 2.77276(%) of the physically measured and

EGM derived CMBR temperature values respectively.
198
i.e. the impact upon the Hubble constant is significant, but less pronounced with respect to the
CMBR temperature.
147
6.4
Conclusion
Four interpretations of deceleration parameter are presented (i.e. q0, qSM_1 and qSM_2),
q0 = ZPF: the EGM interpretation of Cosmological expansion.
qSM_1 = q0: the SMoC interpretation of q0 = ZPF.
qSM_2: a SMoC interpretation of ZPF energy.
Two interpretations of Cosmological constant 0 are presented,
EGM decomposes 0 into expansive and contractive components.
ZPF energy as a positive quantity pseudonym for 0.
Several key determinations of qSM_2, with respect to the SMoC, are presented,
SMoC values of qSM_2 are subjectively reasonable for Cosmological application
within contemporary frameworks.
qSM_2 + an under-estimation of H0 and T0.
qSM_2 an over-estimation of H0 and T0.
The values of T0 associated with qSM_2 span a thermal bandwidth of
0.8(K) and possess an average value of 2.649202(K).
From the perspective of the EGM construct, qSM_2 are rough approximations
and should not be utilised beyond qualitative analysis (i.e. the EGM construct is
substantially more precise than the SMoC).
Proposed SMoC values of deceleration parameter should be tested against the solution
algorithm defined in Appendix 2.A for validity in theoretical Cosmological constructs.
From the perspective of the SMoC, Cosmological deceleration was expected: however,
Cosmological acceleration has been experimentally confirmed, in agreement with the EGM derived
prediction. Subsequently, an under-estimation of H0 and T0 implies that the Universe is larger
(i.e. cooler) than expected. In which case, the SMoC perceives q0 to be negative. In terms of the
preceding terminology, this may be represented as q0 qSM_2 (alt. qSM_2 = q0).
Moreover, the SMoC interpretation of the sign associated with ZPF energy is opposite
to the EGM construct. That is, the SMoC interprets ZPF energy as a positive quantity; EGM
interprets it as a negative quantity. Consequently, one is required to exercise caution when
interpreting the appropriate sign of q0, due to observationally defiant physical formulations within
the SMoC.
The common feature across the various interpretations of q0 and 0 is ZPF energy.
Dark Matter / Energy has not been considered because, although the SMoC is completely reliant
upon its existence to explain the experimentally observed accelerated Cosmological expansion
phenomenon, it is not required by the EGM construct as dH/dt > 0 is naturally derived.
Thus, in one manner or another, ZPF energy is required to derive precise and meaningful
values of q0 and 0. Moreover, because the value of H0 is still widely debated and the
associated experimental tolerance is much broader than T0, the EGM construct implies that the
observed accelerated expansion of the Universe is attributable to the determination of the ZPF
energy density threshold UZPF being < -2.52 x10-13(Pa).
148
7 Definition of Terms
7.1
Numbering conventions
7.2
References of the form 3.* refer to Quinta Essentia Part 3.

References of the form 4.* refer to Quinta Essentia Part 4.
Quinta Essentia Part 3
7.2.1 Alpha Forms x

An inversely proportional description of how energy density may result in acceleration.
7.2.2 Amplitude Spectrum
A family of wavefunction amplitudes.
The amplitudes associated with a frequency spectrum.
See: Frequency Spectrum.
7.2.3 Background Field
Reference to the background (ambient) gravitational field.
Reference to the local gravitational field at the surface of the Earth.
7.2.4 Bandwidth Ratio R
The ratio of the bandwidth of the ZPF spectrum to the Fourier spectrum of the PV.
7.2.5 Beta Forms x
A directly proportional description of how energy density may result in acceleration.
7.2.6 Buckingham Theory (BPT)
Arrangement of variables determined by DAT's into groupings. These groupings
represent sub-systems of dimensional similarity for scale relationships.
Minimises the number of experiments required to investigate phenomena.
See: DAT's.
7.2.7 Casimir Force FPP
Attractive (non-gravitational) force between two parallel and neutrally charged mirrored
plates of equal area.
7.2.8 Change in the Number of Modes nS
The difference between the ZPF beat cut-off mode and the Mode Number at the Critical
Boundary as a function of the Critical Ratio.
See: Mode Number n.
See: Critical Ratio KR.
7.2.9 Compton Frequency Cx
The generalised definition of Compton frequency applied globally herein is:
Cx = mxc2 / h-bar = 2m
2 xc2/ h = 2c
2 2/ Cx.
This is the only equation in which the h-bar form of Planck's constant is used.
149
7.2.10 Cosmological Constant

A constant introduced into the equations of GR to facilitate a steady state Cosmological
solution.
See: General Relativity.
7.2.11 Critical Boundary
Represents the lower boundary (commencing at the ZPF beat cut-off frequency) of the
ZPF spectrum yielding a specific proportional similarity value.
See: Zero-Point-Field Beat Cut-Off Frequency ZPF.
7.2.12 Critical Factor KC
A proportional measure of the applied EM field intensity (or magnitude of Poynting
Vectors) within an experimental test volume.
The ratio of two experimentally determined relationship functions.
7.2.13 Critical Field Strengths EC and BC
RMS strength values of applied Electric and Magnetic fields for complete dynamic,
kinematic and geometric similarity with the background gravitational field.
See: Background Field.
7.2.14 Critical Frequency C
The minimum frequency for the application of Maxwell's Equations within an
experimental context.
7.2.15 Critical Harmonic Operator KR H
A representation of the Critical Ratio at ideal dynamic, kinematic and geometric
similarity utilising a unit amplitude spectrum.
7.2.16 Critical Mode NC
The ratio of the critical frequency to the fundamental harmonic frequency of the PV.
See: Critical Frequency C.
See: Fundamental Harmonic Frequency PV(1,r,M)
7.2.17 Critical Phase Variance C
The difference in phase between applied Electric and Magnetic fields for complete
dynamic, kinematic and geometric similarity with the background gravitational field.
7.2.18 Critical Ratio KR
A proportional indication of anticipated experimental configurations by any suitable
measure. Typically, this is the magnitude of the ratio of the applied EM experimental
fields to the ambient background gravitational field.
7.2.19 Curl
The limiting value of circulation per unit area.
7.2.20 DC-Offsets
A proportional value of applied RMS Electric and / or Magnetic fields acting to offset
the applied function/s.
150
7.2.21 Dimensional Analysis Techniques (DAT's)

Formal experimentally based research methods facilitating the derivation, from first
principles, of any number or combination of parameters considered important by an
experimentalist.
See: BPT.
7.2.22 Divergence
The rate at which density exits a given region of space.
7.2.23 Dominant Bandwidth
The bandwidth of the EGM spectrum which dominates gravitational effects.
See: Electro-Gravi-Magnetics (EGM) Spectrum.
7.2.24 Electro-Gravi-Magnetics (EGM)
A method of calculation (not a theory) based upon energy density.
Being a calculation method, it does not favour or bias any particular theory in the
Standard Model of Particle-Physics.
Developed as a tool for Engineers to modify gravity.
The modification of vacuum polarisability based upon the superposition of EM fields.
7.2.25 Electro-Gravi-Magnetics (EGM) Spectrum
A simple but extreme extension of the EM spectrum (including gravitational effects)
based upon a Fourier distribution.
7.2.26 Energy Density (General)
Energy per unit volume.
7.2.27 Engineered Metric
A metric tensor line element utilising the Engineered Refractive Index.
7.2.28 Engineered Refractive Index KEGM
An EM based engineered representation of the Refractive Index.
7.2.29 Engineered Relationship Function K0(,X)
A change in the Experimental Relationship Function resulting from a modification in the
local value of the magnitude of acceleration by similarity of applied EM fields to the
background gravitational field.
7.2.30 Experimental Prototype (EP)
Reference to the gravitational acceleration through a practical benchtop volume of
space-time in a laboratory at the surface of the Earth.
7.2.31 Experimental Relationship Function K0(,X)
A proportional scaling factor relating an Experimental Prototype (typically herein, it is
the local gravitational field or ambient physical conditions) to a mathematical model.
7.2.32 Fourier Spectrum
Two spectra combined into one (an amplitude spectrum and a frequency spectrum)
obeying a Fourier series.
See: Amplitude Spectrum.
See: Frequency Spectrum.
151
7.2.33 Frequency Bandwidth PV

The bandwidth of the Fourier spectrum describing the PV.
See: Fourier Spectrum.
See: Polarisable Vacuum (PV).
7.2.34 Frequency Spectrum
A family of wavefunction frequencies.
The frequencies associated with an amplitude spectrum.
See: Amplitude Spectrum.
7.2.35 Fundamental Beat Frequency r(1,r,r,M)
The change in fundamental harmonic frequency of the PV across an elemental
displacement.
See: Fundamental Harmonic Frequency PV(1,r,M).
7.2.36 Fundamental Harmonic Frequency PV(1,r,M)
The lowest frequency in the PV spectrum utilising Fourier harmonics.
7.2.37 General Modelling Equations (GMEx)
Proportional solutions to the Poisson and Lagrange equations resulting in acceleration.
7.2.38 General Relativity (GR)
The representation of space-time as a geometric manifold of events where gravitation
manifests itself as a curvature of space-time and is described by a metric tensor.
7.2.39 General Similarity Equations (GSEx)
Combines General Modelling Equations with the Critical Ratio by utilisation of the
Engineered Relationship Function.
7.2.40 Gravitons g
Conjugate Photon pairs responsible for gravitation. This is an inherent mathematical
conclusion arising from similarity modelling utilising a Fourier distribution in Complex
form and the PV model of gravity considerate of ZPF Theory (due to harmonic
symmetry about the 0th mode).
7.2.41 Graviton Mass-Energy Threshold mg
The upper boundary value of the mass-energy of a Graviton as defined by the Particle
Data Group.
7.2.42 Group Velocity
The velocity with which energy propagates.
7.2.43 Harmonic Cut-Off Frequency
The terminating frequency of the Fourier spectrum of the PV.
152
7.2.44 Harmonic Cut-Off Function

A mathematical function associated with the harmonic cut-off mode and frequency.
See: Harmonic Cut-Off Mode n.
See: Harmonic Cut-Off Frequency .
7.2.45 Harmonic Cut-Off Mode n
The terminating mode of the Fourier spectrum of the PV.
7.2.46 Harmonic Inflection Mode NX
The mode at which the phase variance between the Electric and Magnetic wavefunctions
describing the PV in a classical Casimir experiment begins to alter dramatically.
A conjectured resonant mode of the PV in a classical Casimir experiment.
See: Casimir Force FPP.
7.2.47 Harmonic Inflection Frequency X
The frequency associated with the harmonic inflection mode.
See: Harmonic Inflection Mode NX.
7.2.48 Harmonic Inflection Wavelength X
The wavelength associated with the harmonic inflection frequency.
7.2.49 Harmonic Similarity Equations (HSEx)
A harmonic representation of General Similarity Equations utilising the Critical
Harmonic Operator.
A family of equations defined by relating the Experimental Prototype to a mathematical
model (General Similarity Equations).
See: Critical Harmonic Operator KR H.
See: General Similarity Equations (GSEx).
7.2.50 IFF
If and only if.
7.2.51 Impedance Function
A measure of the ratio of the permeability to the permittivity of a vacuum.
Resistance to energy transfer through a vacuum.
7.2.52 Kinetic Spectrum
Another term for the ZPF spectrum.
See: ZPF Spectrum.
7.2.53 Mode Bandwidth
The modes associated with a frequency bandwidth.
7.2.54 Mode Number (Critical Boundary Mode) n
The ratio of the Critical Boundary frequency to the fundamental frequency of the PV.
The harmonic mode associated with the Critical Boundary frequency.
153
7.2.55 Number of Permissible Modes Nr

The number of modes permitted for the application of Maxwell's Equations within an
experimental context, based upon the harmonic cut-off frequency.
7.2.56 Phenomena of Beats
The interference between two waves of slightly different frequencies.
7.2.57 Photon Mass-Energy Threshold m
The upper boundary value of the mass-energy of a Photon as defined by the Particle
Data Group.
7.2.58 Polarisable Vacuum (PV)
The polarised state of the Zero-Point-Field due to mass influence.
Characterised by a Refractive Index.
Obeys a Fourier distribution.
A bandwidth of the EGM Spectrum.
See: Electro-Gravi-Magnetics (EGM).
7.2.59 Polarisable Vacuum (PV) Beat Bandwidth
The change in harmonic cut-off frequency across an elemental displacement.
See: Phenomena of Beats.
7.2.60 Polarisable Vacuum (PV) Spectrum
Another term for the Fourier spectrum applied by EGM to describe the PV harmonically.
A bandwidth of the EGM Spectrum.
See. Fourier Spectrum.
7.2.61 Potential Spectrum
Another term for the PV spectrum.
See: Polarisable Vacuum (PV) Spectrum.
7.2.62 Poynting Vector
Describes the direction and magnitude of EM energy flow.
The cross product of the Electric and Magnetic field.
7.2.63 Precipitations
Results driven by the application of limits.
7.2.64 Primary Precipitant
The frequency domain precipitation.
See: Precipitations.
154
7.2.65 Radii Calculations by Electro-Gravi-Magnetics (EGM)

Radii calculations by EGM represent the radial position of energetic equilibrium
between the energy density of a homogeneous spherical mass with the ZPF.
The radii predictions calculated by EGM coincide with the RMS charge radii of all
charged fundamental particles.
See: Zero-Point-Field (ZPF).
7.2.66 Range Factor St
The product of the change in energy density and the Impedance Function.
An at-a-glance tool indicating the boundaries of the applied energy requirements for
complete dynamic, kinematic and geometric similarity with the background field.
See: Energy Density.
See: Impedance Function.
7.2.67 Reduced Average Harmonic Similarity Equations (HSExA R)
See: 2nd Reduction of the Harmonic Similarity Equations.
7.2.68 Reduced Harmonic Similarity Equations (HSEx R)
A simplification of the Harmonic Similarity Equations by substitution of RMS
expressions for the time varying representations of applied Electric and Magnetic field
harmonics.
A simplification of the Harmonic Similarity Equations facilitating the investigation of
the effects of phase variance [on a modal (per mode) basis].
7.2.69 Refractive Index KPV
Characterisation value of the PV.
7.2.70 Representation Error RError
Error associated with the mathematical representation of a physical system.
7.2.71 RMS Charge Radii (General)
The RMS charge radius refers to the RMS value of the charge distribution curve.
7.2.72 RMS Charge Radius of the Neutron r
The RMS charge radius of a Neutron r is so termed by analogy to the Neutron Mean
Square charge radius KX which is typically represented as a squared length quantity
fm2. Therefore, the dimensional square root of KX represents r by analogy.
r represents the cross-over radius (the node) on the Neutron charge distribution curve.
7.2.73 Similarity Bandwidth S
The difference between the ZPF beat cut-off frequency and the critical boundary
frequency.
A measure of similarity between the background gravitational field spectrum and the
applied field frequencies (commencing at the ZPF beat cut-off frequency).
See: Critical Boundary .
See: Zero-Point-Field Beat Cut-Off Frequency ZPF.
155
7.2.74 Spectral Energy Density 0()

Energy density per frequency mode.
7.2.75 Spectral Similarity Equations (SSEx)
A representation of the complete spectrum of the PV utilising the 2nd Reduction of the
Harmonic Similarity Equations by application of similarity principles.
7.2.76 Subordinate Bandwidth
The EM spectrum.
See: Dominant Bandwidth.
7.2.77 Unit Amplitude Spectrum
A harmonic representation of unity (the number one) utilising the amplitude spectrum of
a Fourier distribution.
7.2.78 Zero-Point-Energy (ZPE)
The lowest possible energy of the space-time manifold described in quantum terms.
7.2.79 Zero-Point-Field (ZPF)
The field associated with ZPE.
7.2.80 Zero-Point-Field (ZPF) Spectrum
The spectrum of amplitudes and frequencies associated with the ZPF.
7.2.81 Zero-Point-Field (ZPF) Beat Bandwidth ZPF
The difference between the ZPF beat cut-off frequency and the fundamental beat
frequency.
See: Fundamental Beat Frequency r(1,r,r,M).
See: Zero-Point-Field (ZPF) Beat Cut-Off Frequency ZPF.
7.2.82 Zero-Point-Field (ZPF) Beat Cut-Off Frequency ZPF
The terminating frequency of the ZPF spectrum across an elemental displacement.
7.2.83 Zero-Point-Field (ZPF) Beat Cut-Off Mode n ZPF
The terminating mode of the ZPF spectrum across an elemental displacement.
7.2.84 1st Sense Check St
A common sense test relating the ZPF beat bandwidth to the Compton frequency of an
Electron.
See: Compton Frequency Cx.
See: Zero-Point-Field (ZPF) Beat Bandwidth ZPF.
7.2.85 2nd Reduction of the Harmonic Similarity Equations (HSExA R)
A time averaged simplification of the Reduced Harmonic Similarity Equations.
7.2.86 2nd Sense Check St
A common sense test relating the PV beat bandwidth to the Compton frequency of an
Electron.
See: Polarisable Vacuum (PV) Beat Bandwidth .
156
7.2.87 3rd Sense Check St

A common sense test relating the harmonic cut-off mode across an elemental
displacement.
See: Harmonic Cut-Off Mode n.
7.2.88 4th Sense Check St
A common sense test relating the representation error across an elemental displacement.
See: Representation Error RError.
A common sense test relating the harmonic cut-off frequency of a Proton to the
Compton frequency of a Proton.
A common sense test relating the harmonic cut-off frequency of a Neutron to the
Compton frequency of a Neutron.
7.2.91 Physical Constants
Symbol
c
G
0
0
h
h-bar
Ce
CP
CN
C
C
me
mp
mn
m
m
re
rp
h
mh
th
h
eV
Description
Fine Structure Constant
Velocity of light in a vacuum
Universal Gravitation Constant
Permittivity of a vacuum
Permeability of a vacuum
Planck's Constant
Planck's Constant (2 form)
Electron Compton Wavelength
Proton Compton Wavelength
Neutron Compton Wavelength
Muon Compton Wavelength
Tau Compton Wavelength
Electron rest mass
Proton rest mass
Neutron rest mass
Muon rest mass
Tau rest mass
Classical Electron radius
Classical Proton RMS charge radius
Planck Length
Planck Mass
Planck Time
Planck Frequency
Electron Volt
157
NIST value utilised by EGM

7.297352568 x10-3
299792458
6.6742 x10-11
8.854187817 x10-12
4 x10-7
6.6260693 x10-34
1.05457168 x10-34
Units
None
m/s
m3kg-1s-2
F/m
N/A2
Js
= h / (me,p,n,, c)
9.1093826 x10-31
1.67262171 x10-27
1.67492728 x10-27
1.88353140 x10-28
3.16777 x10-27
2.817940325 x10-15
0.8750 x10-15
= (Gh/c3)
= (hc/G)
= (Gh/c5)
= 1/th
1.60217653 x10-19
kg
kg
s
Hz
J
7.2.92 Mathematical Constants and Symbols

Euler-Mascheroni Constant (Euler's Constant) [33] = 0.5772156649015328
Refers to an intersection.
Refers to a union.
Or refers to a process: leads to.
7.2.93 Solar System Statistics
Symbol
MM
ME
MJ
MS
RM
RE
RJ
RS
Description
Mass of the Moon
Mass of the Earth
Mass of Jupiter
Mass of the Sun
Mean Radius of the Moon
Mean Radius of the Earth
Mean Radius of Jupiter
Mean Radius of the Sun
Value utilised by EGM Units

kg
7.35 x1022
5.977 x1024
1898.8 x1024
1.989 x1030
m
1.738 x106
6.37718 x106
7.1492 x107
6.96 x108
NOTES
158
7.3
7.3.1 Big-Bang
The moment of Cosmological creation.
The explosion of space-time at the moment of Cosmological creation.
7.3.2 Black-Hole BH
A massive gravitational body such that light cannot escape.
See: Super-Massive-Black-Hole SMBH.
7.3.3 Broadband Propagation
The propagation of the EGM wavefunctions in the PV spectrum, at a group velocity of zero.
7.3.4 Buoyancy Point
The point of gravitational acceleration balance (neutrality) between the Earth and the Moon.
7.3.5 CMBR Temperature T0
Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR) temperature.
See: EGM-CMBR Temperature TU.
7.3.6 EGM-CMBR Temperature TU
Derivation of the CMBR temperature by the EGM method.
See: CMBR Temperature T0.
7.3.7 EGM Flux Intensity C_J
The flux intensity of gravitational energy expressed in Jansky's.
Formulated by considering celestial objects as point radiation sources of a high-frequency
EGM wavefunction.
7.3.8 EGM Hubble constant HU
Derivation of the Hubble constant by the EGM method.
See: Hubble Constant H0.
7.3.9
Event Horizon RBH

Refers to RBH of a SBH.
The radial displacement from the centre of a SBH from which light cannot escape.
See: Schwarzschild-Black-Hole SBH.
7.3.10 Galactic Reference Particle GRP

The total mass / energy of any Galactic formation represented as a particle with dimensions
approaching the Planck scale.
7.3.11 Gravitational Interference
The formation of interference patterns from either broadband or narrowband EGM
wavefunction propagation between two or more gravitational fields.
7.3.12 Gravitational Propagation
See: Broadband Propagation.
See: Narrowband Propagation.
159
7.3.13 Hubble Constant H0

A measure of the rate of Cosmological expansion.
See: EGM Hubble constant HU.
7.3.14 Narrowband Propagation
An approximation of Broadband characteristics.
See: Broadband Propagation.
7.3.15
Non-Physical
Situations where n is less than unity.
See: n, Quinta Essentia Part 3.
See: Physical.
7.3.16
Physical
Situations where n is greater than or equal to unity.
See: Non-Physical.
7.3.17 Primordial Universe

The Universe prior to the Big-Bang.
The Universe at the instant prior to the Big-Bang.
7.3.18 Schwarzschild-Black-Hole SBH
A static Black-Hole.
The simplest form of Black-Hole.
7.3.19 Schwarzschild-Planck-Black-Hole SPBH
A SBH of maximum permissible energy density existing at the Planck scale such that the
singularity and event horizon radii coincide.
The value of harmonic cut-off mode n at the periphery is unity.
The minimum physical radius is xh.
The minimum physical mass is mxmh.
7.3.20 Schwarzschild-Planck-Particle
Generalised reference to a SPBH.
7.3.21 Singularity
The maximum permissible energy density at the centre of a SBH, represented as a particle.
The particle representation (or mathematical point) at the centre of a SBH for which
physical laws are unknown to apply.
7.3.22 Singularity Radius rS
The radius of the singularity at the centre of a SBH.
7.3.23 Solar Mass
The mass of the Sun.
160
7.3.24 Super-Massive-Black-Hole SMBH

A BH of greater than 109 solar masses.
See: Black-Hole BH.
7.3.25 Total Mass-Energy
Refers to visible + dark.
7.3.26 Astronomical / Cosmological statistics
Symbol
DE2M
H0
MG
MG/3
MNS
RNS
Ro
T0
Description
Mean Earth-Moon distance
Hubble constant (present value)
Total Galactic mass
Visible Galactic mass
Mass of Neutron Star
Mean Radius of a Neutron Star
Mean distance to Galactic centre
CMBR temperature (present value)
Value utilised by EGM

3.844 x108
71
6 x1011MS
2 x1011MS
MS
20
8
2.725
Units
m
km/s/Mpc
kg
km
kpc
K
NOTES
161
NOTES
162
8 Glossary of Terms
8.1
8.1.1 Acronyms
BNL
BPT
CCFR
CERN
CHARM-II
D0C
DAT
DELPHI
DONUT
E734
EGM
EM
EP
ERF
FNAL
FS
GME1
GME2
GMEx
GPE
GR
GSE1
GSE2
GSE3
GSE4
GSE5
GSEx
HERA
HSE1
HSE2
HSE3
HSE4
HSE5
HSEx
IFF
IHEP
INFN
LANL
LEP
LHS
MCYT
Brookhaven National Laboratory

Buckingham Theory
Chicago Columbia Fermi-Lab Rochester
European Organisation for Nuclear Research
Experiment: study of Neutrino-Electron scattering at CERN
D-Zero Collaboration: an international research effort of leading Scientists utilising
facilities at FNAL in Illinois, USA
Dimensional Analysis Techniques
Detector with Lepton, Photon and Hadron Identification
Experiment: a search for direct evidence of the Tau Neutrino at Fermi-Lab
Experiment: a measurement of the elastic scattering of Neutrino's from Electrons and
Protons (at BNL)
Electro-Gravi-Magnetics: a mathematical method based upon the modification of the
vacuum polarisability by the superposition of EM fields
ElectroMagnetic
Experimental Prototype
Experimental Relationship Function
Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (FERMI-LAB)
Fourier series
General Modelling Equation One
General Modelling Equation Two
Generalised reference to GME1 and GME2
Gravitational Potential Energy
General Relativity
General Similarity Equation One
General Similarity Equation Two
General Similarity Equation Three
General Similarity Equation Four
General Similarity Equation Five
Generalised reference to GSE1, GSE2, GSE3, GSE4 or GSE5
Hadron Electron Ring Accelerator in Hamburg, Germany
Harmonic Similarity Equation One
Harmonic Similarity Equation Two
Harmonic Similarity Equation Three
Harmonic Similarity Equation Four
Harmonic Similarity Equation Five
Generalised reference to HSE1, HSE2, HSE3, HSE4 or HSE5
If and only if
Institute of High Energy Physics
National Institute of Nuclear Physics (Italy)
Los Alamos National Laboratories
Large Electron-Positron storage ring
Left hand side
Ministry of Science and Technology (Spain)
163
MEXT
MS
NIST
NuTeV
PDG
PV
RFBR
RHS
RMS
SK
SLAC
SNO
SSE1
SSE2
SSE3
SSE4
SSE5
SSEx
TRISTAN
US NSF
USDoE
ZC
ZPF
Ministry of Science (Japan)

Mean Square
National Institute of Standards & Technology
Neutrino's at the Tevatron
Particle Data Group: an international research effort of leading Scientists
Polarisable Vacuum
Russian Foundation for Basic Research
Right hand side
Root Mean Square
Super-Kamiokande Collaboration
Stanford Linear Accelerator Centre
Sudbury Neutrino Observatory
Spectral Similarity Equation One
Spectral Similarity Equation Two
Spectral Similarity Equation Three
Spectral Similarity Equation Four
Spectral Similarity Equation Five
Generalised reference to SSE1, SSE2, SSE3, SSE4 or SSE5
Particle collider at the Japanese High Energy Physics Laboratory (KEK)
United States National Science Foundation
United States Department of Energy
ZEUS Collaboration: an international research effort of leading Scientists utilising
facilities at HERA
Zero-Point-Field
NOTES
164
8.1.2 Symbols in alphabetical order

Symbol
A
a
a1
a2
APP
ax(t)
a
Description
1st Harmonic term
Magnitude of acceleration vector
Acceleration with respect to General Modelling Equation One
Acceleration with respect to General Modelling Equation Two
Parallel plate area of a Classical Casimir Experiment
Arbitrary acceleration in the time domain
Mean magnitude of acceleration over the fundamental period in a FS
representation in EGM
Magnitude of Magnetic field vector
B
Magnitude of Magnetic field vector (at infinity) in the PV model of gravity:
Ch. 3.2
Amplitude of applied Magnetic field: Ch. 3.6
B0
Magnitude of Magnetic field vector (locally) in the PV model of gravity
Magnitude of applied Magnetic field vector
BA
Critical Magnetic field strength
BC
Magnitude
of PV Magnetic field vector
BPV
Bottom Quark: elementary particle in the SM
bq
Root Mean Square of BA
Brms
Velocity of light in a vacuum
c
Velocity of light in a vacuum (at infinity) in the PV model of gravity: Ch. 3.1
Velocity of light (locally) in the PV model of gravity
c0
Amplitude of fundamental frequency of PV (nPV = 1)
CPV(1,r,M)
CPV(nPV,r,M) Amplitude spectrum of PV
Charm Quark: elementary particle in the SM
cq
Common difference
D
Experimental configuration factor: a specific value relating all design
criteria; this includes, but not limited to, field harmonics, field orientation,
physical dimensions, wave vector, spectral frequency mode and
instrumentation or measurement accuracy
Offset function
DC
Down Quark: elementary particle in the SM
dq
Energy: Ch. 3.3
E
Magnitude of Electric field vector
Magnitude of Electric field vector (at infinity) in the PV model of gravity:
Ch. 3.2
Electronic energy level
Charge
e, e
Electron: subatomic / elementary particle in the SM
Exponential function: mathematics
Amplitude of applied Electric field: Ch. 3.6
E0
Energy (locally) in the PV model of gravity
Magnitude of Electric field vector (locally) in the PV model of gravity
Magnitude of applied Electric field vector
EA
Critical Electric field strength
EC
Magnitude
of PV Electric field vector
EPV
Root Mean Square of EA
Erms
F(k,n,t) Complex FS representation of EGM
165
Units
m/s2
m2
m/s2
T
m/s
m/s2
%
J
V/m
J
C
V/m
J
V/m
m/s2
Magnitude of the ambient gravitational acceleration represented in the time

m/s2
domain
Amplitude spectrum / distribution of F(k,n,t)
F0(k)
The Casimir Force by classical representation
N
FPP
The Casimir Force by EGM
FPV
Gluon: theoretical elementary particle in the SM
g
Magnitude of gravitational acceleration vector
m/s2
Universal Gravitation Constant
m3kg-1s-2
G
Tensor element
g00
Tensor element
g11
Tensor element
g22
Tensor element
g33
Height: Ch. 3.4
m
h
Higgs Boson: theoretical elementary particle in the SM
H
Hydrogen
Magnetic field strength
Oe
Plancks Constant (plain h form)
Js
h
h-bar
Plancks Constant (2 form)
HSE4A R Time average form of HSE4 R
HSE5A R Time average form of HSE5 R
Generalised reference to the reduced form of HSEx
HSEx R
Complex number
i
Initial condition
Macroscopic intensity of Photons within a test volume
W/m2
In,P
Vector current density
A/m2
J
Wave vector
1/m
k
K0(r,X) ERF by displacement domain precipitation
Generalised ERF
K0(X)
K0(
,r,E,B,X) ERF by wavefunction precipitation
K0(
,X) ERF by frequency domain precipitation
K0(
PV,r,EPV,BPV,X) ERF equivalent to K0(,r,E,B,X)
ERF formed by re-interpretation of the primary precipitant
(V/m)2
K1
ERF formed by re-interpretation of the primary precipitant
T-2
K2
Harmonic wave vector of applied field
1/m
kA
Critical
Factor
KC
Pa
Engineered Refractive Index
KEGM
Harmonic form of KEGM
KEGM H
Experimentally implicit Planck Mass scaling factor
Km
The intensity of the background PV field at specific frequency modes
W/m2
Kn,P
A refinement of a constant in FPP
KP
Harmonic wave vector of PV
1/m
kPV
Refractive Index of PV
KPV
Harmonic form of KPV
KPV H
Critical Ratio
KR
Critical harmonic operator (based upon the unit amplitude spectrum)
KR H
Neutron MS charge radius by EGM
m2
KS
Neutron MS charge radius (determined experimentally) in the SM
KX
Experimentally implicit Planck Length scaling factor
K
Experimentally implicit Planck Frequency scaling factor
K
Length
m
L
f(t)
166
L0
L2
L3
L5
M
m0
M0
mAMC
mbq
mcq
mdq
me
ME
men
mgg
mH
mh
MJ
mL(2)
mL(3)
mL(5)
MM
mn
mp
mQB(5)
mQB(6)
MS
msq
mtq
muq
mW
mx
mZ
m
m
mg
m
m
mn
m
mn
n
n, N
nA
nB
NC
nE
nPV
nq
NT
Length (locally) in the PV model of gravity by EGM

Theoretical elementary particle (Lepton) by EGM
Mass
Mass (locally) in the PV model of gravity by EGM
Zero mass (energy) condition of free space
Atomic Mass Constant
Bottom Quark rest mass (energy) by EGM
Charm Quark rest mass (energy) by EGM
Down Quark rest mass (energy) by EGM
Electron rest mass (energy) according to NIST
Mass of the Earth
Electron Neutrino rest mass (energy) according to PDG
Graviton rest mass (energy) by EGM
Higgs Boson rest mass (energy) according to PDG
Planck Mass
Mass of Jupiter
Rest mass (energy) of the L2 particle by EGM
Mass of the Moon
Neutron rest mass (energy) according to NIST
Proton rest mass (energy) according to NIST
Rest mass (energy) of the QB5 particle by EGM
Rest mass (energy) of the QB6 particle by EGM
Mass of the Sun
Strange Quark rest mass (energy) by EGM
Top Quark rest mass (energy) according (energy) to PDG
Up Quark rest mass (energy) by EGM
W Boson rest mass according (energy) to PDG
Imaginary particle mass
Z Boson rest mass according (energy) to PDG
Electron rest mass (energy) in high energy scattering experiments
Photon rest mass (energy) threshold according to PDG
Graviton rest mass (energy) threshold according to PDG
Photon rest mass (energy) by EGM
Muon rest mass (energy) according to NIST
Muon Neutrino rest mass (energy) according to PDG
Tau rest mass (energy) according to NIST
Tau Neutrino rest mass (energy) according to PDG
Neutron: subatomic particle in the SM
Field harmonic (harmonic frequency mode)
Harmonic frequency modes of applied field
Harmonic mode number of the ZPF with respect to BA
Critical mode
Harmonic mode number of the ZPF with respect to EA
Harmonic frequency modes of PV
Quantum number
Number of terms
167
kg or eV
NTR
NX
Nr
n
n ZPF
n
P
p
Q, Qe
QB5
QB6
r
r0
rBohr
rBoson
rbq
rc
rcq
rdq
re
RE
ren
RError
rgg
rH
RJ
rL
RM
rp
rQB
RS
rsq
rtq
ru
ruq
rW
rx
rxq
rZ
r
r
r
rn
r
The ratio of the number of terms

Harmonic inflection mode
Permissible mode bandwidth of applied experimental fields
Harmonic cut-off mode of PV
ZPF beat cut-off mode
Mode Number (Critical Boundary Mode) of
Polarisation vector
Proton: subatomic particle in the SM
Magnitude of Electric charge
Theoretical elementary particle (Quark or Boson) by EGM
Theoretical elementary particle (Quark or Boson) by EGM
Arbitrary radius with homogeneous mass (energy) distribution
Generalised notation for length (e.g. r /2): Ch. 3.1
Generalised notation for length (locally) in the PV model of gravity: Ch. 3.1
Magnitude of position vector from centre of spherical object with
homogeneous mass (energy) distribution
Reciprocal of the wave number: Ch. 3.1
Length (locally) in the PV model of gravity
Classical Bohr radius
Generalised RMS charge radius of a Boson by EGM
RMS charge radius of the Bottom Quark by EGM
Transformed value of generalised length (locally) in the PV model of gravity
RMS charge radius of the Charm Quark by EGM
RMS charge radius of the Down Quark by EGM
Classical Electron radius in the SM
Mean radius of the Earth
RMS charge radius of the Electron Neutrino by EGM
Representation Error
RMS charge radius of the Graviton by EGM
RMS charge radius of the Higgs Boson utilising ru
Mean radius of Jupiter
Average RMS charge radii of the r, r and r particles
Mean radius of the Moon
Classical RMS charge radius of the Proton in the SM
Average RMS charge radius of the QB5 / QB6 particles by EGM utilising ru
Mean radius of the Sun
RMS charge radius of the Strange Quark by EGM
RMS charge radius of the Top Quark by EGM
Heisenberg uncertainty range
RMS charge radius of the Up Quark by EGM
RMS charge radius of the W Boson utilising ru
Bohr radius by EGM
Generalised RMS charge radius of all Quarks as determined by the ZC
within the SM
RMS charge radius of the Z Boson by utilising ru
RMS charge radius of the Electron by EGM
RMS charge radius of the Photon by EGM
RMS charge radius of the Muon by EGM
RMS charge radius of the Muon Neutrino by EGM
Neutron RMS charge radius (by analogy to KS)
168
C/m2
C
%
m
RMS charge radius of the 2 particle by EGM

Neutron Magnetic radius by EGM
Generalised reference to r2, r3 and r5
RMS charge radius of the Proton by EGM
Proton Electric radius by EGM
Proton Magnetic radius by EGM
RMS charge radius of the Tau by EGM
RMS charge radius of the Tau Neutrino by EGM
Rydberg Constant
Poynting Vector
Strange Quark: elementary particle in the SM
nth Harmonic term
Range factor
1st Sense check
3rd Sense check
4th Sense check
2nd Sense check
5th Sense check
6th Sense check
A positive integer value representing the harmonic cut-off frequency ratio
between two proportionally similar mass (energy) systems
Poynting Vector of PV
S
Time
t
Top Quark: elementary particle in the SM
tq
Initial state GPE per unit mass described by any appropriate method
Ug
Harmonic form of Ug
Ug H
Rest mass-energy density
Um
Up Quark: elementary particle in the SM
uq
Field energy density of PV
U
Local value of the velocity of light in a vacuum
vc
W Boson: elementary particle in the SM
W
All variables within the experimental environment that influence results and
X
behaviour including parameters that might otherwise be neglected due to
practical calculation limitations, in theoretical analysis
Impedance function
Z
Z Boson: elementary particle in the SM
Change in electronic energy level
Change in the magnitude of the local PV acceleration vector

aPV
Change in magnitude of the local gravitational acceleration vector
g
GME1 Change in GME1
GME2 Change in GME2
GMEx Generalised reference to changes in GME1 and GME2
Harmonic form of K0
K0 H
K0(
,X) Engineered Relationship Function by EGM
Change in K1 by EGM
K1
Change in K2 by EGM
K2
Change in Critical Factor by EGM
KC
r2
r3
r5
rM
rx
r
rE
rM
r
rn
R
S
sq
StN
St
St
St
St
St
St
St
St
169
J
W/m2
Pa
W/m2
s
(m/s)2
Pa
Pa
m/s
J
m/s2
(V/m)2
T-2
Pa
nS
r
t
t0
Ug
UPV
v
vr
PV
r
PV
R
S
ZPF
H
HR
1
x
1
x
0
C
gg
Ce
CN
CP
h
Change in the number of ZPF modes

Plate separation of a Classical Casimir Experiment
Practical changes in benchtop displacement values
Change in time (at infinity) in the PV model of gravity by EGM
Change in time (locally) in the PV model of gravity by EGM
Change in Gravitational Potential Energy (GPE) per unit mass induced by
any suitable source
Change in energy density of gravitational field
Change in rest mass-energy density
Terminating group velocity of PV
Group velocity of PV
Change in the local value of the Cosmological Constant by EGM
Change in harmonic cut-off wavelength of PV
Change in harmonic wavelength of PV
Frequency bandwidth of PV
Bandwidth ratio
Similarity bandwidth
ZPF beat bandwidth
Beat bandwidth of PV
Beat frequency of PV
Dimensional grouping derived by application of BPT
The sum of terms
The ratio of the sum of terms
Harmonic cut-off function of PV
An inversely proportional description of how energy density may result in an
acceleration: Ch. 3.2
Fine Structure Constant
The subset formed, as N , by the method of incorporation
Generalised reference to 1 and 2
A directly proportional description of how energy density may result in an
acceleration
The subset formed, as N , by the method of incorporation
Generalised reference to 1 and 2
Permittivity of a vacuum
Relative phase variance between EA and BA
Critical phase variance
RMS charge diameter of the Graviton by EGM
RMS charge diameter of the Photon by EGM
Mathematical Constant: Euler-Mascheroni (Eulers) Constant
Photon: elementary particle in the SM
Graviton: theoretical elementary particle in the SM
Wavelength
1st term of the Balmer Series by EGM
Classical Balmer Series wavelength
Electron Compton Wavelength
Neutron Compton Wavelength
Proton Compton Wavelength
Planck Length
170
m
s
(m/s)2
Pa
m/s
Hz2
m
Hz
Hz
m/s2
m/s2
F/m
c
m
PV
,
0
2
3
5
e
0
,
Wavelength of PV
Muon: elementary particle in the SM
Reduced mass of Hydrogen
Permeability of a vacuum
Theoretical elementary Neutrino of the L2 particle by EGM
Electron Neutrino: elementary particle in the SM
Muon Neutrino: elementary particle in the SM
Tau Neutrino: elementary particle in the SM
Charge density
Spectral energy density
Tau: elementary particle in the SM
Field frequency
Field frequency (at infinity) in the PV model of gravity: Ch. 3.2
Field frequency (locally) in the PV model of gravity
0
Field frequency (locally) in the PV model of gravity by EGM
Harmonic frequency of the ZPF with respect to BA
B
Critical frequency
C
Harmonic
frequency of the ZPF with respect to EA
E
Electron Compton Frequency
Ce
Neutron Compton Frequency
CN
Proton Compton Frequency
CP
Planck Frequency
h
Generalised reference to PV(nPV,r,M)
PV
Fundamental frequency of PV (nPV = 1)
PV(1,r,M)
Frequency
spectrum of PV
PV(nPV,r,M)
Harmonic inflection frequency
X
Harmonic cut-off frequency of PV
ZPF
beat cut-off frequency
ZPF
Critical boundary
mQuark Average mass (energy) of all Quarks according to PDG

Average mass (energy) of all Quarks by EGM
Average RMS charge radius of all Bosons in the SM utilising ru
rBoson
Average RMS charge radius of all Quarks by EGM
rQuark
Average RMS charge radius of all Quarks and Bosons by EGM utilising ru
r
m
kg or eV
N/A2
C/m3
Pa/Hz
Hz
kg or eV
m
NOTES
171
8.2
8.2.1 Acronyms
Refer to Quinta Essentia Part 3: Acronyms where appropriate.
BH
CMBR
DAT
ED
EFT
EP
GA
GRP
GUT
HEP
LFT
MW
NASA
QED
QFT
QM
RF
SBH
SED
SM
SMBH
SPBH
ST
ToE
VP
ZP
ZPE
Black-Hole
Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation
Dimensional Analysis Technique
ElectroDynamics
Effective Field Theory
Experimental Prototype
Gravitational Astronomy
Galactic Reference Particle
Grand Unified Theory
High Energy Physics
Lattice Field Theory
Milky-Way
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Quantum Electro Dynamics
Quantum Field Theory
Quantum Mechanics
Radio Frequency
Schwarzschild-Black-Hole
Spectral Energy Density
Standard Model of Particle-Physics or Cosmology
Super-Massive-Black-Hole
Schwarzschild-Planck-Black-Hole
String Theory
Theory of Everything
Virtual Photon
Zero-Point
Zero-Point-Energy
NOTES
172
8.2.2 Symbols by chapter
Refer to Quinta Essentia Part 3: Symbols in alphabetical order where appropriate.
Symbol
aEGM_
C_J
C_J1
n_1
Stg
StG
StJ
S
1
_1
_2
_3
Chapter 5: Characterisation of the Gravitational Spectrum

Description
Gravitational acceleration utilising _2
EGM Flux Intensity
Non-refractive form of C_J
Non-refractive form of n
1st EGM gravitational constant: Stg = 1.828935 x10245
2nd EGM gravitational constant: StG = 8.146982 x10224
3rd EGM gravitational constant: StJ9 = 1.093567 x10-146(kg4m26/s18)
Approximated / simplified Poynting Vector
Non-refractive form of
Gravitational acceleration form of _1
Transformed representation of _1
Units
m/s2
Jy (Jansky)
m-1s-5
m5kg-2s-9
(kg4m26/s18)(1/9)
W/m2
Hz
Chapter 6: Derivation of Planck-Particle and Schwarzschild-Black-Hole Characteristics

Symbol Description
Units
Propagation energy of a Graviton
J
Eg
Ex
Proportional relationship between Eg and E
Propagation energy of a Photon
J
E
Hz
H0
Refractive Index of PV by Depp
KDepp
Planck scale experimental relationship function
Kh
Generalised mass
kg
M1
Generalised mass
M2
Mass of a SBH
MBH
2nd SPBH constant
mx
nBH
Harmonic cut-off mode ratio (n_5 : n_4)
ng
Average number of Gravitons radiated by a SBH per T_4 period
Population of Gravitons within starving matter
ngg
Transformed representation of n_1
n_2
The form n_2 takes as a function of x
n_3
n_1 at the periphery of a SBH singularity
n_4
n_1 at the event horizon of a SBH
n_5
Average number of Photons radiated by a SBH per T_4 period
n
Population of Photons within starving matter
n
Hubble size (present value)
m
r0
Generalised radial displacement
r1
r2
Radius of the event horizon of a SBH
RBH
Range variable for SBHs
Rbh
Singularity radius
rS
ZPF equilibrium radius
rZPF
Distance from the centre of mass of a celestial object to the Earth
r
Average emission period per Graviton
s
Tg
173
TL
T_3
T_4
V
KPV
r
VL
x
X-RAY
m
S
BH
g
PV_1
X-RAY
_4
_5
_6
_7
Minimum gravitational lifetime of matter

1 / _3
1 / _4
Volume
Change in Refractive Index of PV
Change in displacement within the event horizon of a SBH
Wavelength of visible light
1st SPBH constant
Wavelength of X-Rays
Mass density
Mass density of a SPBH
Harmonic cut-off frequency ratio (_5 : _4)
Average Graviton emission frequency (1 / Tg)
Fundamental harmonic frequency ratio (_6 : _7)
Frequency of X-Rays
_3 at the event horizon of a SBH
_3 at the periphery of a SBH singularity
PV(1,r,MBH) at the periphery of a SBH singularity: r = rS(MBH)
PV(1,r,MBH) at the event horizon of a SBH: r = RBH(MBH)
m3
m
m
kg/m3
Hz
Hz
Chapter 7: Fundamental Cosmology

Symbol
AU
H
HU
HU2
H
KT
KU
KW
M3
Mf
MG
mg1
mg2
mg3
mg4
mg5
Mi
MU
r3
rf
ri
Ro
RU
rx1
rx2
rx3
rx4
Description
EGM Cosmological age (present value)
Generalised reference to the Hubble constant
EGM Hubble constant
Transformed representation of HU
Primordial Hubble constant
Expansive scaling factor
rf / ri
Wien displacement constant: 2.8977685 x10-3 [35]
Generalised mass or mxmh
Total Cosmological mass (present value)
Total mass of the Milky-Way Galaxy
Computational pre-factor
Total Cosmological mass (initial value)
Total EGM Cosmological mass
Generalised radial displacement or xh
Cosmological size (present value)
Cosmological size (initial value)
Distance from the Sun to the Galactic centre
EGM Cosmological size (present value)
174
Units
s
Hz
mK
kg
kg
m
pc (parsec)
m
rx5
T0
TU
TU2
TW
UZPF
Ro
T0
EGM
m
PDG
ZPF
y
_3
c
U
U2
CMBR temperature by the EGM method
Transformed representation of TU
Thermodynamic scaling factor
ZPF energy density threshold
Experimental tolerance of Ro
Experimental tolerance of T0
Community reference to the net Cosmological density parameter
Net Cosmological density parameter as defined by the EGM method
Visible mass contribution to the net Cosmological density parameter
Net Cosmological density parameter as defined by the PDG
ZPE contribution to the net Cosmological density parameter
Dark energy contribution to the net Cosmological density parameter
Photon contribution to the net Cosmological density parameter
Neutrino contribution to the net Cosmological density parameter
Generalised representation of x
c / _3
Community reference to Cosmological mass-density
Critical Cosmological mass-density
EGM Cosmological mass-density
Transformed representation of U
Pa
pc
K
m
kg/m3
Chapter 8: Advanced Cosmology

Symbol
C_J
dH2dt2
dHdt
dT2dt2
dT3dt3
dTdt
H
H2
H
MEGM
ML
REGM
rL
t1
t2
t3
t4
t5
t7
tEGM
Description
Equal to C_J
2nd time derivative of H
1st time derivative of H
2nd time derivative of TU4
3rd time derivative of TU4
1st time derivative of TU4
Dimensionless range variable
Convenient form of MU
EGM Cosmological mass limit
Convenient form of RU
EGM Cosmological size limit
Temporal ordinate (local maxima) of the CMBR temperature
The instant of maximum Cosmological temperature
Temporal ordinate (local minima) of the 1st time derivative of the
CMBR temperature
Temporal ordinate (local maxima) of the 2nd time derivative of the
CMBR temperature
Temporal ordinate (local maxima) of the 1st time derivative of H
The instant of maximum physical EGM Hubble constant
Temporal ordinate (local minima) of the 2nd time derivative of H
Equal to t1
Convenient form of AU
175
Units
Jy
Hz3
Hz2
K/s2
K/s3
K/s
kg
m
s
tL
TU3
TU4
EGM Cosmological age limit

Transformed representation of TU2
Computed index
Indicial constant ( = 1 / 3)
s
K
Symbol
ag
aPV
DE2M
gav
r4
r5
Chapter 9: Gravitational Cosmology

Description
High frequency harmonic acceleration
Gravitational acceleration harmonic
Mean distance from the Earth to the Moon
Average high-frequency harmonic acceleration
Distance from the centre of mass of the Earth to the buoyancy point
Distance from the centre of mass of the Moon to the buoyancy point
Units
m/s2
m
m/s2
m
Chapter 10: Particle Cosmology

Symbol
mgg2
m2
N
Q
Q_PDG
Q
Q2
rgg2
r2
Description
Graviton mass-energy lower limit
Photon mass-energy lower limit
Photon population at Q
Photon RMS charge threshold by EGM
Photon RMS charge threshold by PDG
Photon RMS charge upper limit by EGM
Photon RMS charge lower limit by EGM
Graviton RMS charge radius lower limit
Photon RMS charge radius lower limit
Units
eV
Appendix 4.A
Symbol
TBH
Th
TSPBH
Description
BH temperature
Planck temperature
SPBH temperature
Energy flux emitted from a Black-Body at temperature T
Boltzmanns constant: 1.3806505 x10-23 [35]
Stefan-Boltzmann constant: 5.670400 x10-8 [35]
Units
K
W/m2
J/K
Wm-2K-4
NOTES
176
8.2.3 Symbols in alphabetical order
Refer to Quinta Essentia Part 3: Symbols in alphabetical order where appropriate.
Symbol
aEGM_
ag
aPV
AU
C_J
C_J1
C_J
DE2M
dH2dt2
dHdt
dT2dt2
dT3dt3
dTdt
Eg
Ex
E
gav
H
H0
HU
HU2
H
H
H2
H
KDepp
Kh
KT
KU
KW
M1
M2
M3
MBH
MEGM
Mf
MG
mg1
mg2
mg3
mg4
mg5
mgg2
Mi
ML
Description
Gravitational acceleration utilising _2
High frequency harmonic acceleration
Gravitational acceleration harmonic
EGM Cosmological age (present value)
EGM Flux Intensity
Non-refractive form of C_J
Equal to C_J
Mean distance from the Earth to the Moon
2nd time derivative of H
1st time derivative of H
2nd time derivative of TU4
3rd time derivative of TU4
1st time derivative of TU4
Propagation energy of a Graviton
Proportional relationship between Eg and E
Propagation energy of a Photon
Average high-frequency harmonic acceleration
Generalised reference to the Hubble constant
EGM Hubble constant
Transformed representation of HU
Primordial Hubble constant
Refractive Index of PV by Depp
Planck scale experimental relationship function
Expansive scaling factor
rf / ri
Wien displacement constant: 2.8977685 x10-3 [35]
Generalised mass
Generalised mass
Generalised mass or mxmh
Mass of a SBH
Convenient form of MU
Total Cosmological mass (present value)
Total mass of the Milky-Way Galaxy
Graviton mass-energy lower limit
Total Cosmological mass (initial value)
EGM Cosmological mass limit
177
Units
m/s2
s
Jy (Jansky)
m
Hz3
Hz2
K/s2
K/s3
K/s
J
J
m/s2
Hz
mK
kg
eV
kg
MU
mx
m2
nBH
ng
ngg
n_1
n_2
n_3
n_4
n_5
n
N
n
Q
Q_PDG
Q
Q2
r0
r1
r2
r3
r4
r5
RBH
Rbh
REGM
rf
rgg2
ri
rL
Ro
rS
RU
rx1
rx2
rx3
rx4
rx5
rZPF
r2
r
Stg
StG
StJ
S
T0
t1
Total EGM Cosmological mass

2nd SPBH constant
Photon mass-energy lower limit
Harmonic cut-off mode ratio (n_5 : n_4)
Average number of Gravitons radiated by a SBH per T_4 period
Population of Gravitons within starving matter
Non-refractive form of n
Transformed representation of n_1
The form n_2 takes as a function of x
n_1 at the periphery of a SBH singularity
n_1 at the event horizon of a SBH
Average number of Photons radiated by a SBH per T_4 period
Photon population at Q
Population of Photons within starving matter
Photon RMS charge threshold by EGM
Photon RMS charge threshold by PDG
Photon RMS charge upper limit by EGM
Photon RMS charge lower limit by EGM
Hubble size (present value)
Generalised radial displacement or xh
Distance from the centre of mass of the Earth to the buoyancy point
Distance from the centre of mass of the Moon to the buoyancy point
Radius of the event horizon of a SBH
Range variable for SBHs
Convenient form of RU
Cosmological size (present value)
Graviton RMS charge radius lower limit
Cosmological size (initial value)
EGM Cosmological size limit
Distance from the Sun to the Galactic centre
Singularity radius
EGM Cosmological size (present value)
ZPF equilibrium radius
Photon RMS charge radius lower limit
Distance from the centre of mass of a celestial object to the Earth
1st EGM gravitational constant: Stg = 1.828935 x10245
2nd EGM gravitational constant: StG = 8.146982 x10224
3rd EGM gravitational constant: StJ9 = 1.093567 x10-146(kg4m26/s18)
Approximated / simplified Poynting Vector
Temporal ordinate (local maxima) of the CMBR temperature
The instant of maximum Cosmological temperature
178
kg
eV
pc (parsec)
m
m-1s-5
m5kg-2s-9
(kg4m26/s18)(1/9)
W/m2
K
s
t2
t3
t4
t5
t7
TBH
tEGM
Tg
Th
TL
tL
TSPBH
TU
TU2
TU3
TU4
TW
T_3
T_4
UZPF
V
KPV
r
Ro
T0
1
EGM
m
PDG
ZPF
VL
x
X-RAY
y
_3
c
m
Temporal ordinate (local minima) of the 1st time derivative of the

CMBR temperature
Temporal ordinate (local maxima) of the 2nd time derivative of the
CMBR temperature
Temporal ordinate (local maxima) of the 1st time derivative of H
The instant of maximum physical EGM Hubble constant
Temporal ordinate (local minima) of the 2nd time derivative of H
Equal to t1
BH temperature
Convenient form of AU
Average emission period per Graviton
Planck temperature
Minimum gravitational lifetime of matter
EGM Cosmological age limit
SPBH temperature
CMBR temperature by the EGM method
Transformed representation of TU
Thermodynamic scaling factor
1 / _3
1 / _4
ZPF energy density threshold
Volume
Change in Refractive Index of PV
Change in displacement within the event horizon of a SBH
Experimental tolerance of Ro
Experimental tolerance of T0
Energy flux emitted from a Black-Body at temperature T
Community reference to the net Cosmological density parameter
Net Cosmological density parameter as defined by the EGM method
Visible mass contribution to the net Cosmological density parameter
Net Cosmological density parameter as defined by the PDG
ZPE contribution to the net Cosmological density parameter
Dark energy contribution to the net Cosmological density parameter
Photon contribution to the net Cosmological density parameter
Neutrino contribution to the net Cosmological density parameter
Computed index
Boltzmanns constant: 1.3806505 x10-23 [35]
Wavelength of visible light
1st SPBH constant
Wavelength of X-Rays
Generalised representation of x
c / _3
Indicial constant ( = 1 / 3)
Community reference to Cosmological mass-density
Critical Cosmological mass-density
Mass density
179
K
s
K
s
K
s
Pa
m3
m
pc
K
W/m2
J/K
m
m
m
kg/m3
S
U
U2
BH
g
PV_1
X-RAY
_1
_2
_3
_4
_5
_6
_7
Mass density of a SPBH

EGM Cosmological mass-density
Transformed representation of U
Stefan-Boltzmann constant: 5.670400 x10-8 [35]
Harmonic cut-off frequency ratio (_5 : _4)
Average Graviton emission frequency (1 / Tg)
Fundamental harmonic frequency ratio (_6 : _7)
Frequency of X-Rays
Gravitational acceleration form of _1
Transformed representation of _1
_3 at the event horizon of a SBH
_3 at the periphery of a SBH singularity
PV(1,r,MBH) at the periphery of a SBH singularity: r = rS(MBH)
PV(1,r,MBH) at the event horizon of a SBH: r = RBH(MBH)
kg/m3
Wm-2K-4
Hz
Hz
NOTES
180
9 Key Artefact and Equation Summary

The following is an itemised account of the key relationships derived in QE3 and QE4:
9.1
9.1.1 Dimensional Analysis

9.1.1.1 KPV, K0(X)
2
K PV K 0( X )
(3.25)
9.1.1.2 a(t)
Acceleration
Re( a( t ) )
Im( a( t ) )
f( t )
t
Time
Real Terms (Non-Zero Sum)

Imaginary Terms (Zero Sum)
Constant Function (eg. "g")
Figure 3.2,
9.1.2 General modelling and the critical factor
9.1.2.1 KC
K C K 1, K 2
K 1 0, r 0, E 0, D , X
K 2 0, r 0, B 0, D, X
N
2
E 0( k , n , t ) .
n= N
B 0( k , n , t )
n= N
(3.44)
9.1.2.2 GME1
N
2
a r0
2
2
K 2 0, r 0, B 0, D, X
.
2 .r 0 . K PV
n= N
N
E 0( k , n , t )
2
c0 .
B 0( k , n , t )
n= N
E 0( k , n , t )
K 0 0, X
n
=
N
.
N
3
.
.
2 r 0 K PV
2
B 0( k , n , t )
n= N
(Eq. 3.45)
181
c0
9.1.2.3 GME2
N
a r0
K 2 0, r 0, B 0, D, X
2 .r 0 . K PV
E 0( k , n , t )
2
c0 .
n= N
B 0( k , n , t )
n= N
K 0 0, X
E 0( k , n , t )
. n= N
N
3
2 .r 0 . K PV
2
B 0( k , n , t )
n= N
(Eq. 3.46)
9.1.3 The engineered metric
9.1.3.1 KR
KR
U g a PV K C( r )
Ug
U PV( r )
0
0
(3.53)
9.1.3.2 K0(,X)
K 0( , X )
G.M .
r .g .
KR
KR
2
2
c
r .c
(3.54)
9.1.3.3 KEGM (normal matter form)

K EGM K PV. e
2 . K 0( , X )
(3.56)
9.1.4 Amplitude and frequency spectra

9.1.4.1 CPV
G.M .
C PV n PV, r , M
2
.
n PV
(3.64)
9.1.4.2 PV
n PV 3 2 . c . G. M
.
. K ( r, M )
PV
r
.r
PV n PV, r , M
(3.67)
9.1.4.3 n
n ( r, M )
( r, M )
12
( r, M )
(3.71)
9.1.4.4
3
( r, M )
108.
U m( r , M )
U ( r , M )
12. 768 81.
U m( r , M )
U ( r , M )
(3.72)
9.1.4.5
( r , M ) n ( r , M ) . PV( 1 , r , M )
182
(3.73)
c0
9.1.5 General similarity

9.1.5.1
r , r , M , K R
( r , r , M )
4
ZPF
K R . ( r , r , M )
ZPF
r( 1 , r , r , M )
(3.93)
9.1.5.2 EGM Wave Propagation
Figure 3.14,
9.1.5.3 EGM Spectrum
Figure 3.15 (illustrational only),

9.1.6 Harmonic and spectral similarity
9.1.6.1 C = 0, 90, EC, BC
Critical Phase Variance C = 0, 90
Critical Field Strengths (EC and BC)
EC and BC are derived utilising the reciprocal harmonic distribution describing the EGM
amplitude spectrum. Solutions to |SSE4,5| = 1 represent conditions of complete dynamic,
kinematic and geometric similarity with the amplitude of the background EGM spectrum.
183
9.1.6.2 SSE4,5
SSE 5 E rms , B rms, , r , r , M

2
SSE 4 E rms , B rms, 0 , r , r , M
(3.156)
9.1.6.3 DC-Offsets
SSE 4 ( 1
SSE 4 ( 1
DC) .E rms , B rms , 0 , r , r , M
DC) . E rms, ( 1
SSE 5 E rms , ( 1
DC) . B rms, 0 , r , r , M
SSE 5 ( 1
DC) .B rms , , r , r , M
2
DC) . E rms, ( 1
DC) . B rms,
1
2
, r, r, M
(3.159)
1
4
(Eq. 3.160)
9.1.6.4 C
C( r )
c
2 .r
(3.162)

9.1.7.1 NX
N X( r , r , M )
n ( r , r , M )
1
ZPF
ln 2 .n ( r , r , M )
(3.164)
ZPF
9.1.7.2 NC
N C( r , r , M )
C( r )
PV( 1 , r , M )
(3.169)
9.1.7.3 X
X( r , r , M ) N X( r , r , M ) . PV( 1 , r , M )
(3.170)
9.1.7.4 FPV
F PV A PP , r , r , M
A PP .U PV( r , r , M ) .
N C( r , r , M )
N X( r , r , M )
.ln
N X( r , r , M )
N C( r , r , M )
(3.179)
9.1.7.5 r, x, Erms, Brms, 0c, , /2
The optimal configuration of a Classical Casimir Experiment to test the negative energy
conjecture exists at:
r 16.5(mm)
(3.287)
X(RE,r,ME) 18(nm)
(3.289)
Erms 550(V/m)
(3.290)
Brms 18(milli-gauss)
(3.291)
The optimal phase variance between the applied Electric and Magnetic fields occurs at 0, or
/2
184
9.1.8 Physical characteristics

9.1.8.1 Photon / Graviton
9.1.8.1.1 m
m<
512.h .G.m e
c . .r e
n r e, m e
ln 2 .n r e , m e
(3.193)
9.1.8.1.2 mgg
mgg = 2m
(3.216)
9.1.8.1.3 m
3
h .
re
.r e
512.G.m e
2 .c .G.m e
c .
n r e, m e
ln 2 .n r e , m e
(3.220)
9.1.8.1.4 r
9.1.8.1.4.1 Primary
5
r r e .
m e .c
(3.225)
9.1.8.1.4.2 Secondary
Approximation of the radius of a free Photon r, relating physical properties of the Lepton
family, specifically all Electron-Like particles
r K .
G.h . r
c
(3.274)
9.1.8.1.5 rgg
r gg
4 .r
(3.227)
9.1.8.2
9.1.8.2.1 Primary
.e
(3.204)
9.1.8.2.2 Secondary
r
.e
(3.236)
185
9.1.8.3 St
2
r 1, M 1
M1
r 2, M 2
M2
r2
St
r1
(3.230)
9.1.8.4 Electron, Muon, Tau

9.1.8.4.1 r, r, r
5
1 . me
r r .
9
2 mp
(3.231)
r .
r r
1 . m
9
4 me
1 . m
9
6 me
(3.234)
9.1.8.4.2 ren, rn, rn

5
m en
r .
r en r n r n
r .
me
m n
r .
m n
(3.238)
9.1.8.5 Proton, Neutron

9.1.8.5.1
r , m e
r , m p
2 . r , m p
r ,mn
CP
CN
Ce
Ce
(3.210)
9.1.8.5.2 r, r
2
. c .e
r e Ce
c . Ce
4 . CP
c . Ce
4 . CN
2
4
27. h Ce
.
4
32. CP
(3.212)
2
4
27. h Ce
.
4
32. CN
(3.215)
9.1.8.5.3 ch
r
ch ( r )
KS
2.
3
3.
5 2
r . x
. e
1.
r
x .r
(3.406)
9.1.8.5.4 rdr
r dr
5.
3
186
(3.391)
9.1.8.5.5 KS
KS
2
3 . . r ( 1 x) . x3
.
2
8
1 x x
(3.396)
9.1.8.5.6 b1, rX
b1
2 . KS
3.r
(3.394)
2
6 .b 1 .K X . x
rX
2
3 .b 1 . x
r
KS
. K .K
S X
(3.418)
9.1.8.5.7 rM
r dr
r
r . ch r M
ch ( r ) d r
r
(3.420)
9.1.8.5.8 rE
r dr
r . ch r E
ch ( r ) d r
r
(3.423)
9.1.8.5.9 rM
r . ch r M
ch ( r ) d r
r dr
r
(3.426)
9.1.8.5.10 rp
r P r E
1.
2
r M
(3.429)
9.1.8.6 Quark / Boson harmonics

9.1.8.6.1 Up Quark
1
r uq , m uq
r dq , m dq
r sq , m sq
r cq , m cq
r bq , m bq
1 2 3 4
r W,mW
r Z, m Z
r H, m H
r tq , m tq
7 8 9 10
(3.253)
9.1.8.6.2 Electron
1
r , m e
r dq , m dq
r sq , m sq
r cq , m cq
r bq , m bq
7 14 21 28
r W,mW
r Z, m Z
r H, m H
r tq , m tq
49 56 63 70
187
(3.254)
9.1.8.7 Hydrogen Spectrum: A
The first term of the Hydrogen Spectrum (Balmer series) A [by EGM] utilising the Bohr
radius rBohr and the fundamental PV wavelength PV
A
PV 1 , K .r Bohr , m p
2 .n K .r Bohr , m p
(3.457)
9.1.9 Theoretical propositions

9.1.9.1 The Planck scale: K, K, Km
3
(3.270)
1
K
(3.264)
1
Km
(3.265)
9.1.9.2 Particles
9.1.9.2.1 Leptons: mL(2), mL(3), mL(5)
mL(2) 9(MeV)
(3.280)
mL(3) 57(MeV)
(3.281)
mL(5) 566(MeV)
(3.282)
9.1.9.2.2 Quarks / Bosons: mQB(5), mQB(6)

mQB(5) 10(GeV)
(3.285)
mQB(6) 22(GeV)
(3.286)
188
9.2
9.2.1 Gravitation
9.2.1.1 Stg
6
3
3 . h
St g
13 2
2 . .c
(4.23)
9.2.1.2 _2
_2( r , M )
St g
.g ( r , M ) 2
(4.25)
9.2.1.3 aEGM_
r .
9
_2( r , M )
a EGM_( r , M )
St g
(4.26)
9.2.1.4 StG
3.
St G
3 . h
. c
2
4 . .h
(4.35)
9.2.1.5 _3
9
M
St G.
5
r
_3( r , M )
(4.36)
9.2.1.6 _3
_3 = c / _3
9.2.1.7 G
St G
St g
(4.37)
9.2.1.8 PV(nPV,r,M)3
2 .c .n PV
PV n PV, r , M
.r
.g ( r , M )
(4.41)
9.2.1.9 StJ
9 .c .
St G
4 .
4
St J
2
9
(4.51)
9.2.1.10 C_J1, C_J

C _J1( r , M )
St J
2
189
. M
(4.52)
5.2
4
9 .c . _3
4 . St 0.8 .M 0.6
G
C _J _3 , M
(4.427)
9.2.1.11 n_2
9
n _2( r , M )
.
3
3 . m h . r
16 M
h
2
(4.60)
9.2.1.12 KDepp
1
K Depp ( r , M )
2 .G.M
r .c
(4.106)
9.2.1.13 KPV
K PV( r , M )
K Depp ( r , M )
K Depp ( r , M )
K PV( r , M )
(4.110)
9.2.1.14 TL
TL
h
m
(4.196)
9.2.1.15 g
M .c
2 .h
g( M )
(4.207)
9.2.1.16 ngg
n gg ( M ) T L. g ( M )
(4.208)
9.2.1.17 r
5
r _3 , M
St G.
_3
(4.212)
9.2.1.18 aPV
a PV( r , M , t )
i .
C PV n PV, r , M .e
.n PV . PV( 1 , r , M ) .t .i
n PV
(4.436)
9.2.1.19 ag
a g ( r , M , , t )
g ( r , M ) . .sin 2 . . ( r , M ) .t
2
190
(4.439)
9.2.1.20 gav
g av ( r , M )
1.
T ( r, M )
2
.
T ( r, M )
a g( r, M , 0, t ) d t
0 .( s )
(4.440)
9.2.2 Planck-Particles
9.2.2.1 mx
mx
x
2
(4.71)
4 . 2
6
3
(4.72)
9.2.2.2 x
x
9.2.2.3 m, S
. 94 kg
m x. h , m x.m h = 1.34467810
3
m
(4.78)
S = m(xh,mxmh)
9.2.2.4 r3, M3
r3 = xh
(4.245)
M3 = mxmh = xmh / 2
(4.246)
9.2.3 SBHs
9.2.3.1 StBH
9
St BH
c.
c .St G
( 2 .G)
(4.138)
9.2.3.2 _4
3
St BH.
_4 M BH
1
M BH
(4.139)
9.2.3.3 rS
3
r S R BH
2
x. h .R BH
r S M BH
3
r S R BH
191
(4.146)
3 .M BH
4 . . S
(4.148)
2
3 .c .R BH
8 . .G. S
(4.150)
9.2.3.4 n_4
n _4 M BH
n _2 r S M BH , M BH
(4.157)
n _5 M BH
n _2 R BH M BH , M BH
(4.158)
9.2.3.5 n_5
9.2.3.6 nBH
n BH M BH
n _5 M BH
n _4 M BH
(4.159)
9.2.3.7 _5
_5 M BH
_3 r S M BH , M BH
(4.161)
9.2.3.8 BH
BH M BH
_5 M BH
_4 M BH
(4.162)
9.2.3.9 _6
_5 M BH
_6 M BH
n _4 M BH
(4.166)
9.2.3.10 _7
_4 M BH
_7 M BH
n _5 M BH
(4.167)
9.2.3.11 PV_1
_6 M BH
PV_1 M BH
_7 M BH
(4.168)
9.2.3.12 ng
n g , M BH
E M BH
E g( )
(4.177)
9.2.4 Cosmology
9.2.4.1 r2, M2
r2(r) = Kr
(4.247)
M2(M) = KmM = KM
(4.248)
9.2.4.2 y
y r 2, M 2
1
ln n _2 r 2 , M 2
192
(4.229)
9.2.4.3 KU
K U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
ln
y r 2, M 2
.M
C _J1 y r 2 , M 2 .r 3 ,
3
2
C _J1 r 2 , M 2
5
K U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
ln
(4.231)
.ln n
_2 r 2 , M 2
3.
M3
26
M2
r2
r3
(4.232)
9.2.4.4 AU
A U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
TL
K U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
(4.233)
9.2.4.5 RU
R U r 2, r 3 , M 2, M 3
c .A U r 2 , r 3 , M 2 , M 3
(4.234)
9.2.4.6 HU, HU2, HU5, |H|

H U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
H U5( r , M )
1 .
ln
TL
( 3 . )
(4.235)
H U K .r , x. h , K m.M , m x.m h
H U2( r , M )
7 . .
1
A U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
32
256
. m
.ln ( 3 ) . h
4
M
(4.276)
7 .
. r
h
2
7 .
mh
M
d
H
dt
5 .
. r
h
2
26 .
(4.529)
(4.378)
9.2.4.7 H
H r 3, M 3
2.
2. . .
G m r 3, M 3
3
(4.237)
H(r3,M3) = h / x
H x. h , m x.m h
h
x
(4.249)
9.2.4.8 U, U2
U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
U2( r , M )
193
3 .H U r 2 , r 3 , M 2 , M 3
8 . .G
3 .H U2( r , M )
8 . .G
(4.238)
(4.304)
9.2.4.9 MU
M U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
V R U r 2 , r 3 , M 2 , M 3 . U r 2 , r 3 , M 2 , M 3
(4.239)
9.2.4.10 KT
K T r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
H r 3, M 3
n g _3 r 3 , M 3 , M 3 .ln
H U r 2, r 3 , M 2, M 3
8 . H r 3, M 3
ln
3
H
K T( H )
(4.240)
(4.268)
9.2.4.11 TW
T W r 2, r 3, M 2 , M 3
KW
_3 R U r 2 , r 3 , M 2 , M 3 , M 3
(4.241)
KW
T W( H)
_3
c x.
,
mh
H 2
(4.269)
9.2.4.12 StT
9
4. 3. 1 . x
3 4 c5 . 2
h
3
St T
(4.274)
9.2.4.13 TU, TU2, TU3, TU4, TU5

T U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
K T r 2 , r 3 , M 2 , M 3 .T W r 2 , r 3 , M 2 , M 3
h
K W .St T .ln
T U2( H )
T U3 H
. H5
x.H
K W .St T .ln
(4.275)
T U5( r , M )
.ln
.
. 4
H U5( r , M ) h
H
2 .
5 .
. H .H

(4.318)
1
T U4( t ) K W .St T .ln H .t .
t
KW
(4.242)
5 .
(4.331)
2 .
1
.H
. 2
.H ( r , M ) 5
U5
(4.530)
9.2.4.14 dTdt, dT2dt2, dT3dt3

dT dt ( t )
K W .St T .
2
5 .ln H .t .
dT2 dt2 ( t )
K W .St T .
5 .
.t
2
2
5 . . ln H .t . 5 .
194
5 .
.t2
(4.335)
1
(4.339)
dT3 dt3 ( t )
K W .St T .
2
2
2
5 . .ln H .t . 5 . . 5 .
5 .
2
2
15. . 5 .
2
.t3
(4.343)
9.2.4.15 dHdt, dH2dt2

1
H .H
H H
(4.376)
2
H .H
. 5 .ln 1 . 2
2
H
.
5
H
dH dt H
dH2 dt2 H
(4.359)
(4.361)
3
2
H .H
. 5 . 2 . ln 1 . 5 . 2
2
H
5 .
H
(4.371)
9.2.4.16 t1, t2, t3, t4, t5

1
t1
5 .
. 1
H
10 .
t2
(4.334)
1
2
2
5 . . 5 .
. 1
H
2
2
15 . . 5 .
t3
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
(4.338)
2
. 1
H
(4.342)
t4
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
2
5 . . 5 .
t5
. 1
H
4
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
(4.366)
2
1
. 1
H
(4.375)
9.2.5 ZPF
9.2.5.1 EGM
EGM
U2 r x5.R o , m g5 .M G
U2 R o , M G
r x5
m g5
(4.308)
1.013403
1.052361
195
(4.298)
9.2.5.2 ZPF
ZPF
EGM
(4.313)
9.2.5.3 UZPF
3 .c .
H U2 R o , M G
ZPF .
8 . .G
2
U ZPF
(4.315)
9.2.6 EGM Construct limits

9.2.6.1 ML
ML
R EGM
K m.M G.
R EGM
5 5
K .R o
R EGM
K .R o
(4.409)
R U K .R o , x. h , K m.M G, m x.m h
(4.410)
9.2.6.2 rL
rL
R BH M L
(4.411)
9.2.6.3 tL
tL
rL
c
(4.412)
9.2.6.4 ML / rL = MEGM / REGM = tL / tEGM

M L M EGM
rL
M EGM
t EGM
tL
R EGM t EGM
(4.415)
M U K .R o , x. h , K m.M G, m x.m h
A U K .R o , x. h , K m.M G, m x.m h
(4.413)
(4.414)
9.2.7 Particle-Physics
9.2.7.1 m2
m 2
h
tL
(4.446)
2 .m 2
(4.447)
9.2.7.2 mgg2
m gg2
9.2.7.3 r2
5
r 2
r e.
m 2
m e .c
196
(4.451)
9.2.7.4 rgg2
r gg2
4 .r 2
(4.452)
9.2.7.5 N
E ( r, M )
N ( r, M )
(4.457)
9.2.7.6 Q
Qe
Q ( r, M )
N ( r, M )
(4.458)
9.2.7.7 Q
Q ( r, M )
Q ( r , M )
N ( r, M )
Q ( r, M )
Q ( r , M )
9.2.7.8
(4.462)
Qe
(4.463)
Qe
(4.464)
Q2
Q 2
Q
m
.m
2
(4.470)
9.2.7.9 tL / TL = m / m2 = Q / Q2
tL
T L m 2 Q 2
(4.468)
9.2.8 Other useful relationships

m
E r ,me
r e, m e
.m
r , m e
E r e, m e
r e, m e
197
(4.474)
m
m
(4.476)
2
h .m
(4.478)
NOTES
198
APPENDIX 2.A
Note: Quinta Essentia Part 2 (QE2) is a summary of Quinta Essentia Part 3, 4 (QE3,4).
Subsequently, the calculation engine in QE2 utilises QE3,4 as its foundational construct. Please
consult QE3,4 as required.
MathCad 8 Professional: calculation engine
NOTE: KNOWLEDGE OF MATHCAD IS REQUIRED AND ASSUMED
Computational environment
Convergence Tolerance (TOL): 0.001.

Constraint Tolerance (CTOL): 0.001.
Calculation Display Tolerance: 6 figures unless otherwise indicated.
The following denotes output and data from QE4, serving as inputs (i.e. where required) for the
QE2 calculation engine,
T0
T U2 H U2 R o , M G
= 2.724752 ( K )
m g1
0.989364
r x5
1.057292
m g5
2.724
= 2.725 ( K )
T0
T0
r x1
T 0
T 0
2.726
1.013403
1.052361
QE2 calculation engine
Given
T U2 H U2 r x1.R o , m g1 .M G
r x6
m g6
T0
T 0
T0
T 0
Find r x1, m g1
Given
r x7
m g7
Find r x1, m g1
EGM r x0, m g0
U2 r x0.R o , m g0 .M G
U2 R o , M G
ZPF r x0, m g0
199
EGM r x0, m g0
r x6
7.996943
MG
R o . r x5 = 8.107221 ( kpc )
8.218926
r x7
MS
m g6
. 11
6.33113310
. m g5 = 6.31416710
. 11
m g7
. 11
6.29698210
EGM r x6, m g6
0.998993
ZPF r x6, m g6
EGM r x5, m g5
= 1.000331
ZPF r x5, m g5
EGM r x7, m g7
1.001671
.
1.00690410
.
3.31400710
ZPF r x7, m g7
.
1.67100610
q SM_1 r x0, m g0
q 0 r x0, m g0
For ZPF q0 qSM_1,

q 0 r x0, m g0
ZPF r x0, m g0
q 0 r x6, m g6
.
1.00690410
q SM_1 r x6, m g6
q 0 r x5, m g5
= 3.31400710
.
q SM_1 r x5, m g5
q 0 r x7, m g7
.
1.67100610
q SM_1 r x7, m g7
.
1.00690410
=
.
3.31400710
.
1.67100610
For 0,
0 r x0, m g0
0 r x6, m g6
2 3
3 .H U2 R o , M G . . EGM r x0, m g0
2
0 r x6, m g6
. 3
6.73006510
0 r x5, m g5
= 6.75716710
. 3
0 r x7, m g7
. 3
6.78429610
km
.
s Mpc
1.
0
2
c
0
7.864602
r x5, m g5
= 7.896273
r x7, m g7
7.927975
10
47
2
km
0 r x6, m g6
0 r x5, m g5
0 r x6, m g6
82.036971
= 82.20199
82.366838
11.919176
1
km
s .Mpc
0 r x5, m g5
1
0 r x7, m g7
= 11.895249
9
10 .yr
11.871442
0 r x7, m g7
1
0 r x6, m g6
2.656709
1
1
H U2 R o , M G
0 r x5, m g5
1
= 2.680636
9
10 .yr
2.704443
0 r x7, m g7
1
0 r x6, m g6
1
H0
1.852839
1
0 r x5, m g5
1
= 1.876767
9
10 .yr
1.900574
0 r x7, m g7
200
0 r x6, m g6
0 r x6, m g6
1
1
H0
0 r x5, m g5
0.803869
1
1
H U2 R o , M G
0 r x5, m g5
9
10 .yr
0.803869
0 r x7, m g7
0.803869
0 r x7, m g7
1
0 r x6, m g6
0.817733
1
H U2 R o , M G .
0 r x5, m g5
1
= 0.816091
0.814458
0 r x7, m g7
For U, UZPF, U,
2
U r x0, m g0
c .
0 r x0, m g0
8 . .G
U r x6, m g6
3.787219
U r x5, m g5
= 3.802471
U r x7, m g7
3.817737
3 .c .
ZPF r x0, m g0 .
H U2 R o , M G
8 . .G
2
U ZPF r x0, m g0
U r x0, m g0
U r x0, m g0
U ZPF r x0, m g0
10
10 .
Pa
U ZPF r x6, m g6
2
7.649839
U ZPF r x5, m g5
2.51778
10
13 .
Pa
12.695284
U ZPF r x7, m g7
U r x6, m g6
3.77957
U r x5, m g5
= 3.804989
U r x7, m g7
3.830432
10
10 .
Pa
U r x6, m g6
U ZPF r x6, m g6
U r x5, m g5
U ZPF r x5, m g5
494.071804
= 1.51124710
. 3
301.720886
U r x7, m g7
T U2 H U2 R o , M G
2 .T
T0
T 0
= 62.376832 ( % )
U ZPF r x7, m g7
For q qSM_2 ,
ZPF r x0, m g0
8 . .G .
U ZPF r x0, m g0
2
c
ZPF r x6, m g6
ZPF r x5, m g5
ZPF r x7, m g7
201
13.594118
=
4.474212
22.560109
km
.
s Mpc
ZPF r x6, m g6
1.
ZPF
2
c
ZPF
ZPF r x6, m g6
1.588578
r x5, m g5
= 0.522846
r x7, m g7
2.636323
10
49
ZPF r x5, m g5
km
3.68702i
= 2.115233
4.749748
km
s .Mpc
ZPF r x7, m g7
1
ZPF r x6, m g6
265.20416i
1
ZPF r x5, m g5
1
9
10 .yr
= 462.27198
205.866299
ZPF r x7, m g7
1
ZPF r x6, m g6
14.575885 265.20416i
1
ZPF r x5, m g5
H U2 R o , M G
447.696095
9
10 .yr
191.290414
ZPF r x7, m g7
q SM_2 r x0, m g0
EGM r x0, m g0
ZPF r x0, m g0
3 .H U2 R o , M G
q SM_2 r x6, m g6
0.500503
q SM_2 r x5, m g5
= 0.499834
q SM_2 r x7, m g7
0.499164
For q qSM_1 ZPF,

Let:
q1 q2 q3
.( 1 1 1 )
Given
1
q SM_1 r x5, m g5
.dH
dt
H U2 R o , M G
q1
H U2 R o , M G
1
q SM_1 r x6, m g6
.dH
dt
H U2 R o , M G
q2
H U2 R o , M G
1
q SM_1 r x7, m g7
.dH
dt
H U2 R o , M G
H U2 R o , M G
q3
202
q1
q2
q2
q1 = 4.595344
4.595322
q3
Find q1 , q2 , q3
q3
. q2
dH dt
dH dt
dH dt
q1
q3
H U2 R o , M G
1=
.
3.57192910
4.595365
.
1.18155910
.
5.9333510
(%)
q2
H
H U2 R o , M G
q1
67.050522
= 67.095419
H
H U2 R o , M G
67.14033
km
.
s Mpc
q3
H
1
dH dt
H U2 R o , M G
q2
H
1
dH dt
H U2 R o , M G
q1
14.583229
= 14.57347
9
10 .yr
14.563722
1
dH dt
H U2 R o , M G
H
dH dt
1
H U2 R o , M G
q3
dH dt
dH dt
H U2 R o , M G
q2
H
H U2 R o , M G
q1
H
H U2 R o , M G
0.050358
1 = 0.016569 ( % )
0.083515
q3
203
T U2
T U2
T U2
dH dt
dH dt
dH dt
H U2 R o , M G
q2
H
H U2 R o , M G
q1
2.724
= 2.725 ( K )
2.726
H U2 R o , M G
q3
For q qSM_2 ,
Let:
q4 q5 q6
.( 1 1 1 )
Given
1
q SM_2 r x5, m g5
.dH
dt
H U2 R o , M G
q4
H U2 R o , M G
1
q SM_2 r x6, m g6
.dH
dt
H U2 R o , M G
q5
H U2 R o , M G
1
q SM_2 r x7, m g7
.dH
dt
H U2 R o , M G
q6
H U2 R o , M G
q4
q5
q5
q4 = 4.606653
4.606632
q6
Find q4 , q5 , q6
q6
dH dt
dH dt
dH dt
H U2 R o , M G
4.606675
q5
H
H U2 R o , M G
q4
H
H U2 R o , M G
47.411877
= 47.443626
47.475383
km
.
s Mpc
q6
204
dH dt
H U2 R o , M G
q5
H
1
dH dt
H U2 R o , M G
q4
20.623801
9
10 .yr
= 20.609999
20.596213
1
dH dt
H U2 R o , M G
H
H U2 R o , M G
T U2
T U2
q4
H U2 R o , M G
dH dt
29.324934
1=
29.277606 ( % )
29.230268
q6
H U2 R o , M G
dH dt
H U2 R o , M G
dH dt
q5
H U2 R o , M G
dH dt
T U2
q6
q5
H
H U2 R o , M G
dH dt
q4
2.252547
= 2.253374 ( K )
2.254201
H U2 R o , M G
dH dt
q6
For q qSM_2 -,
Let:
q7 q8 q9
.( 1 1 1 )
Given
1
q SM_2 r x5, m g5
.dH
dt
H U2 R o , M G
H U2 R o , M G
H
q7
205
1
q SM_2 r x6, m g6
H U2 R o , M G
.dH
dt
q8
H U2 R o , M G
1
q SM_2 r x7, m g7
H U2 R o , M G
.dH
dt
q9
H U2 R o , M G
q7
q8
q8
q7 = 4.588735
4.588742
q9
Find q7 , q8 , q9
q9
dH dt
dH dt
dH dt
H U2 R o , M G
4.588728
q8
H
H U2 R o , M G
q7
82.174949
= 82.15662
H
H U2 R o , M G
82.138273
km
.
s Mpc
q9
H
1
dH dt
H U2 R o , M G
q8
H
1
dH dt
H U2 R o , M G
q7
11.899163
= 11.901818
9
10 .yr
11.904476
1
dH dt
H U2 R o , M G
H
dH dt
1
H U2 R o , M G
q9
dH dt
dH dt
H U2 R o , M G
q8
H
H U2 R o , M G
q7
H
H U2 R o , M G
22.495045
1 = 22.467722 ( % )
22.440373
q9
206
T U2
T U2
T U2
T U2
T U2
T U2
dH dt
dH dt
dH dt
dH dt
dH dt
dH dt
H U2 R o , M G
q8
H
H U2 R o , M G
3.045402
q7
= 3.045029 ( K )
3.044656
H U2 R o , M G
q9
H U2 R o , M G
q8
T U2
H
H U2 R o , M G
dH dt
T U2
H U2 R o , M G
dH dt
T U2
0.792854
q4
= 0.791655 ( K )
q9
q5
q7
H
H U2 R o , M G
H U2 R o , M G
0.790455
H U2 R o , M G
dH dt
q6
Checking calculations,
1
H
q
. d H
dt
3 .H
3 .H
. d H
dt
For q qSM_1 ZPF,

Let:
q10 q11 q12
.( 1 1 1 )
Given
1
EGM r x5, m g5
0 r x5, m g5
3 .H U2 R o , M G
.dH
dt
H U2 R o , M G
q10
1
2
H U2 R o , M G
1
EGM r x6, m g6
0 r x6, m g7
3 .H U2 R o , M G
.dH
dt
H U2 R o , M G
q11
1
2
H U2 R o , M G
207
1
EGM r x7, m g7
0 r x7, m g7
3 .H U2 R o , M G
.dH
dt
H U2 R o , M G
q12
1
2
H U2 R o , M G
q10
q10
q11
q11 = 4.595363
4.595322
q12
Find q10 , q11 , q12
q12
dH dt
dH dt
dH dt
H U2 R o , M G
4.595344
q11
H
H U2 R o , M G
67.055441
q10
= 67.095419
H
H U2 R o , M G
67.14033
km
.
s Mpc
q12
H
1
dH dt
H U2 R o , M G
q11
H
1
dH dt
H U2 R o , M G
q10
14.582159
= 14.57347
9
10 .yr
14.563722
1
dH dt
H U2 R o , M G
H
dH dt
1
H U2 R o , M G
q12
dH dt
dH dt
H U2 R o , M G
q11
H
H U2 R o , M G
q10
H
H U2 R o , M G
0.043026
1 = 0.016569 ( % )
0.083515
q12
208
T U2
T U2
T U2
dH dt
dH dt
dH dt
H U2 R o , M G
q11
H
H U2 R o , M G
q10
2.72411
=
2.725
( K)
2.726
H U2 R o , M G
q12
For q qSM_2 ,
Let:
q13 q14 q15
.( 1 1 1 )
1
EGM r x5, m g5
2
.dH
dt
ZPF r x5, m g5
3 .H U2 R o , M G
H U2 R o , M G
q13
1
2
H U2 R o , M G
1
EGM r x6, m g6
2
.dH
dt
ZPF r x6, m g7
3 .H U2 R o , M G
H U2 R o , M G
q14
1
2
H U2 R o , M G
1
EGM r x7, m g7
2
.dH
dt
ZPF r x7, m g7
3 .H U2 R o , M G
H U2 R o , M G
H
1
2
H U2 R o , M G
q13
q14
q14
q13 = 4.606653
4.606632
q15
q15
Find q13 , q14 , q15
q15
4.606675
209
H U2 R o , M G
dH dt
q14
H
H U2 R o , M G
dH dt
q13
47.411877
= 47.443626
47.475383
H U2 R o , M G
dH dt
km
s .Mpc
q15
H
1
dH dt
H U2 R o , M G
q14
H
1
dH dt
H U2 R o , M G
q13
20.623801
9
10 .yr
= 20.609999
20.596213
1
dH dt
H U2 R o , M G
H
dH dt
1
H U2 R o , M G
dH dt
dH dt
T U2
T U2
T U2
dH dt
dH dt
dH dt
q15
H U2 R o , M G
q14
H
H U2 R o , M G
q13
29.324934
1=
H
H U2 R o , M G
H U2 R o , M G
29.277606 ( % )
29.230268
q15
H
q14
H
H U2 R o , M G
q13
H
H U2 R o , M G
2.252547
= 2.253374 ( K )
2.254201
q15
210
For q qSM_2 -,
Let:
q16 q17 q18
.( 1 1 1 )
1
EGM r x5, m g5
ZPF r x5, m g5
3 .H U2 R o , M G
H U2 R o , M G
.dH
dt
q16
1
2
H U2 R o , M G
1
EGM r x6, m g6
ZPF r x6, m g7
3 .H U2 R o , M G
H U2 R o , M G
.dH
dt
q17
1
2
H U2 R o , M G
1
EGM r x7, m g7
ZPF r x7, m g7
3 .H U2 R o , M G
H U2 R o , M G
.dH
dt
1
2
H U2 R o , M G
q16
q17
q16
Find q16 , q17 , q18
q18
dH dt
dH dt
dH dt
H U2 R o , M G
q18
4.588735
q17 = 4.588728
4.588742
q18
q17
H
H U2 R o , M G
q16
H
H U2 R o , M G
82.174949
= 82.15662
82.138273
km
s .Mpc
q18
211
dH dt
H U2 R o , M G
q17
H
1
dH dt
H U2 R o , M G
q16
11.899163
9
10 .yr
= 11.901818
11.904476
1
dH dt
H U2 R o , M G
H
dH dt
H U2 R o , M G
dH dt
dH dt
T U2
T U2
T U2
q18
dH dt
dH dt
dH dt
H U2 R o , M G
q17
H
H U2 R o , M G
q16
22.495045
1 = 22.467722 ( % )
22.440373
H U2 R o , M G
q18
H U2 R o , M G
q17
H
H U2 R o , M G
q16
3.045402
= 3.045029 ( K )
3.044656
H U2 R o , M G
q18
For 0 = ZPF = 0,
Let:
q19 q20 q21
1
EGM r x5, m g5
.dH
dt
.( 1 1 1 )
H U2 R o , M G
2
H U2 R o , M G
q19
H
1
212
1
EGM r x6, m g6
.dH
dt
q20
H U2 R o , M G
H
H U2 R o , M G
1
EGM r x7, m g7
.dH
dt
q21
H U2 R o , M G
H
H U2 R o , M G
q19
q19
q20
q20 = 4.606642
4.606686
q21
Find q19 , q20 , q21
q21
dH dt
dH dt
dH dt
H U2 R o , M G
4.606664
q20
H
H U2 R o , M G
q19
47.459642
= 47.427906
H
H U2 R o , M G
47.396115
km
s .Mpc
q21
H
1
dH dt
H U2 R o , M G
q20
H
1
dH dt
H U2 R o , M G
q19
20.603044
= 20.616831
9
10 .yr
20.630659
1
dH dt
H U2 R o , M G
q21
213
dH dt
1
H U2 R o , M G
dH dt
dH dt
T U2
T U2
T U2
dH dt
dH dt
dH dt
H U2 R o , M G
q20
H
H U2 R o , M G
q19
29.253731
1=
H
H U2 R o , M G
H U2 R o , M G
29.30104 ( % )
29.348429
q21
H
q20
H
H U2 R o , M G
q19
H
H U2 R o , M G
2.253791
= 2.252965 ( K )
2.252137
q21
NOTES
214
APPENDIX 2.B
The Electro-Gravi-Magnetic (EGM) harmonic representation of fundamental particles [i.e.
Eq. (3.230)] may be generalised to incorporate any meaningful physical quantity199 in relation to a
reference particle; represented by r2, M2, S2, Q2 as follows200,
M1
M2
r2
St
r1
(3.230)
St ( )
St
1)
(2.48)
=1
Let = 4; substituting appropriately yields Eq. (2.49) [below] according to,

substitute , St ( 1 )
K.
St ( )
=1
St
1)
M1
M2
r1
r2
S1
K.
M1
M2
r1
r2
S1
S2
Q1
Q2
St
S2
Q1
Q2
where,
K K(r1,2,M1,2,S1,2,Q1,2,1,2,3,4,5) denotes the appropriate Experimental Relationship
Function (ERF).
M1,2 denotes particle rest-mass.
r1,2 denotes Zero-Point-Field (ZPF) equilibrium radius [e.g. Root-Mean-Square (RMS)
charge radius].
S1,2 denotes Spin Angular Momentum (SAM).
Q1,2 denotes Electric charge.
Possible solution 1 = 2, 2 = -5, 5 = 9.
Requiring solution or specification 3,4.
Therefore, Eq. (2.49) may be utilised to articulate a single representation of any fundamental
particle incorporating mass, size, spin and charge, in relation to an arbitrarily selected reference (i.e.
base) particle.
Note: a worked example of Eq. (2.49)201 has been deliberately omitted and is proposed as a simple
exercise for the reader (hint: a family of representations exist).
199
Such as spin angular momentum or Electric charge in order to completely describe it.
Shown on the front cover of QE3.
201
Solving for K, 3,4.
200
215
NOTES
216
APPENDIX 2.C
Charge
If we were compelled to associate the production of Photons with one specific particle, what
would it be? The answer to this question is obvious (i.e. the Electron) as we see evidence of
Photonic production by Electronic means in our everyday life in the form of television, radio and
the internet. However, the Photon itself possesses charge according to the PDG202. Thus, it seems
reasonable to expect that the particle best associated with the production of Photons, may have its
own charge properties expressed in terms of Photon populations.
The EGM construct treats all matter as radiators of populations of conjugate Photon pairs.
Subsequently, quantifying this characteristic in terms of Electron charge is a natural conclusion.
Moreover, the Electron itself is a practical measure of charge and the successful quantification of it
implicitly produces all charge multiples (i.e. the Proton etc.). In other words, if one can derive the
magnitude of Electron charge, one has derived the magnitudes of all multiples of charge utilising a
single paradigm.
The Photon charge threshold Q and upper limit Q is derived in QE4. The derived Q
203
result compares favourably to the PDG value (i.e. to within a factor of 1.884), leading to the
derivation of Q. It is possible to derive Q again herein (or alternatively, the Electric Charge
Qe) in a slightly different manner; demonstrating that Electronic charge may be represented as the
sum of a population of Photons, each Photon carrying a charge of Q. To facilitate this, let the
Photon charge per unit mass-energy204 (based upon the Electron) be given by Qm according to,
Q m
Q
m
(2.50)
Q m = 3.534774 10
34 .
C
eV
(2.51)
Hence, the Photon charge205 at the Electron harmonic cut-off frequency Q may be written as
follows,
Q
Q m .E r , m e
Q = 7.650948 10
(2.52)
21 .
(2.53)
where, E(r,me) denotes the propagation energy of a Photon at the Electron harmonic cut-off
frequency. Moreover, recognizing that:
Qe
1.
= 20.94089
(2.54)
ln 2 .n r e , m e
= 20.947273
(2.55)
Provokes the solution,

Q e C.Q
(2.56)
1.
2
ln 2 .n r e , m e
(2.57)
202
QPDG < 5 x10-30Qe: http://pdg.lbl.gov/, W.-M. Yao et al., Journal of Physics G 33, 1 (2006) and
2007 partial update for edition 2008.
203
Q < 2.7 x10-30Qe.
204
m denotes the rest mass-energy of a Photon (see: QE3).
205
The Pauli Exclusion Principle does not apply to Photons. Therefore, no distinction may be
drawn between a single Photon and a population of coherent Photons propagating at a specific
frequency.
217
Evaluating yields,
C .Q = 1.602665 10
19 .
(2.58)
Comparing the preceding result to Qe produces a derived Electronic charge to within

0.031(%) of the NIST value as follows,
C.Q
1 = 0.030484 ( % )
Qe
(2.59)
Hence; utilising Qe, Q may be written in agreement with the derivation in QE4206 as follows,
Q
Q e .m
C.E r , m e
Q e .m
C.E r , m e
= 1.12905 10
(2.60)
78 .
(2.61)
The preceding equations demonstrate that Electronic charge may be characterised by the
proportional sum of Photonic charges within its radiated wavefunction spectrum propagating at the
harmonic cut-off frequency (r,me). The error associated with Qe utilising the QE4
approximation of Q is quasi-negligible, if the definition of Q above is utilised [i.e. Eq.
(2.60)], the error is zero.
Momentum
Construct
The radiated wavefunction spectrum is composed of populations of conjugate Photon pairs

described by a Fourier distribution producing a constant magnitude function as the number of
harmonic modes approaches infinity. A Fourier distribution involves the hybridisation of two
spectra [i.e. amplitude207 and frequency208 (see: QE3)] which combine to produce an energetically
efficient equivalent representation of gravitational acceleration g (see: QE3 for the complete
derivation).
The reason EGM utilises a Fourier distribution in its formulation, as opposed to any other
distribution, is because various other combinations of amplitude and frequency spectra do not
harmonically describe g at a mathematical point as energetically efficiently as a Fourier
distribution (i.e. if the composite wavefunctions are considered to represent Photons). Naturally,
one expects that the momentum of the spectrum of radiated conjugate Photon pairs propagating at
c be conserved.
To confirm this expectation, we shall determine the average spectral momentum for
comparison to an analogous Newtonian system. If the two results coincide, we have confirmed that
the EGM construct is appropriately and consistently formulated. Firstly, considering the momentum
of a Photon at the harmonic cut-off frequency P yields,
P ( r , M )
h.
( r, M )
c
(2.62)
Since is formulated in accordance with an arithmetic sequence, the average spectral frequency
and period is given by av and Tav respectively according to,
206
Q 7.05 x10-60Qe.
Spectral amplitude decreases as nPV increases.
208
Spectral frequency increases as nPV increases.
207
218
av ( r , M )
( r, M )
2
T av ( r , M )
(2.63)
1
av ( r , M )
(2.64)
Hence, the momentum of a Photon at the average spectral frequency is given by P__av such that,
h.
av ( r , M )
c
P __av ( r , M )
(2.65)
The EGM construct describes gravitational fields as a double sided harmonic spectrum in
accordance with a Fourier distribution, asserting that all starving matter contains a population of
n Photons and exists for a minimum gravitational lifetime of TL as derived in QE4.
Subsequently, Photon emission rates (i.e. per second) per side of a double sided modal spectrum is
given by n_av_s according to,
n _av_s ( M )
n ( M )
2 .T L
(2.66)
Hence, the average Photon emission per average period n_av_T becomes,
n _av_T ( r , M )
n _av_s ( M ) .T av ( r , M )
(2.67)
Consequently, the average momentum of each Photon over the average period P_av_T is given by,
P _av_T ( r , M )
n _av_T ( r , M ) .P __av ( r , M )
(2.68)
Subsequently, it follows that the analogous orbital angular momentum of a Photon PO__av_T
utilising the preceding equation is,
P O_ _av_T ( r , M )
r .P _av_T ( r , M )
(2.69)
Applying the definition of a Graviton under the EGM construct, the analogous orbital angular
momentum of a Graviton PO_gg_av_T may be stated as,
P O_gg_av_T ( r , M )
2 .P O_ _av_T ( r , M )
(2.70)
Thus, by Newtonian analogy, PO_gg_av_T may be pictorially illustrated by two counter

rotating half masses, representing the conjugate EGM wavefunction construct as follows,
0.5M
0.5M
Figure 2.3,
The mechanical representation of the orbital angular momentum of a M particle about a radial
centre is given by IO,
I O( v , r , M )
219
v .r .
M
2
(2.71)
where, the magnitude of the orbital angular momentum of the system depicted is IS,
2 . I O( v , r , M )
I S( v , r , M )
(2.72)
Sample calculation
Performing sample calculations utilising Up Quark properties yields,
P r uq , m uq
P __av r uq , m uq
P gg r uq , m uq
P gg_ _av r uq , m uq
n _av_T r uq , m uq
n gg_av_T r uq , m uq
P _av_T r uq , m uq
P gg_av_T r uq , m uq
P O_ _av_T r uq , m uq
P O_gg_av_T r uq , m uq
.
8.0973210
14
. 14
4.0486610
.
1.61946410
13
. 14
8.0973210
.
2.31325910
.
4.62651910
0.93656
10
1.87312
( Ns )
(2.73)
(2.74)
21 .
Ns
(2.75)
0.719452
10
1.438905
39 .
Ns .m
(2.76)
Since the preceding pictorial representation is a non-physical Newtonian analogy, we may

ignore relativistic effects and assume that v c at r such that for the Up Quark and the
Electron,
I O c , r uq , m uq
I O c, r , m e
0.719452
1.612205
10
39 .
Ns .m
(2.77)
Hence; PO_gg_av_T = IS according to,

1
I S c , r uq , m uq
1
I S c, r , m e
P O_ _av_T r uq , m uq
P O_ _av_T r , m e
P O_gg_av_T r , m e
0.5
1
(2.78)
0.5
1
(2.79)
Computing errors
Determining the Newtonian analogy error with respect to other fundamental particles yields,
P O_gg_av_T r , m e
P O_gg_av_T r , m p
I S c, r , m e
I S c, r , m p
P O_gg_av_T r , m n
P O_gg_av_T r , m
I S c, r , m n
I S c, r , m
P O_gg_av_T r , m
P O_gg_av_T r en , m en
I S c, r , m
I S c , r en , m en
P O_gg_av_T r n , m n
P O_gg_av_T r n , m n
I S c , r n , m n
I S c , r n , m n
220
. 14
2.22044610
1=
.
2.22044610
14
.
2.22044610
14
. 14
1.11022310
.
1.11022310
14
. 14
1.11022310
.
4.44089210
14
(%)
(2.80)
P O_gg_av_T r dq , m dq
I S c , r uq , m uq
I S c , r dq , m dq
P O_gg_av_T r sq , m sq
P O_gg_av_T r cq , m cq
I S c , r sq , m sq
I S c , r cq , m cq
P O_gg_av_T r bq , m bq
P O_gg_av_T r tq , m tq
I S c , r bq , m bq
I S c , r tq , m tq
P O_gg_av_T r W , m W
P O_gg_av_T r Z , m Z
I S c, r W , m W
I S c, r Z, m Z
P O_gg_av_T r H , m H
I S c , r H, m H
.
2.22044610
1=
14
0
.
2.22044610
.
2.22044610
14
14
0
.
2.22044610
14
.
4.44089210
14
.
2.22044610
14
(%)
(2.81)
.
1 = 2.22044610
14
( %)
(2.82)
Therefore, based upon the preceding results; the radiated wavefunction spectrum may be
represented analogously in terms of classical orbital mechanics at the ZPF equilibrium radius
rotating at the speed of light.
NOTES
221
NOTES
222
APPENDIX 2.D
Note: Quinta Essentia Part 2 is a summary of Quinta Essentia Part 3, 4. Subsequently, the
simulation and calculation engine in Part 4 is a natural extension of Part 3, utilising it as a
foundational construct. Hence, the calculation engine developed in Part 3, 4 has been included
(verbatim) herein for reference. Please consult Part 3, 4 if required.
MathCad 8 Professional: calculation engine

a. Computational environment

b. Units of measure (definitions)
Scale 1
10
Scale 2
10
10
6
10
10
10
10
12
10
12
10
15
10
15
10
18
10
( mm m nm pm fm am zm ym )
18
10
21
10
10
10
24
24
Scale 1 .( m)
( mHz Hz nHz pHz fHz aHz zHz yHz )

( mJ J nJ pJ fJ aJ zJ yJ )
21
Scale 1 .( Hz)
Scale 1 .( J )
Scale 1 .( W )
( mW W nW pW fW aW zW yW )
( m n p f a z y )
( mV V nV pV fV aV zV yV )
Scale 1 .( ohm )
Scale 1 .( V)
( mPa Pa nPa pPa fPa aPa zPa yPa )

( mT T nT pT fT aT zT yT )
Scale 1 .( T )
( mNs Ns nNs pNs fNs aNs zNs yNs )

( mN N nN pN fN aN zN yN )
Scale 1 .( Pa )
Scale 1 .( Ns )
Scale 1 .( newton )
( mgs gs ngs pgs fgs ags zgs ygs )
Scale 1 .( gauss )
223
Scale 1 .( gm )
( mgm gm ngm pgm fgm agm zgm ygm )

( mSt St nSt pSt fSt aSt zSt ySt )
Scale 1
( kSt MSt GSt TSt PSt ESt ZSt YSt )
Scale 2
( kHz MHz GHz THz PHz EHz ZHz YHz)
Scale 2 .( Hz)
Scale 2 .( newton )
( kN MN GN TN PN EN ZN YN )
Scale 2 .( J )
( kJ MJ GJ TJ PJ EJ ZJ YJ )
Scale 2 .( W )
( kW MW GW TW PW EW ZW YW )
Scale 2 .( ohm )
( k M G T P E Z Y )
Scale 2 .( V)
( kV MV GV TV PV EV ZV YV)
Scale 2 .( Pa )
( kPa MPa GPa TPa PPa EPa ZPa YPa )
Scale 2 .( T )
( kT MT GT TT PT ET ZT YT )
( keV MeV GeV TeV PeV EeV ZeV YeV)
Scale 2 .( eV)
Ns newton .s
c. Constants (definitions)
.
6.674210
11 .
kg .s
.
8.85418781710
12 .
m
299792458.
s
.
6.626069310
34 .
( J .s )
7 newton
4 . .10 .
2
A
.
eV 1.6021765310
19 .
( J)
m
.
7.29735256810
.
1.6021765310
Qe
19 .
( C)
0.5772156649015328
d. Fundamental particle characteristics (definitions or initialisation values)

m e m p m n m m m AMC
. 31 1.6726217110
. 27 1.6749272810
. 27 1.883531410
. 28 3.1677710
. 27 1.6605388610
. 27 .( kg )
9.109382610
Ce CP CN C C
Ce CP CN C C
h. 1
c
me mp mn m m
2
2 . .c .
me mp mn m m
224
eV
6
6
3 0.19.10 18.2.10 .
2
c
m en m n m n
Note: for the Bottom Quark, the SLAC estimate is utilised initially.
4 .10
m uq m dq m sq m cq m bq m tq
( 80.425 91.1876 114.4 ) .
mW mZ mH
GeV
0.13 1.35 4.7 179.4 .
2
c
( 2.817940325 0.875 0.85 ) .( fm)
re rp rn
0.85.10
GeV
c
r xq
8 .10
16 .
( cm)
.
0.529177210810
r Bohr
10
.( nm )
656.469624182052
( m)
e. Planck characteristics (definitions)

G.h
h .c
mh
G.h
th
th
f. Astronomical statistics
MM ME MJ MS
5
1738 6377.18 71492 6.96.10 .( km)
RM RE RJ RS
2
c .R E
2 .G
M BH
200.R S
R RG
24
24
24
30
0.0735.10 5.977.10 1898.8.10 1.989.10 .( kg )
R BH
2 .G .
M BH
2
c
M NS
1 .M S
R NS
M RG
4 .M S
R WD
4200.( km)
M WD
20.( km)
3
300.10 .M E
g. Other
.10
M BH = 4.29379067958471
33
( kg )
mx
mp
rx
r Bohr
h. Arbitrary values for illustrational purposes
KR
1 .( Hz)
R max
4
10 .( km)
R max
RE
F 0( k )
K 0( , X )
R max
250
225
i. PV / ZPF equations
2.
K PV( r , M )
G .M
2
r .c
K 0( r , M )
K PV( r , M ) .e
K EGM_N( r , M )
K PV( r , M )
2 . K 0( r , M )
G.M .
KR
2
r .c
K 0( r , M )
K PV( r , M )
K EGM_E( r , M )
G.M .
C PV n PV, r , M
T PV n PV, r , M
n PV 3 2 .c .G.M
.
. K ( r, M )
PV
r
.r
PV n PV, r , M
.n PV
PV n PV, r , M
PV n PV, r , M
2 . K 0( r , M )
U m( r , M )
PV n PV, r , M
3 .M .c
4 . .r
U ( r , M )
n ( r, M )
h .
4
PV( 1 , r , M )
3
2 .c
( r, M )
12
( r, M )
PV( r , M )
( r, M )
r n PV, r , r , M
c.
PV n PV, r
( r, M )
n ( r , M ) . PV( 1 , r , M )
U ( r , M )
S m( r , M )
r , M
r , M
1
(r
108.
PV( 1 , r , M )
PV n PV, r
r n PV, r , r , M
( r , r , M )
U m( r , M )
( r, M )
12. 768 81.
c .U m( r , M )
ZPF( r , r , M )
r , r , M , K R
U ( r , M )
N r( r , M )
( r, M ) .
r
c
PV n PV, r , M
PV n PV, r , M
1
r , M )
( r, M )
3 .M .c .
4 .
2
K C( r , r , M )
r n PV, r , r , M . r n PV, r , r , M
v r n PV, r , r , M
v ( r , r , M )
U m( r , M )
v r n ( r , M ) , r , r , M
U PV( r , r , M ) .
_ZPF( r , r , M )
_ZPF( r , r , M )
_ZPF( r , r , M )
U PV( r , r , M )
r( 1 , r , r , M )
(r
r )
2 .c .
U PV( r , r , M )
h
n _ZPF( r , r , M )
4
K R . _ZPF( r , r , M )
226
r( 1 , r , r , M )
_ZPF( r , r , M )
PV( 1 , r , M )
r( 1 , r , r , M )
r , r , M , K R
n r , r , M , K R
( r , r , M )
(r
S r , r , M , K R
r , M )
( r , r , M )
St ( r , r , M )
( r, M )
_ZPF( r , r , M )
U PV( r , r , M ) .
St ( r , r , M )
n S r , r , M , K R
PV( 1 , r , M )
Ce
n r , r , M , K R
ZPF( r , r , M )
R( r , r , M )
( r , r , M )
r , r , M , K R
St ( r , r , M )
n _ZPF( r , r , M )
St ( r , r , M )
n (r
ZPF( r , r , M )
Ce
r , M )
n ( r, M )
v r n PV, r , r , M
St n PV, r , r , M
v ( r , r , M )
j. Casimir equations
C( r )
c
.
2 r
E C( r , r , M )
X( r , r , M )
N C( r , r , M )
C( r )
.N X( r , r , M )
N X( r , r , M ) . PV( 1 , r , M )
C( r )
PV( 1 , r , M )
HR( A , D , r , r , M )
( r , r , M )
C( r )
c .K PV( r , M ) . St ( r , r , M )
N TR( A , D , r , r , M )
F PP( r , r )
A D St N
N T A , D , N X( r , r , M )
N T A , D , N C( r , r , M )
H A , D , N X( r , r , M )
H A , D , N C( r , r , M )
.h .c .A PP( r )
4
480.r
F PV( r , r , M )
N X( r , r , M )
B C( r , r , M )
X( r , r , M )
(1 1 1 )
H A , D, N T
N R( r , r , M )
n _ZPF( r , r , M )
ln 2 .n _ZPF( r , r , M )
E C( r , r , M )
c
c
X( r , r , M )
St N
N T A , D , St N
NT
. 2 .A
N C( r , r , M )
A PP( r ) .U PV( r , r , M ) .
D. N T
N X( r , r , M )
A PP( r )
N C( r , r , M )
N X( r , r , M )
.ln
4 . .r
N X( r , r , M )
N C( r , r , M )
8 . .G .
U PV( r , r , M )
2
3 .c
227
8 . .G . F PV( r , r , M ) . N X( r , r , M ) . N X( r , r , M )
ln
2
A PP( r )
N C( r , r , M )
N C( r , r , M )
3 .c
St ( r , r , M )
( r , r , M )
R( r , r , M )
r_Error( r , r , M )
St ( r , r , M )
9 .G.M . r( 1 , r , r , M )
EGM( r , r , M )
2
U m( r , M )
. 3 .
r( 1 , r , r , M ) 2
U PV( r , r , M )
Error( r , r , M )
PV( 1 , r , M )
2 .r
2 3
1 . 16. .r .h . N X( r , r , M ) . N X( r , r , M )
ln
K P 27.c .M .r4 N C( r , r , M )
N C( r , r , M )
St PP K P , r , r , M
2 3
16. .r .h . N X( r , r , M ) . N X( r , r , M )
ln
4 N ( r , r , M )
N C( r , r , M )
.
.
.
27 c M r
C
K P( r , r , M )
PV( 1 , r , M )
( r , r , M )
EGM( r , r , M )
PV( 1 , r , M )
r( 1 , r , r , M )
PV( 1 , r , M )
r( 1 , r , r , M )
k. Fundamental particle equations
512.h .G.m e
c . .r e
n r e, m e
ln 2 .n r e , m e
5
2 .m
m gg
r e.
2.
gg
m
m e .c
r gg
( r, M )
St ( r , M )
r gg
h . r e , m e
Ce
4 .r
St ( r , M )
( r, M )
CP
Km
m
N
( r, M )
St ( r , M )
CN
Note: the highlighted equation is not included as a constraint. This is the most significant difference
between the calculation engine and the complete algorithm of Appendix 3.K.
5
1
r
c . Ce
2
4
27. h . Ce
4
32.
CP
CP
r r
r .
1 . m
9
4 me
2 5
1 . m
9
6 me
1 . me
r .
9
2 mp
CN
CN
5
r en r n r n
r .
m en
me
r .
m n
m
r .
m n
Given
5
r r .
1 . me
9
2 mp
228
.e
r
r
.e
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
Find r , r , r , r , r , r en , r n , r n
3 .r xq. 2
r uq
m dq
r dq
m uq
r uq
m dq
m uq
r en
r n
r n
5
m sq
St sq
St dq
r dq , m dq
St dq
floor St dq
St sq
r xq, m sq
St sq
floor St sq
St cq
St bq
1
r uq , m uq
St tq
. r xq, m cq
St cq
floor St cq
r xq, m bq
St bq
floor St bq
r xq, m tq
St tq
floor St tq
m cq
r sq
r cq
r bq
r uq .
1
m uq
.
2
St cq
m bq
r tq
St bq
5
m tq
r uq , m uq
St uq
floor St uq
St dq
r dq , m dq
St dq
floor St dq
r sq , m sq
St sq
floor St sq
r cq , m cq
St cq
floor St cq
St bq
r bq , m bq
St bq
floor St bq
St tq
r tq , m tq
St tq
floor St tq
St sq
St cq
r , m e
229
St tq
St uq
9
5
St uq .r uq
m uq
9
5
St dq .r dq
m dq
m sq
me
m cq
m bq
9
5
St sq .r sq
1 . m tq
r uq .
9
10 m uq
r tq
9
5
St cq .r cq
r u( M )
h
.
4 .c .M
rW
r u mW
rZ
r u mZ
rH
r u mH
9
5
St bq .r bq
m tq
9
5
St tq .r tq
r u mW ,mW
St W
round St W , 0
. r u mZ ,mZ
St Z
round St Z , 0
r u mH ,mH
St H
round St H , 0
St W
1
St Z
r uq , m uq
St H
1
St W
rW
r uq .
rZ
m uq
rH
.m 2
W
1 .
2
mZ
9
St Z
rL
1 .
2
mH
9
St H
1.
r QB
r uq
m QB St , r QB
Let:
r dq
r sq
r cq
9
m uq . St .
r bq
r QB
r uq
r tq
rW
rZ
rH
m L St , r L
9
m e . St .
rL
4. . 3
r
3
V( r )
Q( r )
1
V( r )
Q ch ( r )
Q( r )
3
r dr
5.
r
3
Given
2
ln( x) .
2
x
x
KS
1
1 3
Find( x)
2
3 . .r ( 1 x) .x3
.
2
8
1 x x
b1
2
3 .r
.
2
KS
2
KX
2
0.113. fm
230
6 .b 1 .K X . x
rX
3 .b 1 . x
r M
KS
2.
3
. e
3
5
2
.r . x
r E
r M
r dr .
r dr
fm
r
x .r
1.
e
3
x
ch ( r )
r.
fm
K S.
KS
fm
10.r
volt
Given
r dr
r
r . ch r M
ch ( r ) d r
r
r dr
r . ch r E
ch ( r ) d r
r
r . ch r M
ch ( r ) d r
r dr
r
r M
Find r M , r E, r M
r E
r M
r M
r M
r E
r E .( fm)
r M
r M
5
5
r 2 r 3 r 5
A( r, M )
m en
1 .
r .
2
9
me
2
r .
m n
9
r .
m n
r .( fm)
KS
K S . fm
PV( 1 , r , M )
2 .n ( r , M )
Given
A K .r x, m AMC
B
rx
Find r x
231
l. Particle summary matrix 3.1

2
0.69. fm
0.848.( fm)
r
r E
KX
KS
0.113
0.113364
0.857.( fm)
r M
fm
1.
r E
830.702612 830.662386
=
r M
rp
848.636631
848
850.059022
857
874.696943
875
( am)
826.944318 825.617412
r
rX
r M
0.879.( fm)
879.064943
879
.e
m tq = 178.440506
GeV
c
.e
.
7.29735310
= 7.29735310
.
A K .r Bohr , m p
B
3.141593
657.329013
656.469624
( nm )
r
r
1 .r .
e
r
r
r
1 .r .
e
r
r
2
0.69. fm
M Error
1 . 1.
r M
rp 2
0.848.( fm)
0.857.( fm)
1
r E
KS
rX
KX
178.( GeV)
.
1.11022310
0.034635
.
7.38826910
Error Av
r M
0.879.( fm)
0.809916
0.160717
0.321692
0.247475
0.130911
M Error
0, 1
M Error
2, 1
A K .r Bohr , m p
B
13
0.075074
1.
M Error
0,0
12
+ M Error
2, 0
r E
m tq .c
.
4.8425510
1.
r
r M
0
M Error =
(%)
M Error
0, 2
M Error
2, 2
M Error
1, 0
M Error
3,0
M Error
1,1
M Error
3, 1
M Error
1, 2
...
M Error
3, 2
Error Av = 0.149388 ( % )
232
m. Particle summary matrix 3.2

2
. c .e
r e Ce
r _1
r _2
r
r _1
r _av
r _2
r _av
r _1
2 r _1
r _2
r _av
r _1
1 .
r _av
r _Error
r _2
r _Error
1 .
r _av
r _2
rX KX
3 .b 1 . x
r _Error
r _1
r _2
r _1
r _2
r _av r _av
K X
( 0.69 0.02) . fm
(%)
830.594743
826.944318
826.941624
830.648674
826.942971
.
1.34683810
( am)
3
2
0.005. fm
( 0.69 0.02) . fm
14
830.702606
0.053931
2
0.69. fm
1.
2
4
27. h Ce
.
4
32. CN
. 3 ( YHz)
r , m p = 2.61722210
.
2.22044610
1=
r _Error
2
6 .b 1 .K X . x
4 . CN
r _1
1.
r _av
c . Ce
r _2
2
4
27. h Ce
.
.
3
4
4 . CP
32. CP
c . Ce
830.662386
12.03985
( am)
2
r X_av
r X_Error
1.
K X
rX KX
K X
rX KX
rX KX
r X_av
K X
r X_av
r X_av
rX KX
K X
r X_av
rX KX
K X
rX KX
K X
843.685579
807.144886
r X_av
825.415232
r X_av
18.270346
m = 5.746734 10
17 .
eV
r X_Error = 0 ( % )
( am)
m
m gg
3.195095
6.39019
10
233
45 .
eV

1 .
h gg
1.152898
1.521258
1 .
K . h gg
0.991785
1.308668
n. Particle summary matrix 3.3

The following is accurate to 1 or 2 decimal places (as implied by the results):
r , m p
r ,mn
r ,mn
r , m e
r , m e
0.5
r en , m en
0.5
r L, m L 2 , r L
r L, m L 3 , r L
r n , m n
r ,m
r L, m L 5 , r L
r n , m n
10
r L, m L 5 , r L
r , m
12
r , m
12
r n , m n
r en , m en
r L, m L 2 , r L
r L, m L 3 , r L
r ,m
r n , m n
1
r , m p
r uq , m uq
= 14
r dq , m dq
14
1
r , m e
r uq , m uq
5
6
=
6
7
7
28
r dq , m dq
42
r cq , m cq
r sq , m sq
56
r bq , m bq
70
r cq , m cq
28
84
r bq , m bq
35
r QB, m QB 5 , r QB
r QB, m QB 5 , r QB
42
r QB, m QB 6 , r QB
98
112
r W,mW
r QB, m QB 6 , r QB
126
56
r Z, m Z
140
r W,mW
63
r Z, m Z
70
r sq , m sq
r H, m H
14
21
49
r H, m H
r tq , m tq
r tq , m tq
234
r , m p
r ,mn
r ,me
0.07
r en , m en
0.07
r L, m L 2 , r L
0.14
r L, m L 3 , r L
0.14
1
14
0.29
r ,m
0.43
r n , m n
0.57
0.07
0.57
0.07
r L, m L 5 , r L
0.71
0.86
0.86
r cq , m cq
0.86
r bq , m bq
0.86
r QB, m QB 5 , r QB
r ,m
1
1
14
r n , m n
r uq , m uq
r uq , m uq
r dq , m dq
r sq , m sq
r W,mW
r Z, m Z
10
0.14
0.29
= 0.43
0.57
0.57
0.71
7
6
r QB, m QB 6 , r QB
0.14
7
6
7
r H, m H
r tq , m tq
o. Particle summary matrix 3.4

gg
r Bohr
rx
4.670757
6.163101
10
35 .
1 = 0.352379 ( % )
.
r x = 5.27319110
m
m gg
11
( m)
3.195095
6.39019
10
235
1 .
K . h gg
0.991785
1.308668
45 .
eV
me
11.807027
mp
.
5.10998910
830.702612
mn
0.938272
826.944318
0.939565
8.215954
r en
12.240673
m en
0.095379
r n
0.105658
1.776989
0.655235
m n
1.958664
m n
r uq =
0.768186
m uq
r dq
1.013628
r n
( am)
0.887904
r sq
1.091334
3 .10
1.9.10
0.0182
=
.
3.50490310
m dq
.
7.00980510
m sq
0.113909
1.182905
r cq
1.070961
m cq
r bq
0.92938
m bq
m tq
rW
1.061716
mW
91.1876
mZ
114.4
rH
4.11826
1.284033
rZ
GeV
178.440506
r tq
0.940438
80.425
mH
m L 2, r L
.
9.15554710
m L 3, r L
rL
r QB
10.754551
1.005287
0.056767
m L 5, r L
( am)
0.565476
m QB 5 , r QB
9.596205
m QB 6 , r QB
21.797922
GeV
c
. 3 1.32141 1.319591 11.734441 0.697721 ( fm)

Ce CP CN C C = 2.4263110
.
Ce CP CN C C = 7.76344110
1.
6
1.
6
r uq
m uq
r dq
r sq
m dq
r cq
m sq
r bq
m cq
1.425486 1.427451 0.160523 2.699721 ( YHz)
r tq = 0.960232 ( am)
m bq
m tq = 30.644349
GeV
c
p. Similarity equations
SSE 3 E rms , B rms , r , r , M
4C_S( r , r , M )
K PV( r , M ) . St ( r , r , M ) ln 2 .n _ZPF( r , r , M )
.
.E rms .B rms
n _ZPF( r , r , M ) 1
Re acos SSE 3 E C( r , r , M ) , B C( r , r , M ) , r , r , M
236
5C_S( r , r , M )
Re asin SSE 3 E C( r , r , M ) , B C( r , r , M ) , r , r , M
1
SSE 4 , DC_E, DC_B, E rms , B rms , r , r , M
.SSE ( 1
3
DC_E) .E rms , ( 1
DC_B) .B rms , r , r , M
.SSE ( 1
3
DC_E) .E rms, ( 1
DC_B) .B rms , r , r , M
cos ( )
SSE 5 , DC_E, DC_B, E rms , B rms, r , r , M
sin ( )
q. Calculation results
K PV R E, M M
K PV R E, 2 .M M
K PV R E, M E
K PV R E, 2 .M E
K PV R E, M J
K PV R E, 2 .M J
K 0 R E, M M
K 0 R E, M E
K 0 R E, M J
K 0 R E, M M
K 0 R E, M E
K 0 R E, M J
K EGM_N R E, M M
K EGM_N R E, M E
K EGM_N R E, M J
1.000001
K EGM_E R E, M M
K EGM_E R E, M E
K EGM_E R E, M J
1.000001
0.999999
.
8.55887110
12
.
6.96005110
K PV R E, M S
K PV R E, 2 .M S
3
K PV R E, M E .e
3
K PV R S , M S .e
K 0 R E , M E
K 0 R S , M S
PV 1 , R E, M M
PV 1 , R E, M E
K 0 R E, M E
= 1.000008
.
8.27226110
=
=1
K 0 R E , M E
0.035839
( Hz)
K 0 R S, M S
2.484128
T PV 1 , R E, M S
PV 1 , R E, M M
. 7
3.62406910
PV 1 , R E, M E
.
8.36497210
PV 1 , R E, M J
PV 1 , R E, M S
. 6
1.2259310
. 5
1.20683210
1.000927
K EGM_E R E, M S
120.885935
=
U m R E, M E
U m R E, M J
U m R E, M S
237
27.902544
4.089263
(s)
0.402556
U m R E, M M
( km)
.
2.31613510
K EGM_N R E, M S
T PV 1 , R E, M E
PV 1 , R E, M S
0.999305
= 1.000008
T PV 1 , R E, M J
K 0 R S , M S
0.244543
PV 1 , R E, M J
1.000927
K 0 R E, M S
T PV 1 , R E, M M
.
2.211110
1.000463
K 0 R E, M S
=1
10
6.080707
494.481475
=
. 5
1.57089110
( EPa)
. 8
1.64551410
R E, M M
R E, M E
R E, M J
. 29
2.83606210
n R E, M M
. 29
1.73968910
n R E, M E
. 28
9.17216810
n R E, M J
. 28
4.2341410
n R E, M S
R E, M S
R E, M M
519.573099
=
R E, M J
. 3
1.86915710
R E, M S
. 3
8.76512110
S m R E, M M
0.182295
S m R E, M E
S m R E, M J
( YHz)
14.824182
=
S m R E, M S
. 3
4.70941210
r 1 , R E, r , M E
r 1 , R E, r , M J
. 27
3.5284510
195.505363
PV R E, M E
519.573099
=
PV R E, M J
N r R E, M E
YW
N r R E, M J
cm
. 14
6.52135710
=
N r R E, M S
1.729554
r 1 , R E, r , M M
7.493187
r 1 , R E, r , M E
( pHz)
51.128768
r 1 , R E, r , M J
.
1.33585910
v r 1 , R E, r , M M
R E, r , M E
.
5.02660110
v r 1 , R E, r , M E
.
1.39724710
R E, r , M S
.
2.97920610
v R E, r , M M
13.105112
R E, r , M J
v R E, r , M E
v R E, r , M J
K C R E, r , M M
K C R E, r , M E
K C R E, r , M J
K C R E, r , M S
( ym )
v r 1 , R E, r , M J
13.105121
pm
U PV R E, r , M E
13.105115
U PV R E, r , M J
87.634109
. 4
2.78399910
. 16
2.9237310
7.577156
=
U PV R E, r , M S
1.74894
0.256316
13.105101
=
13.10513
pm
13.105131
13.109717
2.860531
232.617621
=
. 7
7.74094810
_ZPF R E, r , M E
_ZPF R E, r , M J
. 7
2.9162510
( GPa)
4
7.3899.10
_ZPF R E, r , M M
( MPa .M )
( m)
0.025237
U PV R E, r , M M
1.077649
=
. 15
6.23483610
v r 1 , R E, r , M S
13.109693
v R E, r , M S
. 15
1.73310910
r 1 , R E, r , M S
R E, r , M M
=
( YHz)
. 3
1.86915710
. 3
8.76512110
N r R E, M M
519.469801
r 1 , R E, r , M S
. 27
7.64347410
PV R E, M S
. 6
4.93312710
r 1 , R E, r , M M
. 28
1.44974110
PV R E, M M
195.505363
R E, M E
. 28
2.36338510
_ZPF R E, r , M S
123.501066
370.868276
=
. 3
1.56573710
( PHz)
. 3
8.90753610
KR2 = 99.99999999999999(%)
238
ZPF R E, r , M M
ZPF R E, r , M E
R E, r , M M , K R2
14.793206
R E, r , M E, K R2
R E, r , M J , K R2
n S R E, r , M M , K R2
n S R E, r , M E, K R2
n S R E, r , M J , K R2
n S R E, r , M S , K R2
R R E, r , M M
=
R R E, r , M J
R R E, r , M S
St R E, r , M M
. 18
6.40202410
R E, r , M J
. 18
3.58539910
R E, r , M S
S R E, r , M E, K R2
9.615565
S R E, r , M J , K R2
11.66707
S R E, r , M S , K R2
St R E, r , M M
.
2.78399910
St R E, r , M E
St R E, r , M J
.
2.9162510
St R E, r , M S
.
2.19383110
St R E, r , M M
St R E, r , M E
.
5.83032610
St R E, r , M E
.
2.0974410
St R E, r , M S
.
9.83425710
St 1 , R E, r , M M
St 1 , R E, r , M E
St 1 , R E, r , M J
St 1 , R E, r , M S
2.
G .M M
. 1
2
R E .c
1.
2
St R E, r , M J
St R E, r , M S
=1
( PHz)
. 3
8.90658910
0.011474
1
=
1
1
1
St n _ZPF R E, r , M J , R E, r , M J
1.000002
St n _ZPF R E, r , M S , R E, r , M S
. 3
1.56556910
.
2.01680710
1.000001
370.826434
=
1.000001
1.
( PHz)
123.486273
.
4.77711210
St n _ZPF R E, r , M E , R E, r , M E
G .M E
. 1
2
R E .c
162.833549
St n _ZPF R E, r , M M , R E, r , M M
2.
45.263389
.
1.59080310
0.999999
. 14
6.84403710
763.476685
8.19356
St R E, r , M M
St R E, r , M J
S R E, r , M M , K R2
( MPa .M )
. 15
1.16748410
. 14
3.81125810
7.251258
17.031676
R E, r , M E
.
1.034710
87.634109
=
. 15
1.78829110
R E, r , M M
19
n R E, r , M M , K R2
n R E, r , M S , K R2
. 19
1.49277510
. 18
6.40270810
. 18
3.5857810
n R E, r , M J , K R2
1.077649
St R E, r , M S
167.366022
. 19
1.03481710
n _ZPF R E, r , M S
n R E, r , M E, K R2
( THz)
946.765196
R E, r , M S , K R2
R R E, r , M E
41.841506
n _ZPF R E, r , M J
. 3
8.90753610
ZPF R E, r , M S
St R E, r , M J
( PHz)
. 3
1.56573710
. 19
1.49295410
n _ZPF R E, r , M E
370.868276
=
ZPF R E, r , M J
St R E, r , M E
n _ZPF R E, r , M M
123.501066
1.000001
=
1
1.000003
1
=1
239
G .M J
. 1
2
R E .c
2.
1.
2
2.
= 1.000001
G .M S
. 1
2
R E .c
1.
2
= 1.000927
N X R M , r , M M
. 17
2.15162910
E C R M , r , M M
N X R E, r , M E
. 17
2.29685210
E C R E, r , M E
.
3.15778710
E C R J , r , M J
N X R J , r , M J
N X R S , r , M S
. 17
3.76223110
B C R M , r , M M
B C R E, r , M E
B C R J , r , M J
X R M , r , M M
X R J , r , M J
36.419294
97.406507
N C R J , r , M J
N C R S , r , M S
ln 2 .N X R E, r , M E
ln 2 .N C R E, r , M E
ln 2 .N X R J , r , M J
ln 2 .N C R J , r , M J
ln 2 .N X R S , r , M S
ln 2 .N C R S , r , M S
8.231693
3.077746
( PHz)
. 12
3.20180310
N C R E, r , M E
1.791481
N C R M , r , M M
167.343325
volt
23.079214
10.073108
X R S , r , M S
( nm )
190.811924
7.220558
X R J , r , M J
ln 2 .N C R M , r , M M
1.
( mgs )
1.
6.364801
X R E, r , M E
ln 2 .N X R M , r , M M
1.
X R M , r , M M
29.761666
X R S , r , M S
1.
9.8181
0.76984
E C R S , r , M S
0.240852
B C R S , r , M S
X R E, r , M E
17
294.339224
. 12
4.18248610
. 13
1.53794510
. 13
3.14792110
1 . N X R M , r , M M
ln
2
N C R M , r , M M
1 . N X R E, r , M E
ln
2
N C R E, r , M E
5.557718 5.557718
=
1 . N X R J , r , M J
ln
2
N C R J , r , M J
5.45678 5.45678
4.964882 4.964882
4.694305 4.694305
1 . N X R S , r , M S
ln
2
N C R S , r , M S
N T 1 , 2 , N C R M , r , M M
N T 1 , 2 , N C R J , r , M J
. 12 7.68972610
. 12
1.60090210
N T 1 , 2 , N X R M , r , M M
N T 1 , 2 , N X R J , r , M J
. 17 1.57889410
. 17
1.07581410
N T 1 , 2 , n _ZPF R M , r , M M
N T 1 , 2 , n _ZPF R J , r , M J
N T 1 , 2 , N C R E, r , M E
N T 1 , 2 , N C R S , r , M S
N T 1 , 2 , N X R E, r , M E
N T 1 , 2 , N X R S , r , M S
. 17 1.88111510
. 17
1.14842610
N T 1 , 2 , n _ZPF R E, r , M E
N T 1 , 2 , n _ZPF R S , r , M S
. 18 8.57004510
. 18
5.17408410
N TR 1 , 1 , R M , r , M M
N TR 1 , 1 , R E, r , M E
N TR 1 , 1 , R J , r , M J
N TR 1 , 1 , R S , r , M S
. 18 7.16489910
. 18
4.83975610
. 12 1.57396110
. 13
2.09124310
. 4
6.72005410
H 1 , 2 , n _ZPF R M , r , M M
. 4
5.49159510
H 1 , 2 , n _ZPF R E, r , M E
. 4
2.05325110
H 1 , 2 , n _ZPF R J , r , M J
. 4
1.19514810
H 1 , 2 , n _ZPF R S , r , M S
240
. 37
9.36929710
=
. 38
1.07084610
. 38
2.05343110
. 38
2.93782710
F PP R M , r
A PP R M
HR 1 , 2 , R M , r , M M
. 9
4.51591310
F PP R E, r
HR 1 , 2 , R E, r , M E
. 9
3.01576110
A PP R E
.
4.21583910
F PP R J , r
. 8
1.42837810
A PP R J
HR 1 , 2 , R J , r , M J
HR 1 , 2 , R S , r , M S
1.300126
=
1.300126
( fPa )
1.300126
1.300126
F PP R S , r
A PP R S
F PV R M , r , M M
F PP R M , r
A PP R M
F PV R M , r , M M
F PV R E, r , M E
2.349179
F PP R E, r
A PP R E
1.300007
F PV R E, r , M E
F PV R J , r , M J
0.074224
( fPa )
F PP R J , r
0.015617
A PP R J
F PV R J , r , M J
F PV R S , r , M S
F PP R S , r
A PP R S
F PV R S , r , M S
R M , r , M M
R E, r , M E
R J , r , M J
44.65616
1
=
1
1.447168
St R E, r , M E
0.029107
15 .
Hz
. 3
1.65163110
St R J , r , M J
(%)
St R M , r , M M
10
. 3
9.15864310
. 3
8.22480110
3.225809
.
3.39437710
R S , r , M S
3.225809
=
St R S , r , M S
1.447168
10
0.029107
.
3.39437710
15 .
Hz
PV 1 , R M , M M
r 1 , R M , r , M M
R R M , r , M M
R R E, r , M E
R R J , r , M J
R R S , r , M S
PV 1 , R E, M E
r 1 , R E, r , M E
PV 1 , R J , M J
r 1 , R J , r , M J
9
1.3035.10
. 9
4.78288210
. 10
5.36192210
. 11
5.22005110
PV 1 , R S , M S
r 1 , R S , r , M S
241
2
U m R M, M M
3 .
2
U PV R M , r , M M
2
U m R E, M E
3 .
2
U PV R E, r , M E
9
1.3035.10
2
U m R J, M J
3 .
2
U PV R J , r , M J
. 9
4.78288510
. 10
5.361910
. 11
5.21985810
2
U m R S, M S
3 .
2
U PV R S , r , M S
r_Error R M , r , M M
r_Error R E, r , M E
r_Error R J , r , M J
r_Error R S , r , M S
r_Error R WD , r , M WD
r_Error R RG, r , M RG
r_Error R NS, r , M NS
r_Error R BH, r , M BH
.
2.45448210
=
.
4.09314210
.
6.56319310
.
3.69917510
0.023754
0.195216
5.248215
27.272806
EGM R M , r , M M
EGM R E, r , M E
3.225809
1.447169
EGM R J , r , M J
EGM R S , r , M S
0.029107
. 3
3.39425210
EGM R WD , r , M WD
EGM R RG, r , M RG
EGM R NS , r , M NS
EGM R BH, r , M BH
Error R M , r , M M
Error R E, r , M E
Error R J , r , M J
Error R S , r , M S
Error R WD , r , M WD
Error R RG, r , M RG
Error R NS , r , M NS
Error R BH, r , M BH
K P R M , r , M M
K P R E, r , M E
K P R J , r , M J
K P R S , r , M S
. 6
2.30813410
. 15
5.25385210
.
8.47616310
12
(%)
10
15 .
Hz
. 9
1.42948610
.
2.45448210
.
6.56319310
.
4.09314210
.
3.69917510
0.023754
0.195216
5.248215
27.272806
(%)
265.650431
480.043646
=
. 3
8.40786210
. 4
3.99605210
2 .G.M M U PV R M , r , M M
.
3
U m R M,M M
RM
2 .G.M E U PV R E, r , M E
.
3
U m R E, M E
RE
2 .G.M J U PV R J , r , M J
.
3
U m R J, M J
RJ
3.225809
=
1.447168
10
0.029107
.
3.39437710
15 .
Hz
2 .G.M S U PV R S , r , M S
.
3
U m R S, M S
RS
242
2 .G.M M .
1
r
RM
RM
2 .G.M E.
1
r
RE
RJ
1
r
RJ
2 .G.M S .
RS
3.225809
3
RE
2 .G.M J .
1.447168
.
3.39437710
15 .
10
0.029107
Hz
1
3
RS
1
.
. 2 .G.M .
M
3
U
R
,
M
RM
m M
M
R M r
1
.
. 2 .G.M .
E
3
U m R E, M E
RE
R E r
1
.
. 2 .G.M .
J
3
U
R
,
M
RJ
m J
J
R J r
RJ
EGM R E, r , M E . 2 .G.M E.
EGM R J , r , M J . 2 .G.M J .
RJ
EGM R S , r , M S . 2 .G.M S .
RS
1
1
1
=
1
.
2.45448210
.
6.56319710
.
4.09312510
.
3.69903810
(%)
1
3
1
3
RE
1
3
RJ
.
2.45448210
.
6.56319710
.
4.09312510
.
3.69903810
(%)
1
r
(%)
RM
1
RE
1
3
RS
1
3
0
=
.
3
U m R S, M S
RS
.
EGM R J , r , M J .
3
U m R J, M J
RJ
RM
1
3
.
3
U m R E, M E
RE
EGM R M , r , M M . 2 .G.M M .
RE
.
EGM R M , r , M M .
3
U m R M,M M
RM
EGM R S , r , M S .
RM
1
1
.
. 2 .G.M .
S
3
U m R S, M S
RS
R S r
EGM R E, r , M E .
1
3
RS
243
CP
c .m e
27.m e
K PV r p , m p .m p
3
128.G. .h
8 .
CN
2
16. . Ce
c . Ce
Ce m p Ce m n
CP m e CN m e
r CN CP m p
r CP CN m n
r
830.594743
2
4
27. h Ce
.
4
32. CN
5
2
3
16.c . .m n
826.941624
= 826.941624 ( am)
826.941624
2
4
27.m h m e
.
mn
4 .
= ( 0.315205 0.315205 0.315205) ( % )
St r , m n
. 5 1.8360210
. 3 1.8386810
. 3
= 3.21927910
PV 1 , r e , m e
PV 1 , r , m p
PV 1 , r , m n
r e, m e
r , m p
r ,mn
PV 1 , r , m p
r , m p
PV 1 , r e , m e
r e, m e
PV 1 , r , m p
r ,mn
PV 1 , r e , m e
r e, m e
r ,mn
PV 1 , r e , m e
PV 1 , r , m p
PV 1 , r , m n
2 . .c .
Ce
2
CP
0.568793
35.500829
.
2.49926810
.
2.61722210
17
18
35.73252
. 18
2.62462610
( GHz)
62.792864 10.50158
r , m p
62.414364 10.471952
r e,m e
Ce
h .m e
St r , m p
CP
2
4
4 . . h Ce
4 . CN
830.594743
. CN
= ( 0.995476 0.998623 0.998623 0.998623)
r CN CP m p
r , m p
c . Ce
= 830.594743 ( am)
27
. 3 1.83615310
. 3 1.83868410
. 3 1.83868410
. 3
= 1.83615310
CP CN m n
St r e , m e
2
16. . Ce
2
4
27.m h m e
.
mp
4 .
2
3
16.c . .m p
( am)
4
2
K PV r n , m n .m n
3
2
4
27. h Ce
.
.
3
4
4 . CP
32. CP
CN
2
4
4 . . h Ce
826.941624
CN
h .m e
830.594743
. CP
27
4
2
K PV r p , m p .m p
5
K PV r n , m n .m n
CP
CP
CP.
mp
. 17 7.32784510
. 16 7.34520410
. 16
= 4.39398910
. 3 2.6174110
. 3 2.6174110
. 3 2.6174110
. 3 ( YHz)
= 2.61722210
me
244
CN
r ,mn
Ce
2 . .c .
Ce
mn
CN.
me
CN
r , m e
2 . r , m p
. 3 2.62463110
. 3 2.62463110
. 3 2.62463110
. 3 ( YHz)
= 2.62462610
. CP
r , m p Ce
. CN
r , m n Ce
1
= ( 99.985611 100.007215 100.000181) ( % )
m L 1, r
m L 2, r L
m L 3, r L
m L 4, r
m L 5, r L
m L 6, r
m L 7, r L
m L 8, r L
m L 9, r L
m L 10, r L
m L 11, r L
m L 12, r L
m L 13, r L
m L 14, r L
m L 15, r L
m L 16, r L
m L 17, r L
m L 18, r L
m L 19, r L
m L 20, r L
. 5 1.80208610
. 5 2.29847910
. 5 2.89523810
. 5
1.3933810
m L 21, r L
m L 22, r L
m L 23, r L
m L 24, r L
. 5 4.44581510
. 5 5.4303110
. 5 6.57657710
. 5
3.60608710
0.510999
9.155547
56.766874
105.677748
. 3 2.5703410
. 3
565.476231 1.77526210
. 3
4.6876410
. 3 1.27952710
. 4 1.96479110
. 4 2.90646410
. 4
7.96417210
MeV
.
.
.
.
4.16672110
5.81601510
7.93341210
1.06069210
m QB 1 , r dq
m QB 2 , r sq
m QB 3 , r cq
m QB 4 , r bq
.
7.00980510
m QB 5 , r QB
m QB 6 , r QB
m QB 7 , r W
m QB 8 , r Z
9.596205
21.797922
80.425
91.1876
m QB 9 , r H
m QB 10, r tq
m QB 11, r QB
m QB 12, r QB
114.4
178.440506
333.427609
493.23068
m QB 13, r QB
m QB 14, r QB
m QB 15, r QB
m QB 16, r QB
707.097922
986.98519
. 3 1.80000810
. 3
1.3463110
0.113909
1.182905
4.11826
m QB 17, r QB
m QB 18, r QB
m QB 19, r QB
m QB 20, r QB
.
2.36458310
m QB 21, r QB
m QB 22, r QB
m QB 23, r QB
m QB 24, r QB
. 3 7.54460610
. 3 9.21530610
. 3 1.11605410
. 4
6.11957610
U PV R E, r , M M
U PV R E, r , M E
U PV R E, r , M J
U PV R E, r , M S
.
.
3.05816410
3.90054810
3
GeV
c
.
4.91325710
2.860531
232.617621
=
4
7.3899.10
( GPa)
. 7
7.74094810
The following two result sets are accurate to 13 decimal places:

1
r uq , m uq
1
r , m e
r dq , m dq
r sq , m sq
r cq , m cq
r bq , m bq
r W,mW
r Z, m Z
r H, m H
r tq , m tq
r dq , m dq
r sq , m sq
r cq , m cq
r bq , m bq
r W,mW
r Z, m Z
r H, m H
r tq , m tq
1 2 3 4
7 8 9 10
7 14 21 28
49 56 63 70
r. Resonant Casimir cavity design specifications (experimental)

Given
R R E, r , M E
Find( r )
r = 16.518377( mm)
X R E, r , M E = 16.340851 ( PHz)
245
E C R E, r , M E = 550.422869
V
m
B C R E, r , M E = 18.360131 ( mgs )
SSE 4 0 .( deg ) , 0 .( % ) , 0 .( % ) , E C R E, r , M E , B C R E, r , M E , R E, r , M E
SSE 5 90.( deg ) , 0 .( % ) , 0 .( % ) , E C R E, r , M E , B C R E, r , M E , R E, r , M E
1
1
NOTES
246
MathCad 12: High precision calculation results

a. Computational environment

The high precision calculation results are obtained via the MathCad 12 computational
environment utilising the calculation engine defined in the preceding section.
Convergence Tolerance (TOL): 10-14.

Constraint Tolerance (CTOL): 10-14.
b. Particle summary matrix 3.1
rE +
( 2)
0.69 fm
rM
1
2
( rM r )
r
rM
830.647087 830.662386

848.579832 848
0.857 ( fm) 849.993668

857
( am)
=
874.643564
875
rp
826.889045 825.617615
rX
879.016508 879
0.879 ( fm)
0.848 ( fm)
rE
( )
KX 0.113 2
=
fm
KS 0.113348
2
r
e 3
r
r e r
r
r
r r
mtq = 178.470327
GeV
2
c
A( K rBohr , mp ) 657.329013
=
( nm)
B
656.469624
7.297353 10 3
=
3
7.297353 10
3.141593
r
r
r
r
1
1
1
e
e
r
r
r r
r
rE
rM
0.848 ( fm)
0.857 ( fm)
2
0.69 fm
M Error :=
1
1 1
r
K
S
( rM r ) + rE
rX
KX
rp 2
2
rM
mtq c
A ( K rBohr , mp )
0.879 ( fm)
178 ( GeV)
B
( )
247
14
13
0
2.220446 10
1.110223 10
1.841834 10 3
0.068376
0.817542
M Error =
( %)
0.040736
0.153997
0.308232
3
0.264229
0.130911
1.87806 10
ErrorAv :=
12
MError
0, 0
+ M Error
0,1
+ MError
0, 2
+ M Error
1,0
+ MError
+ M Error
1, 1
1,2
...
+ M
Error2 , 0 + MError2 , 1 + M Error2 , 2 + MError3 , 0 + M Error3 , 1 + MError3 , 2
ErrorAv = 0.148979(%)
c. Particle summary matrix 3.2
2
r c
3
e
re Ce
r_1
:=
5
2
4
r_2
c Ce
27 h Ce
4 3 32 4 CP
CP
r_Error
r_av r_1
r_2
r_av
r
r_2
r_1
5
:=
2
4
r
_2
27 h Ce
c
Ce
4 CN3 32 4 CN
1 (r
r
_av + r )
_2
:=
1
r_Error
r_2 ( r_av + r )
:=
r r_av r_1
r_1
r_1
r_av
830.647081 830.594743
826.889045 826.941624
=
( am)
830.620912 826.915335
0.026169 0.02629
rX ( KX ) :=
r_av 1 r_1 + r_2
:=
r_av 2 r_1 + r_2
r_Error
0
1 = ( %)
0
r_Error
(2 )
2
3 b 1 ( x 1)
6 b 1 KX x 1
( 2)
( r , mp ) = 2.617319 10 ( YHz)
3
KX := 0.005 fm
( )
0.69 fm
830.662386
=
1
( am)
2
2
( 0.69 + 0.02) fm ( 0.69 0.02) fm 12.03985
2
( )
rX_av :=
1
2
( (
( )
rX KX KX + rX KX + KX
rX_Error :=
rX KX KX rX_av
rX_av
))
rX_av := rX_av rX KX + KX
rX( KX KX) 843.685786

rX( KX + KX) 807.145085
( am)
825.415435
rX_av
18.270351
rX_av
248
14
rX_Error = 2.220446 10
1.152898
=
h gg 1.521258
1
17
m = 5.746734 10
( %)
eV
m 3.195095 45
=
10 eV
mgg 6.39019
0.991785
=
K h gg 1.308668
1
d. Particle summary matrix 3.3

The following is accurate to 1 or 2 decimal places (as implied by the results):
( r , mn)
( r , me)
( ren , men)
( rL , mL( 2 , rL))
( rL , mL( 3 , rL))
( r , m )
( rn , mn)
( r , m ( 5, r ))
L L
L
( r , m )
( rn , mn)
r
,
m
( uq uq)
( r , mp )
( rdq , mdq)
( rsq , msq )
( rcq , mcq)
( rbq , mbq)
(r , m (5 , r ) )
QB QB QB
(rQB , mQB(6 , rQB) )
( rW , mW)
( rZ , mZ )
( rH , mH )
( rtq , mtq )
( r , mp )
( r , mn)
( r , me)
( ren , men)
( rL , mL( 2, rL) )
(r , m (3, r ) )
L L
L
( r , m )
( rn , mn)
( rL , mL( 5, rL) )
( r , m )
( rn , mn)
1
( r , me)
( ruq , muq)
( rdq , mdq)
( rsq , msq)
( rcq , mcq)
( rbq , mbq)
( rQB , mQB( 5, rQB) )
( rW , mW)
( rZ , mZ )
( rH , mH)
( rtq , mtq )
1
2

2
4

6
8
8

10
12
12

= 14
14

28
42
56

70
84
98

112
126

140
249
0.5
0.5

1
1
2

3
4

4
5
6

6
=
7
7

14
21

28
35
42

49
56
63

70
( r , mp )
( r , mn)
( r , me)
( ren , men)
( rL , mL( 2, rL) )
(r , m ( 3, r ))
L L
L
( r , m )
( rn , mn)
( rL , mL( 5, rL) )
( r , m )
( rn , mn)
1
( ruq , muq)
( ruq , muq)
( rdq , mdq)
( rsq , msq )
( rcq , mcq)
( rbq , mbq)
( rW , mW)
( rZ , mZ )
( rH , mH)
( rtq , mtq )
0.07
0.07
0.14
0.14
0.29
0.43
0.57
0.57
0.71
0.86
0.86
=
1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
e. Particle summary matrix 3.4

r

r 11.806238
r 830.647087

r 826.889045
8.214055
r
12.237844
ren
0.095379

rn 0.655235
rn
1.958664

ruq = 0.768186 ( am)
r 1.013628
dq
rsq 0.887904
r 1.091334
cq 1.070961
rbq
0.92938
r
tq
1.283947
rW
1.061645
rZ 0.940375
r
H
me
5.109989 10 4
mp 0.938272
m
n 0.939565
m 0.105658
1.776989
m
men
9
3 10
mn 1.9 10 4
mn
0.0182
GeV
muq =
3
m 3.505488 10 c2
dq
7.010977 10 3
msq
m 0.113928
cq
1.183102
mbq
4.118949
m
tq
178.470327
mW
80.425
91.1876
m
Z
m
114.4
250
4.670757 35
=
10 m
gg 6.163101
11
rx = 5.273191 10
0.991785
=
K h gg 1.308668
1
( m)
m 3.195095 45
rL 10.752712
=
10 eV
=
( am)
mgg 6.39019
rQB 1.005262
1
6
1
6
rBohr
1 = 0.352379( %)
rx
mL( 2 , rL)
mL( 3 , rL)
m (5, r )
L L
mQB( 5 , rQB)
m (6, r )
QB QB
9.153163 10 3
0.056752
GeV
=
0.565329 2
9.597226 c
21.800242
( ruq + rdq + rsq + rcq + rbq + rtq ) = 0.960232( am)

( muq + mdq + msq + mcq + mbq + mtq ) = 30.649471
GeV
2
c
The following two result sets are accurate to 13 decimal places:

1
( ruq , muq)
( rdq , mdq) ( rsq , msq) ( rcq , mcq) ( rbq , mbq)
( rW , mW) ( rZ , mZ ) ( rH , mH) ( rtq , mtq )
1 2 3 4
7 8 9 10
( rdq , mdq) ( rsq , msq) ( rcq , mcq) ( rbq , mbq) 7 14 21 28

=
( r , me) ( rW , mW) ( rZ , mZ ) ( rH , mH) ( rtq , mtq ) 49 56 63 70

1
NOTES
251
NOTES
252
MathCad 8 Professional
a. Complete simulation
i. Computational environment

ii. Units of measure (definitions)
Jy
10
26 .
pc
2.
. 16 .( m)
3.085677580710
m Hz
( mJy Jy nJy pJy fJy aJy zJy yJy )
Scale 1 .( Jy )
( mpc pc npc ppc fpc apc zpc ypc )
Scale 1 .( pc )
( kJy MJy GJy TJy PJy EJy ZJy YJy )
Scale 2 .( Jy )
( kpc Mpc Gpc Tpc Ppc Epc Zpc Ypc )
Scale 2 .( pc )
iii. Constants (definitions)
. 8.
5.67040010
2. 4
.
1.380650510
Th
J
K
m K
m h .c
23 .
KW
. 3 .( m.K )
2.897768510
iv. Astronomical statistics

Lyr
T 0
c .yr
D E2M
0.001.( K )
8
3.844.10 .( m)
Ro
8 .( kpc )
AU
R o
149597870660.( m) H 0
0.5.( kpc )
MG
71.
km
.
s Mpc
T0
2.725.( K )
11
6 .10 .M S
v. Characterisation of the gravitational spectrum

1. 1, n n_1, _1
Note: the complete simulation is the computational algorithm developed for this text and is
predominantly without comment.
253
Commencing with the following relationship set, significant simplifications to primary

EGM equations may be derived as follows,
4
h .
PV( 1 , r , M )
3
2 .c
U ( r , M )
c .U n PV, r , M
S n PV, r , M
U ( r , M ) .
U n PV, r , M
U m( r , M )
3 .M .c
n PV
n PV
4 . .r
( r, M )
108.
U m( r , M )
U ( r , M )
U m( r , M )
12. 768 81.
n ( r, M )
U ( r , M )
( r, M )
12
( r, M )
Hence,
3 .M .c
U m( r , M )
4 . .r
3 .M .c
U ( r , M )
4
3
h .
4
PV( 1 , r , M ) 2 . .r .h . PV( 1 , r , M )
3
2 .c
U m( r , M )
108.
1( r , M ) 6 .
>> 768, hence simplifying / approximating forms yields,
U ( r , M )
1( r , M )
U m( r , M )
Typically: 81.
108.
U ( r , M )
U m( r , M )
3 .M .c
6.
U ( r , M )
216.
U ( r , M )
U m( r , M )
U m( r , M )
U ( r , M )
1( r , M )
4
3
2 . .r .h . PV( 1 , r , M )
6 .c
r . PV( 1 , r , M )
3 .M .c
2 . .h . PV( 1 , r , M )
Typically: ( r , M ) >> 1 hence,

3
n _1( r , M )
1( r , M ) 1 U m( r , M )
.
C _1( r , M )
12
G.M .
2
_1( r , M )
U ( r , M ) 2 .r . PV( 1 , r , M )
3 .M .c
2 . .h . PV( 1 , r , M )
n _1( r , M )
1( r , M )
12
_1( r , M ) n _1( r , M ) . PV( 1 , r , M )
.n _1( r , M )
n _1( r , M ) . PV( 1 , r , M )
T _1( r , M )
1
_1( r , M )
2
c .
3 .M .c
2 .r 2 . .h . PV( 1 , r , M )
_1( r , M )
c
_1( r , M )
Checking errors yields,

1 R M,M M
1 R E, M E
R M, M M
R E, M E
1 R J, M J
1 R S, M S
R J, M J
R S, M S
1=
. 14 4.44089210
.
6.66133810
14
. 14 6.66133810
.
4.44089210
14
254
(%)
1 R NS , M NS
1 = 0 (%)
R NS , M NS
n _1 R M , M M
n _1 R E, M E
n R M,M M
n R E, M E
n _1 R J , M J
n _1 R S , M S
n R J, M J
n R S, M S
n _1 R NS , M NS
n R NS , M NS
_1 R E, M E
R M,M M
R E, M E
_1 R J , M J
_1 R S , M S
R J, M J
R S, M S
R NS , M NS
T _1 R E, M E
T R M,M M
T R E, M E
T _1 R J , M J
T _1 R S , M S
T R J, M J
T R S, M S
T R NS, M NS
_1 R E, M E
R M,M M
R E, M E
_1 R J , M J
_1 R S , M S
R J, M J
R S, M S
R NS , M NS
.
2.22044610
14
.
4.44089210
14
.
8.88178410
14
(%)
1=
.
6.66133810
14
.
2.22044610
14
.
6.66133810
14
.
8.88178410
14
(%)
1=
.
7.77156110
14
.
2.22044610
14
.
5.55111510
14
.
7.77156110
14
.
7.77156110
14
.
2.22044610
14
.
6.66133810
14
.
7.77156110
14
(%)
1 = 0 ( %)
_1 R M , M M
_1 R NS , M NS
14
1 = 0 (%)
T _1 R M , M M
T _1 R NS, M NS
.
6.66133810
1 = 0 (%)
_1 R M , M M
_1 R NS , M NS
1=
1=
(%)
1 = 0 (%)
2. g
i. _1 _2
3
_1( r , M )
2
c .
3 .M .c
2 .r 2 . .h . PV( 1 , r , M )
_1( r , M )
255
3
2
c .
3 .M .c
2 .r 2 . .h . PV( 1 , r , M )
PV( 1 , r , M )
. 3
. .
. 2r . 2h
3
2
c
3 .M .c
_1( r , M )
1
16. .h .
r
5
3 .M .c _1( r , M )
_2( r , M )
th
9
2
c . 3 .M .c .
1
.
3
2r
2 . .h
PV( 1 , r , M )
G.h
c
th
c
G.h
3 14
2
3 .c .M
4
3 2
2
3 .G .M . h .c
13 5 2 3
2 .r . .h .G
2
13 5 2
2 .r . . h
_2( r , M )
g( r , M )
6
3
3 . h
.
. GM
2
13 . 2 . .
2 rc r
G.M
mh
St g
5
3
3 . h
.
. GM
13
5
2 . h .r
_2( r , M )
h .c
9
2
c . 3 .M .c
2 .r
2 . .h
G.h
c
6
3
3 . h
13 5 2 3
2 .r . .h .G
5
3
3 . h .G.M G.M
.
2 3
13
2 . h . .r
3 14
2
3 .c .M
1
.
1 . 2 c .G.M
3
.r
r
c
G.h
G
h
6
3
3 . h
.
. GM
2
13 2
2 . .r .c r
c
2
245
10
St g = 1.828935
13 2
2 . .c
1.
2
St g .g ( r , M )
r
_2( r , M )
5
m.s
St g
.g ( r , M ) 2

_2 R M , M M
_2 R E, M E
_1 R M , M M
_1 R E, M E
_2 R J , M J
_2 R S , M S
_1 R J , M J
_1 R S , M S
_2 R NS , M NS
1=
.
1.04678510
.
2.32001510
.
6.57443310
.
7.07196310
(%)
1 = 2.491576 ( % )
_1 R NS , M NS
Therefore,
a EGM_( r , M )
r .
9
_2( r , M )
St g
a EGM_ R E, M E = 9.809009
m
s

a EGM_ R M , M M
a EGM_ R E, M E
g R M,M M
g R E, M E
a EGM_ R J , M J
a EGM_ R S , M S
g R J, M J
g R S, M S
1=
.
1.49880110
12
.
1.49880110
12
.
1.5432110
12
.
1.57651710
12
256
(%)
a EGM_ R NS , M NS
.
1 = 1.65423210
g R NS, M NS
12
(%)
ii. _1 _3
3
1 U m( r , M ) .
1
_1( r , M ) .
PV( 1 , r , M ) .
2 U ( r , M )
2
_1( r , M )
U m( r , M )
4
h .
PV( 1 , r , M )
3
2 .c
3
1 . 2 .c . U m( r , M )
8 h PV( 1 , r , M )
3 .M .c
_3( r , M )
. ( 1 , r , M )
PV
3
c . U m( r , M )
4 .h PV( 1 , r , M )
3 3
c
4 .h
. .
. 4r
.
2 c .G.M
3
14
27 . c . M
8192 h 3 2 .r5 .G
27 . c . c . M
8192 G.h h 2 2 .r5
3 . 2 .c . M
h
13
2
2
2
h .r5
.r
_3( r , M )
c.
3.
_3( r , M )
3 . h
. M
4 . .h
St G
3.
3 . h
. c
2
4 . .h
M
St G.
5
r
_3( r , M )
224 .
St G = 8.146982 10
2 9
kg .s
9 M
St G .
St G
St g

_3 R M , M M
_3 R E, M E
_2 R M , M M
_2 R E, M E
_3 R J , M J
_3 R S , M S
_2 R J , M J
_2 R S , M S
_3 R NS , M NS
_2 R NS , M NS
.
1 = 6.66133810
1=
14
(%)
. 14
8.88178410
.
1.11022310
13
. 13
1.11022310
.
1.11022310
13
1 . St G
.
1 = 3.33066910
(%)
14
(%)
St g
3. g PV3
2 .c .n PV
PV n PV, r , M
2
.r
.g ( r , M )
257
4. S cUm
Reducing / simplifying / approximating utilising computational features of the environment
yields,
n
8 .n
24.n
8 .n . n
8 .n
simplify
32.n factor
3 .n factor
substitute , n
8 .n . n
2
8 .n . n
3 .n
24.n
32.n
16
Hence,
n
8 .n
2
3
2
24.n
S ( r , M )
32.n 8 .n . n
h .
4
PV( 1 , r , M ) .
2
.
2c
n
2
8 .n
3 .n
n ( r, M )
24.n
32.n
8 .n . n
3 .n
n ( r, M )
16
2
8 .n . n
8 .n
h .
4
3
PV( 1 , r , M ) .8 .n ( r , M )
2
.
2c
3
2
c
4 .h .
4
4
3 .M .c
3 4 .h .
.
S ( r , M )
PV( 1 , r , M ) .n ( r , M )
PV( 1 , r , M ) .
2
2
2 .r . PV( 1 , r , M ) 2 . .h . PV( 1 , r , M )
c
c
3
2
3
4 .h .c . PV( 1 , r , M ) .
3 .M .c
3 .M .c
S ( r , M )
2 3
3 . . .
3
8 .c .r PV( 1 , r , M ) 2 h PV( 1 , r , M ) 4 . .r
Hence,
S ( r , M ) c .U m( r , M )
5. C_J
C _J ( r , M )
2 d
( r , M ) . U m( r , M )
dr
C _J1( r , M )
c
9
M
St G.
5
r
9 .c .
St G
4 .
4
St J
. .
. d 3Mc
d r 4 . .r3
2
9
C _J1( r , M )
. r
St G
St J
2
. M
. .
.9 M c
4
4 . .r
5 9
9 .c .
9 M
St G .
26
4 .
r
4
258

C _J1 100.( km) , M M
C _J1 R S , M M
C _J 100.( km) , M M
C _J1 100.( km) , M E
C _J 100.( km) , M E
C _J1 100.( km) , M J
C _J 100.( km) , M J
C _J1 100.( km) , M S
C _J 100.( km) , M S
C _J1 100.( km) , M NS
C _J 100.( km) , M NS
C _J R S , M M
1=
.
3.63875410
.
2.95903310
.
9.40034410
C _J1 R S , M E
C _J R S , M E
C _J1 R S , M J
(%)
1=
C _J R S , M J
0.979587
C _J1 R S , M S
0.979587
C _J R S , M S
.
3.86357610
12
.
4.23450210
10
.
1.3506210
.
1.41439110
.
1.41439110
(%)
C _J1 R S , M NS
C _J R S , M NS
vi. Derivation of Planck-Particle and SBH characteristics

1. x, mx
n _1( r , M )
2 .c
1 . U m( r , M ) 1 . 3 .M .c .
8 U ( r , M ) 8 4 . .r3 h . ( 1 , r , M ) 4
PV
2
2
1 . 3 .M .c .
2 .c
2
1 . 3 .M .c .
8 4 . .r3 h . ( 1 , r , M ) 4 8 4 . .r3
PV
1 . 3 .M .c .
8 4 . .r3
2 .c
2 .c
3
1 2 .c .G.M
h. .
r
.r
1 . 3 .M .c .
8 4 . .r3
2 .c
3
1 2 .c .G.M
h. .
r
.r
3
1 2 .c .G.M . 2 .c .G.M
h. .
4
.r
.r
r
3 .c . r
2
1 . 3 .M .c .
8 4 . .r3
2 .c
3. c . . 2
cr
1 . 4 h .G
3
1 2 .c .G.M . 2 .c .G.M 8
h. .
4
.r
.r
r
3 .c . r
n _1( r , M )
1. 4
n _1( r , M )
2 .c .G.M
.r
n _2( r , M )
r . .c . 3
.
16
2
2 GM h
7
2 .c .G.M
.r
3 .
16
.m h
2 .c .G.M
.r
2 3
2
7
r . .m h . 3
16
2
2 M h h
1. 4
. r
M
h
3 9
n _2( r , M )
1. 3
2
259
.m h
M
. r
h
x. h
n _3 x. h , m x.m h
16
mx
3
3 . . 7
x
16
2
2
c .R BH
2 .G
R BH
m
. . h. 3
m x.m h h 2
h
2 .G .
M BH
2
c
3
3
3 . . x 1 . 3 . . x
16 m
2
x 2 mx 2
M BH
R BH
2
c .R BH
2 .G
x. h
m x.m h
x. h
m x.m h
R BH
R BH
5
2
1. x . c
4 R 3 G
BH
2
x. h .c
x. h
m x.m h
2
1. x . c
4 R 3 G
BH
1.
m x.m h
St x. h , m x.m h
2 .G.m x.m h
x 33 .
. 7
x
2 216
x 4.
3
3 .
m x.m h
2 2
4 .
x h
. c
3 G
m x.m h
1.
. c
3 G
4 .
x h
2
x. h .c
mh
mx
1. x
mx
2 .G.m x.m h
x
2
n _3 x
2
x. h .c
m x.m h
2 .G.m x.m h 2 m x
G h
4 . 2
6
3
2 2
3
1 . 3 . . x
2 x 2
1.
2
3.
3 .
2
3
9
n _3 x
3.
x. h = 1.093333 10
10 .
ym
n _3 x
1 = 0 ( %)
.
m x.m h = 7.36147410
mx
( kg )
mx
2.698709
1.349354
1 = 0.14278 ( % )
Km
n _3
n _3
1
3
0.248017
0.324994
n _3( 1 )
0.515897
0.818935
n _3( 2 )
n _3 x
1.073108
n _3( 3 )
260
2. m(xh,mxmh), Um(xh,mxmh)
V( r )
4. . 3
r
3
m( r , M )
. 94 kg
m x. h , m x.m h = 1.34467810
3
m
M
V( r )
m x. h , m x.m h
. 87 ( YPa)
U m x. h , m x.m h = 1.20853710
m R S, M S
.
= 9.55041510
90
3. Physicality of K
. 42 ( Hz)
K . h = 6.36576910
K . h
K . h = 4.709446 10
35 .
.
K m.m h = 6.34179210
( kg )
1 = 0.82832 ( % )
2 .r
4. KPV @ xh
i. KPV = Undefined
Recognising,
U x. h , m x.m h
h .
PV 1 , x. h , m x.m h
3
.
2c
h .
x. h , m x.m h
3
.
2c
m h c2
h
It follows that,
PV 1 , x. h , m x.m h
3 . . .
.
1 . 2 c G mx mh .
K PV x. h , m x.m h
x. h
. x. h
1 .
x. h
2 .c .G.m x.m h
. x. h
2 .c .G.
1 .
x. h
. K
.
.
PV x h , m x m h
x
2 .c .G. .m h
1 .
2
. K
.
.
PV x h , m x m h
.
.
xh
x. h
.m
h
2
. K
.
.
PV x h , m x m h
. x. h
c . 1.
K PV x. h , m x.m h
x. h
PV 1 , x. h , m x.m h
c . 1.
K PV x. h , m x.m h
x. h
. 1. K
.
.
PV x h , m x m h
x
. 1. K
.
.
PV x h , m x m h
x
261
Performing substitutions yields,

U m x. h , m x.m h
U x. h , m x.m h
U m x. h , m x.m h
h .
PV 1 , x. h , m x.m h
3
.
2c
U m x. h , m x.m h
h .
PV 1 , x. h , m x.m h
3
.
2c
U m x. h , m x.m h
4
U m x. h , m x.m h
4
3
h . h. 1.
K PV x. h , m x.m h
3
2 .c x
3.
2 . . .c x
.K
.
.
PV x h , m x m h
3
4
3
2 . . .c . x U m x. h , m x.m h
.
4
.
h h
K PV x. h , m x.m h
.K
.
.
PV x h , m x m h
h . h
3
U m x. h , m x.m h
3
4
3
2 . . .c . x
3
h . h. 1.
K PV x. h , m x.m h
3
.
2c
x
U m x. h , m x.m h
h . h

3
h . h. 1
3
2 .c x
h . h
.
1 = 6.66133810
14
(%)
3
4
3
2 . . .c . x
3
. h . h. 1
4
3
2 .c x
h . h
.
1 = 6.66133810
14
(%)
3
4
3
2 . . .c . x
Evaluating,
3
4
3
2 . . .c . x
.U . , m .m = 8
m x h x h
4
.
h h

3
4
3
2 . . .c . x
.U . , m .m
m x h x h
4
.
h h
.
8 = 8.88178410
13
(%)
3
4
3
2 . . .c . x
h . h
= 6.619576
10
87
YPa
. 87 ( YPa)
U m x. h , m x.m h = 1.20853710
262
Simplifying,
U m x. h , m x.m h
U x. h , m x.m h
8
K PV x. h , m x.m h
K PV x. h , m x.m h
2. 2.
U x. h , m x.m h
U m x. h , m x.m h
Recognising that the EGM spectrum converges to a single mode for a SPBH yields,
x. h , m x.m h
n x. h , m x.m h
12
x. h , m x.m h
4. 3
4
.
x h , m x.m h
1 1
4 . 3 = 6.928203
x. h , m x.m h
108.
U m x. h , m x.m h
U x. h , m x.m h
12. 768 81.
U m x. h , m x.m h
U x. h , m x.m h
4. 3
By inspection, the only solution which satisfies this equation is,

U m x. h , m x.m h
U x. h , m x.m h
Checking yields,
3
108.0
2
12. 768 81.0 = 6.928203
Therefore,
2. 2
K PV x. h , m x.m h
K PV R BH, M BH
Undefined
K PV x. h , m x.m h
ii. KDepp = KPV
K Depp ( r , M )
1
2 .G.M
r .c
r .c
K PV( r , M )
2 .G.M
2 .G.M
r .c
K Depp ( r , M )
K Depp ( r , M )
K PV( r , M )
K Depp ( r , M )
r .c
K Depp R E, M E = 1.00000000069601
K PV R E, M E = 1.00000000069601
K PV( r , M )
263
2 .G.M
r .c
r .c
r .c
2 .G.M
R BH
2 .G .
M BH
2
c
K PV R BH, M BH
2 .G.M BH
2 .G .
2
M BH.c
2
c
K Depp x. h , m x.m h
1
.
2 G.m x.m h
K Depp x. h , m x.m h
m h c2
Undefined
1
.
2 G.m x c2
.
1
2 G
.
xc
2
x. h .c
K Depp R BH, M BH
mx
2 .m x
x
2.
x 0
Undefined
Undefined
5. _3
M
St G.
5
r
St G.
m x.m h
x. h
St G m h
.
3
5
.
4x h
3
4 .
3
4 .
.h
x
2
h .m h
.h
St G.
9
St G .
m x.m h
15 . 2
_3 x. h , m x.m h
3
x
St G.
1.
15 2
2 . 2
x. h
3
m h .c
.h
St G.
3
4 .
St G.
.m
h
x. h
9 m
. c . h
2 5
h
15 2
2 .
.m
h
h .m h
.h
m x.m h
x. h
St G m h
.
3
5
4 . x h
2
5
4
c . h
9
15 2
2 .
x. h
3
4 .
2
c .m h
.
h
x
x. h
St G.
5
4
c . h
.
9 m
. c . h
2 5
h
2
1
m x.m h
.
h
.
1 = 1.11022310
m x.m h
x. h
St G.
. 1 .
h
x 26 .2
1.
2
13
(%)
m x.m h
x. h
3
x
15 2
2 .
1. 1 . 3
. 1 .
.
h
h
2 2 4 . x
x 26 .2
2
1. 1 . 3
.
h
2 2 4 . x
1
9
.
2
2.
3 .
h
.
4x
9
St G .
m x.m h
.
5
x. h
264
1
9
2.
.
2
3 .
h
.
4x
.
1 = 1.11022310
13
(%)
1. 1 .
2 2
4. 4.
1. 3 . 6
4 25 3
m x.m h
9
St G .
x. h
5
9
. 1 . 3 . 6 .
h
4 25 3
_3 x. h , m x.m h
9
1. 3 . 6 .
h
4 25 3
3
3 .
2
_3 x. h , m x.m h
.
1 = 1.11022310
.
1 = 1.11022310
13
13
(%)
. 18 ( YHz)
_3 x. h , m x.m h = 1.87219710
(%)
1. 3 . 6 .
h
4 25 3
1.
. 18 ( YHz)
h = 1.84996810
4
e
1
1.
1 . e
x 1
= 2.698589
.
1 = 4.43474910
_3 x. h , m x.m h
PV 1 , x. h , m x.m h
PV 1 , x. h , m x.m h
(%)
n _2 x. h , m x.m h = 1
n _3 x
n _3 x = 1
1 = 1.18731904721517( % )
4 _3 x. h , m x.m h
_3 x. h , m x.m h
6. _4
9
_4 M BH
M BH
St G.
2 .G.M BH
c
c.
5
c .St G
5
3
( 2 .G) .M BH
_4 M BH
St BH.
c .St G
5
( 2 .G)
_4 m x.m h
3
St BH
c.
1
M BH
_4 M S
10
_4 10 .M S
265
. 18
1.87219710
= 6.23977510
. 5
( YHz)
289.624693
7. rS
i. rS(xh)
m( r , M )
3 .M
m x. h , m x.m h
4 . .r
m x. h , m x.m h
3 .m h
.
1 = 2.22044610
14
3.
3 .m x.m h
x
2
4 . . x. h
.m
h
3 .m h
4 . . x. h
3 .M BH
m r S , M BH
(%)
2
3
8 . . x . h
4 . .r S
2
3
8 . . x . h
M BH
m x. h , m x.m h
m r S , M BH
R BH( M )
2 .G. x
rS
r S M BH
x. h
2 .G. x
.M
. . 2.
BH h 2 x
= 1.195378 10
32 .
kg
.
= 5.63257510
94
M BH
r S R BH
mh
r S x. h
am
2 .G.M
c
2
2 .G. x
m h c2
2
3
2 . x . h
rS
M BH
mh
2
x. h .R BH
2
x. h . x. h
x. h
ii. rS(), rS(R)

3
m x. h , m x.m h
r S M BH
r S R BH
2
3 .c .R BH
8 . .G. S
2
x. h .R BH M S
3
2.
3 .c R BH M S
8 . .G. S
1
rS MS
3 .M BH
4 . . S
3
3
3.
4 . .r S
2
x. h .R BH M S
3
2.
3 .c R BH M S
8 . .G. S
rS MS
1 = 0 (%)
2
c .R BH
2 .G
1=
.
3.28046310
5.
r S 10 M S
10
r S 10 .M S
266
0.015227
2
3 .c .R BH
8 . .G.r S
.
1.11022310
14
.
1.11022310
14
(%)
( am)
0.706754
m r S m x.m h , m x.m h
m r S M S ,M S
1 .
5
5
S m r S 10 .M S , 10 .M S
1=
.
1.29896110
12
.
8.32667310
13
.
7.66053910
13
.
6.7723610
10
10
m r S 10 .M S , 10 .M S
(%)
13
U m r S M S ,M S
.
8.10462810
1
. U m r S 105 .M S , 105 .M S
.
.
U m x h,m x mh
10
10
U m r S 10 .M S , 10 .M S
m r S m x.m h , m x.m h
.
7.2164510
13
.
6.7723610
13
(%)
U m x. h , m x.m h
m r S M BH , M BH
10
r S 10 .M S
r uq = 0.768186 ( am)
1=
13
U m r S M BH , M BH
1 = 7.996993 ( % )
r uq
iii. MBH(rS)
4. .
3
S .r S
3
M BH r S
M BH r tq
. 10
= 2.27391910
. 40 ( kg )
M BH r tq = 4.52155110
M BH r uq
MS
. 10
= 1.28408510
MS
M BH r
M BH r
M BH r
M BH r
. 13 1.62379510
. 19 1.60185510
. 19 1.57097210
. 13
4.66247210
M BH r
M BH r en
M BH r n
M BH r n
. 13 2.45782610
. 7
5.19529810
1 . M
BH r uq
M BH r dq
M BH r sq
M BH r cq
= 1.28408510
. 10 2.95005410
. 10 1.9828610
. 10 3.68186410
. 10
M BH r bq
M BH r tq
M BH r W
. 10 2.27391910
. 10 5.99684310
. 10 3.39015710
. 10
3.47948910
M BH r H
M BH r
M BH r gg
M BH r Z
1 .( kg )
MS
. 10
2.3560510
. 9 2.12850410
. 11
7.96867110
14.554628
. 6
5.06892810
R BH M BH r n
16.217926
.
7.67248410
R BH M BH r sq
R BH M BH r cq
= 4.00847210
.
R BH M BH r tq
R BH M BH r W
R BH M BH r Z
0.010862
R BH M BH r
R BH M BH r gg
R BH( 1.( kg ) )
.
7.35477510
R BH M BH r
R BH M BH r
R BH M BH r
R BH M BH r
R BH M BH r
R BH M BH r en
R BH M BH r n
R BH M BH r uq
R BH M BH r dq
R BH M BH r bq
R BH M BH r H
_4 m x.m h
5
_4 10 .M S
10
_4 10 .M S
. 5
6.23977510
.
9.2090510
.
7.0983910
U m x. h , m x.m h
. 18
1.87219710
_4 M S
. 4
1.34431910
5
5
U m R BH 10 .M S , 10 .M S
289.624693
10
10
U m R BH 10 .M S , 10 .M S
267
. 6
5.0004410
4.904034
.
2.48754410
0.066445
.
6.18980410
0.011494 ( Lyr)
0.01872
0.010583
. 87
1.20853710
U m R BH M S , M S
( YHz)
. 12
1.65639710
( YPa)
165.639685
.
1.65639710
r S mh
1 . r m .m
S x h
h
x
r S m x.m h
R BH m x.m h
144.219703
1=
.
4.21884710
(%)
13
.
1 = 4.44089210
M BH r
1 = 22.109851 ( % )
M BH r e
R BH m h
(%)
. 43
9.27104510
M BH r
r S mh
13
M BH r Bohr
. 49
3.22881910
. 51
1.26038310
( kg )
. 63
8.34661610
8. r RBH
i. n n_4, n_5, nBH
n _4 M BH
n BH M BH
n _5 M BH
n _5 M BH
n _4 M BH
n _4 m x.m h
n _5 m x.m h
n BH m x.m h
n _4 M S
n _5 M S
n BH M S
5
n _4 10 .M S
5
n _5 10 .M S
5
n BH 10 .M S
10
n _4 10 .M S
10
n _5 10 .M S
10
n BH 10 .M S
R BH M S
R bh
rS MS
200
R bh
1
=
. 5 9.00254210
. 24 2.56419310
. 19
3.51086810
. 6 1.93953910
. 28 1.0035610
. 22
1.93265910
. 7 4.1786110
. 31 3.92767810
. 24
1.06388810
r S M S , R bh .. R BH M S
Harmonic Cut-Off Mode vs Radial Disp.
Harmonic Cut-Off Mode
rS MS
R BH M S
n _2 R bh , M S
5
n _2 R bh , 10 .M S
10
n _2 R bh , 10 .M S
n _4 M S
R bh
Radial Displacement
Schwarzschild-Black-Hole (1 Solar Mass)

Schwarzschild-Black-Hole (10^5 Solar Masses)
268
ii. _5, BH
_5 M BH
_3 r S M BH , M BH
_4 m x.m h
. 5
6.23977510
5
_4 10 .M S
10
_4 10 .M S
. 18
1.87219710
_5 M S
( YHz)
5
_5 10 .M S
289.624693
10
_5 10 .M S
BH M S
. 13
7.30358710
10
BH 10 .M S
_4 M BH
. 4
1.34431910
BH m x.m h
=
_5 M BH
_5 m x.m h
. 18
1.87219710
_4 M S
5
BH 10 .M S
BH M BH
. 19
4.55727410
. 19
6.9805610
( YHz)
. 20
1.06924110
. 15
5.19263810
. 17
3.69181510
_5 m x.m h
_5 M S
1 .
5
h _5 10 .M S
10
_5 10 .M S
_4 m x.m h
0.253004
_4 M S
5
_4 10 .M S
10
_4 10 .M S
0.253004
.
6.158585 8.43227510
14
.
9.433354 1.81667910
15
14.44945
Harmonic Cut-Off Freq. vs Radial Disp.
Harmonic Cut-Off Frequency
rS MS
R BH M S
_3 R bh , m x .m h
_3 R bh , M S
5
_3 R bh , 10 .M S
10
_3 R bh , 10 .M S
R bh
Radial Displacement
269
iii. _6, _7, PV_1

_6 M BH
_5 M BH
n _4 M BH
PV_1 M BH
_4 M BH
_7 M BH
n _5 M BH
_6 M BH
_7 M BH
_6 m x.m h
_7 m x.m h
. 42 1.87219710
. 42
1.87219710
_6 M S
_7 M S
. 38 6.93112610
. 4
1.29804810
5
_6 10 .M S
5
_7 10 .M S
10
_6 10 .M S
10
_7 10 .M S
PV_1 m x.m h
. 37
3.61189510
( Hz)
0.693113
. 37 6.93112610
.
1.00503110
PV_1 M S
=
5.
PV_1 10 M S
. 33
1.8727810
.
5.21112310
37
10
PV_1 10 .M S ( Hz)
= 5.103269
. 42
1.45002610
10
PV_1 10 .M S
Fundamental Freq. vs Radial Disp.

rS MS
R BH M S
Fundamental Frequency
_3 R bh , m x .m h
n _2 R bh , m x .m h
_3 R bh , M S
n _2 R bh , M S
5
_3 R bh , 10 .M S
5
n _2 R bh , 10 .M S
_3 R bh , 10
n _2 R bh , 10
10 .
MS
10 .
MS
R bh
Radial Displacement
270
9. TL
M .c
E( M )
n , M BH
1.
n , M BH
2
E g( )
h .
E ( )
E g ( ) E x.E ( )
E M BH
E M BH
n g , M BH
E ( )
E M BH
E M BH
E x.E ( )
E m x.m h = 6.616163 ( GJ)
2 .E ( )
n _4 m x.m h , m x.m h
n g _4 m x.m h , m x.m h
Ex
= 6.616163 ( GJ)
P g _4 m x.m h
n ( M )
E g _4 m x.m h
= 1.240531 ( GJ)
P _4 m x.m h
= 8.275929 ( Ns )
2 .n gg ( M )
T _3( r , M )
T L r S x. h , m x.m h
10
10
T L r S 10 .M S , 10 .M S
m
m gg
3.195095
6.39019
P g( )
10
=2
E g( )
c
45 .
T L( r , M )
_3( r , M )
n gg ( M )
eV
E( M )
m gg
n gg ( M ) .T _3( r , M )
n g _3( r , M ) , M
9
10 .yr
. 13
4.10173110
. 13
4.10173110
T L r uq , m uq
. 13
4.10173110
T L R BH M S , M S
10
10
T L R BH 10 .M S , 10 .M S
E g _4 m x.m h
E _4 m x.m h
= 2.481061 ( GJ)
= 4.137964 ( Ns )
. 13
4.10173110
T L R BH x. h , m x.m h
5
5
T L R BH 10 .M S , 10 .M S
43 .
. 13
4.10173110
T L r S M S ,M S
5
5
T L r S 10 .M S , 10 .M S
2 .E M BH
2
n , M BH .E ( )
2.666667
n g _4 m x.m h , m x.m h .E g _4 m x.m h
E ( )
1.
n , M BH
2
5.333333
= 6.616163 ( GJ)
P ( )
_4 M BH
T _4 m x.m h = 5.341319 10
n _4 m x.m h , m x.m h .E _4 m x.m h
E _4 m x.m h
n g , M BH
E g( )
1.
n , M BH
2
E g( )
T _4 M BH
. 13
4.10173110
.
4.10173110
13
9
10 .yr
T L r , m e
T L r , m p
T L r ,mn
. 13
4.10173110
271
. 13
4.10173110
=
. 13
4.10173110
.
4.10173110
13
9
10 .yr
. 13
4.10173110
1
m
h.
. 13
4.10173110
.
4.10173110
13
m
T L x. h , m x.m h
. m
gg
h
2
9.
10 yr
m gg
H0
71.
km
.
s Mpc
TL
h
m
.
T L.H 0 = 2.97830810
12
10. g, ngg
T PV n PV, r , M
T g n PV, r , M
n g PV n PV, r , M , M
T PV n PV, r , M
T PV n PV, r , M
PV n PV, r , M .n g PV n PV, r , M , M
PV n PV, r , M .n g PV n PV, r , M , M
g n PV, r , M
g n PV, r , M
1
PV n PV, r , M . .n PV n PV, r , M , M
2
E( M )
1
PV n PV, r , M . .
2 E PV n PV, r , M
1
E( M )
PV n PV, r , M . .
2 E PV n PV, r , M
1
E( M )
PV n PV, r , M . .
2 h . PV n PV, r , M
g m x.m h
E( M )
2 .h
10
g 10 .M S
. 56
1.34855310
. 61
1.34855310
E MS
1 .
5
m gg E 10 .M S
10
E 10 .M S
M .c
2 .h
n gg ( M )
5
n gg 10 .M S
10
n gg 10 .M S
T L. g ( M )
. 72
6.46222510
n gg M S
( YHz)
. 66
1.34855310
E m x.m h
g( M )
n gg m x.m h
. 18
4.99252510
g MS
5
g 10 .M S
1
E( M )
PV n PV, r , M . .
.
2 h PV n PV, r , M
. 110
1.7455410
. 115
1.7455410
. 120
1.7455410
. 72
6.46222510
=
. 110
1.7455410
. 115
1.7455410
. 120
1.7455410
272
11. BHs
r0
9
r 0 = 13.772016 10 .Lyr
H0
St G.
r _3 , M
VL VL
VL( 750 ( nm ) )
VL
VL( 400 ( nm ) )
_3 r 0 , M S
VL( 400 ( nm ) )
VL( 750 ( nm ) )
5
_3 r 0 , 10 .M S
5
_3 r 0 , 10 .M S
VL( 400 ( nm ) )
VL( 750 ( nm ) )
10 .
218.810356
410.269418
. 4 6.84370610
. 4
3.64997710
_3 r 0 , 10 M S
VL( 400 ( nm ) )
VL( 750 ( nm ) )
4
_3 1.63.10 .r 0 , M S
4
_3 5.052.10 .r 0 , M S
VL( 400 ( nm ) )
VL( 750 ( nm ) )
6
5
_3 1.63.10 .r 0 , 10 .M S
6
5
_3 5.052.10 .r 0 , 10 .M S
VL( 400 ( nm ) )
VL( 750 ( nm ) )
_3 1.63.10 r 0 , 10 M S
10 .
8.
_3 5.052.10 r 0 , 10
VL( 400 ( nm ) )
10
C _J1 r 0 , 10 .M S
( THz)
. 3 5.29883310
. 3
= 2.82604410
10 .
MS
5
C _J1 r 0 , 10 .M S
749.481145
27.355887
_3 r 0 , M S
C _J1 r 0 , M S
399.723277
= 2.118067 ( EHz)
10
_3 r 0 , 10 .M S
8.
0.163994
5
_3 r 0 , 10 .M S
_3 r 0 , 10
H0
_3
_3 r 0 , M S
9
= 13.772016 10 .yr
0.999916 1.000078
= 0.999916 1.000078
0.999916 1.000078
10 .
MS
VL( 750 ( nm ) )
.
1.48429110
= 8.89809310
.
10
20 .
yJy
5.334267
1
10
C _J1 r 0 , 10 .M S .
C _J1 r 0 , M S
1
. 5
3.59381410
599.48425
5
C _J1 r 0 , 10 .M S
273
r VL( 400 ( nm ) ) , M S
r VL( 750 ( nm ) ) , M S
5
r VL( 400 ( nm ) ) , 10 .M S
5
r VL( 750 ( nm ) ) , 10 .M S
10
r VL( 400 ( nm ) ) , 10 .M S
10
r VL( 750 ( nm ) ) , 10 .M S
r VL( 400 ( nm ) ) , M S
5
r 30.( EHz) , 10 .M S
10
r 30.( PHz) , 10 .M S
10
r 30.( EHz) , 10 .M S
C _J1 r 30.( PHz) , 10 M S , 10 M S

10
10
C _J1 r 30.( PHz) , 10 .M S , 10 .M S
C _J1 r 30.( EHz) , 10 M S , 10 M S

10
10
C _J1 r 30.( EHz) , 10 .M S , 10 .M S
. 6
2.95234410
0.741144
( Lyr)
16 .
yJy
= 2.12751776034345
.103 8.46980075872643
.10
.105
2.12751776034345
= 2.93002110
.
0.846980075872643
1.166462
116.646228
6
10 .Lyr
. 9 1.16646210
. 4
2.93002110
2.164916
.
= 2.16491610
.
2.16491610
C _J1 r 30.( EHz) , M S , M S

5.
0.239057
. 5
2.93002110
C _J1 r 30.( PHz) , M S , M S

5.
10
.10
21.2751776034345 8.46980075872643
10
r 30.( EHz) , 10 .M S
5
r 30.( PHz) , 10 .M S
r 30.( EHz) , m x.m h
1.102778
5
r 30.( EHz) , 10 .M S
r 30.( EHz) , M S
r 30.( PHz) , m x.m h
28.979765
r 30.( PHz) , M S
5.
. 8 5.05271110
. 8
1.62975410
r VL( 750 ( nm ) ) , m x.m h
r 30.( EHz) , M S
5.
= 1.62975410
. 6 5.05271110
. 6
r VL( 400 ( nm ) ) , m x.m h
C _J1 r VL( 750 ( nm ) ) , m x.m h , m x.m h
1 . r 30.( PHz) , 105 .M
S
r0
10
r 30.( PHz) , 10 .M S
. 4 5.05271110
. 4
1.62975410
10
r VL( 750 ( nm ) ) , 10 .M S
9
10 .Lyr
9
. 9
2.2445.10 6.95860210
5
r VL( 750 ( nm ) ) , 10 .M S
1.
10
( Lyr) , 10 .M S = 1.031709
10
r 30.( PHz) , M S
= 2.2445.107 6.95860210
. 7
r VL( 750 ( nm ) ) , M S
1 . r ( 400 ( nm ) ) , 105 .M
VL
S
r0
10
r VL( 400 ( nm) ) , 10 .M S
K PV
5
. 5
2.2445.10 6.95860210
10
29 .
10
14 .
yJy
8.618686
.
= 8.61868610
.
8.61868610
yJy
3
10 .km
11.753495
7
C _J1 r 30.( PHz) , m x.m h , m x.m h = 6.228302 10 .yJy
C _J1 r 30.( EHz) , m x.m h , m x.m h = 2.479532 ( fJy )
274
vii. Fundamental Cosmology

1. H, HU
i. AU, RU, HU
5
C _J1 r 1 , M 1
C _J1( r , M )
M
St J .
26
r
ln
C _J1 r 1 , M 1
C _J1 r 2 , M 2
y r 2, M 2
ln
M1
ln
M2
r2
r1
M1
r1
K U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
ln
ln
A U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
H U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
ln
r2
26
ln
ri
C _J1 r 1 , M 1
C _J1 r 2 , M 2
y r 2 , M 2 .r 3
y r 2, M 2
.M
3
2
5
y M3
r
.
. 1 . 2
2 M2
y r3
C _J1 r 2 , M 2
y M3
r
.
. 1 . 2
2 M2
y r3
rf
r1
C _J1 r 3 , M 3
26
26
y r 2, M 2
.M
C _J1 y r 2 , M 2 .r 3 ,
3
2
C _J1 r 2 , M 2
5
K U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
M2
26
ln n _2 r 2 , M 2
C _J1 r 2 , M 2
M1
C _J1 r 2 , M 2
C _J1 r 3 , M 3
1
2
.ln n
_2 r 2 , M 2
TL
K U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
3.
M3
26
M2
r2
r3
R U r 2, r 3 , M 2, M 3
c .A U r 2 , r 3 , M 2 , M 3
9
A U K .R o , x. h , K m.M G, m x.m h = 14.575885 10 .yr
A U r 2, r 3 , M 2, M 3
9
R U K .R o , x. h , K m.M G, m x.m h = 14.575885 10 .Lyr
H U K .R o , x. h , K m.M G, m x.m h = 67.084304

1 .
H0
km
s .Mpc
1 = 5.515064 ( % )
275
H U R o , x. h , M G, m x.m h
H U R o , h , M G, m h
66.700842
H U K .R o , h , K m.M G, m h
70.06923
H U R o , x. h , M G, m x.m h
1 .
H0
km
.
s Mpc
= 69.672169
6.055152
H U R o , h , M G, m h
1=
1.870184 ( % )
1.310944
1
km
H U K .R o , x. h , .K m.M G, m x.m h = 67.753267
.
3
s Mpc
1
H U K .R o , h , .K m.M G, m h
3
1=
0.978843
0.987352
(%)
1
H U K .R o , x. h , .K m.M G, m x.m h
3
ii. H
3 .H
m
8 . .G
2
H r 3, M 3
2.
. 61
H x. h , m x.m h = 8.46094110
x
H x. h , m x.m h .
h
2. . .
G m r 3, M 3
3
H x. h , m x.m h
km
s .Mpc
.
1 = 4.44089210
14
.
= 8.46094110
61
h
x
km
s .Mpc
(%)
iii. U
3 .H U r 2 , r 3 , M 2 , M 3
8 . .G
U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
U K .R o , x. h , K m.M G, m x.m h
U K .R o , h , K m.M G, m h
3 .H 0
8.453235
= 9.222226
10
33 .
kg
3
cm
9.468862
8 . .G
Hence,
8.45 U . 10
33 .
kg
9.23
cm
276
iv. MU
M U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
V R U r 2 , r 3 , M 2 , M 3 . U r 2 , r 3 , M 2 , M 3
. 52 ( kg )
M U K .R o , x. h , K m.M G, m x.m h = 9.28458610
2. TU
K T r 2, r 3 , M 2, M 3
_3 r 3 , M 3
n g _3 r 3 , M 3 , M 3 .ln
T0
_3 r 3 , M 3
T W r 2, r 3, M 2 , M 3
T U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
H r 3, M 3
H U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
2.725.( K )
.
K W = 2.89776910
( m.K )
KW
_3 R U r 2 , r 3 , M 2 , M 3 , M 3
K T r 2 , r 3 , M 2 , M 3 .T W r 2 , r 3 , M 2 , M 3
T U K .R o , x. h , K m.M G, m x.m h = 2.724752 ( K )
1 .
.
1 = 9.08391310
(%)
T0
T U R o , x. h , M G, m x.m h
T U R o , h , M G, m h
2.716201
= 1.199134 ( K )
T U K .R o , h , K m.M G, m h
1.202877
T U R o , x. h , M G, m x.m h
1 .
T0
T U R o , h , M G, m h
T U K .R o , h , K m.M G, m h
0.322893
1=
55.995089 ( % )
55.857737
1
T U K .R o , x. h , .K m.M G, m x.m h = 2.739618 ( K )
3
1 = 0.542607 ( % )
1
T U K .R o , x. h , .K m.M G, m x.m h
3
277
3. TU TU2
9
_3( r , M )
_3( r , M )
M
St G.
5
r
c
c x.
_3 ,
mh
H 2
1 .
St G
c.
8 . H r 3, M 3
ln
3
H
K T( H ) .T W ( H )
h
8.
.
ln
3
x.H
h
8.
.
ln
3
x.H
.m
h
1 .
2
St G x.m h
. c
H
_3
KW
T U2( H ) K T( H ) .T W ( H )
c x.
mh
_3 ,
H 2
c x.
,
mh
H 2
h
8.
.
ln
3
x.H
c x.
,
mh
H 2
KW
9
c.
1 .
2
St G x.m h
. c
H
c.
1 .
2
St G x.m h
. c
H
h
.m
8 .K W .
. St . x h
ln
G
3 c
2
x.H
.
H = 8.46094110
km
.
s Mpc
. H
c
h
.m
8 KW.
. St . x h
T U2( H ) .
ln
G
3 c
2
x.H
9
.
8 . St G . x m h
St T
5
3 .c
2
c
8 .
3 .c
61
3.
KW
KW
KW
c.
T W( H)
h
8.
.
ln
3
x.H
_3
K T( H )
1 . r
St G M 2
c.
3 . h
4 . .h
c
. c
2
3.
.
8 . St G . x m h
5
3 .c
2
c
8 .
3 .c
3 . h
4 . .h
c
. c
2
. H
c
x.m h
x.m h
2
.
8 .c . 3 . 3 h
3 .c 2 c5 4 . .h
x.m h
278
.
8 .c . 3 . 3 h
3 .c 2 c5 4 . .h
9
4.
3
3
4 .c
x.m h
4.
6 5
2 .c
3
4 .c
4.
m
. h. x
.h h
4. 3. . x
c
3 4
.h .G
T U2( H )
. x .c
.h G
3
x
4. 3. .
c
2
3
3 4
.c . h
K W .St T .ln
h
x.H
x.m h . h
.h
4.
6 5
2 .c
4.
3
3
4 .c
4.
.h
4. 3. 1 . x
3 4 c5 . 2
h
4.
3
mh x
.
.h h
3
3 . x
c.
4
.h .G
2
9
. 95
St T = 6.35557910
5
9
T U2 H U K .R o , x. h , K m.M G, m x.m h
. H5
3
4 .c
. x .c
.h G
St T
x.m h . h
= 2.72475246336977( K )
4. TU2 Ro, MG, HU2, U2

R o
0.5.( kpc )
T U2 H U2 R o , M G
T U2 H 0
T U2 H U2 R o
1 .
T U2 H U2 R o , M G
T0
= 2.724752 ( K )
1
T U2 H U2 R o , .M G
3
T U2 H U2 R o
H U K .r , x. h , K m.M , m x.m h
H U2( r , M )
2.739618
( K)
2.810842
1
R o , .K m.M G
3
1
R o , .K m.M G
3
2.733025
2.741859
.
1 = 9.08391310
T U2 H U2 R o
R o , M G
T U2 H U2 R o
R o , M G
T 0
( K)
Computational environment initialisation values
2.720213
2.729021
(%)
( K)
0.001.( K )
r x1
m g1
r x2
m g2
Given
T U2 H U2 r x1.R o , M G
T U2 H U2 R o , m g1 .M G
T0
T 0
r x1
r x1
r x2
r x2
m g1
m g2
Find r x1, r x2, m g1 , m g2
m g1
T0
T 0
0.989364
=
m g2
279
1.017883
1.057292
0.911791
2.724
=
2.726
R o.
( K)
2.724
r x1
r x2
7.914908
8.143063
( kpc )
2.726
. 11
M G m g1
6.34375310
.
=
M S m g2
. 11
5.47074910
r x1 m g1
1.063645 5.729219
1=
r x2 m g2
1.788292
8.820858
(%)
Given
T 0
T0
r x3
r x3
r x4
r x4
m g3
2.724
2.726
1.013348
0.977007
0.977007
m g4
T 0
0.984956
m g3
m g4
T0
R o.
( K)
. 11
M G m g3
5.8620410
.
=
M S m g4
. 11
5.8620410
r x3
r x4
7.879647
8.106786
r x3 m g3
r x4 m g4
1=
( kpc )
1.50441 2.29934
1.334822 2.29934
(%)
Hence, if T0 is exactly correct (i.e. zero experimental uncertainty); Ro, MG and HU2
may be approximated as follows,
Given
r x5
m g5
Find r x1, m g1
r x5.R o = 8.107221 ( kpc )
T0
r x5
m g5
m g5 .
H U2 r x5.R o , m g5 .M G = 67.095419
MG
1.013403
1.052361
.
= 6.31416710
11
MS
r x5
m g5
1=
1.340256
5.236123
= 2.725 ( K )
( %)
km
.
s Mpc
m R U K .R o , x. h , K m.M G, m x.m h , M U K .R o , x. h , K m.M G, m x.m h
= 8.453235 10
33 .
kg
3
cm
280
5. UZPF
EGM
PDG
EGM
PDG
3 .H U2( r , M )
U2( r , M )
U2 R o , M G = 8.453235 10
8 . .G
EGM = 1.000331
U2 R o , M G
.
ZPF = 3.31400710
U ZPF
3 .c .
H U2 R o , M G
ZPF .
8 . .G
13 .
U ZPF = 2.51778 10
EGM
U ZPF = 251.778016
Pa
fJ
U ZPF = 251.778016
U ZPF = 842.934914
kg
3
PDG m ..
ZPF
= 0.997339
33 .
cm
U2 r x5.R o , m g5 .M G
1.003
U ZPF = 251.778016( fPa )
yJ
U ZPF = 0.251778
mJ
3
mm
km
EJ
. 12
U ZPF = 7.39723510
AU
YJ
pc
YJ
. 41
U ZPF = 6.60189810
viii. Advanced Cosmology

1. n_2 n_6
9
n _6( r , M )
.
.
3
3 . mh . K r
.
16
2 KmM h
9
9
1
6.
.
3
3 .K m h . r
16
M
h
2
2 .
3
3 . . m h . r
16 2
M
h
2
n _6( r , M )
3 . . m h
4
.m h
. r
M
h
3
( 3 . ) . m h . r
18
M h
2
1
3 .
16
2
2
.
.
3
3 . mh . K r
.
16
2 KmM h
3 .
16
2
2
9
7 9
6. .
3
3 .K m h . r
16
M
h
2
.m h
. r
M
h
3
( 3 . ) . m h . r
18
M h
2
1.
4
2 .
3
3 . . m h . r
16 2
M
h
2
3 mh
. r
( 3 . ) .
M h
. r
h
281
2. KU2 KU3
K U2( r , M )
ln
K
x
.ln n
_6( r , M )
mh
26
9
. r
h
4 .M
K U3( r , M ) ln ( 3 . )
2 .
ln n _6( r , M )
256
3.
( 3 . )
7 18
6.
256
26
9
. r
h
mh
5
7 18
6.
3. HU2 HU3, TU2 TU3

K U2( r , M )
H U3( r , M )
TL
7
5
7 18
5
6
2
ln ( 3 . ) .
256
.ln n
_6( r , M )
3.
mh
M
7 18
5
6
2
. r
h
26
ln ( 3 . ) .
.ln
3 . . m h
256
. r
h
mh
M
26
. r
h
7
7
1 . 18 . . 6 .
2 ( 3 ) ln
256
K U3( r , M )
ln
T U3( r , M )
T U2 H U3( r , M )
3
( 3 . ) . m h
. r
h
7
9
mh
M
26
. r
h
4. HU3 HU4, TU3 TU4

K U3( r , M )
H U4( r , M )
T U4( r , M )
TL
T U2 H U4( r , M )
5. HU4 HU5, TU4 TU5
H U5( r , M )
9
3
( 3 . )
.ln
7 . .
32
256
m
.
.ln ( 3 ) . h
4
M
7 .
. r
h
4 3 1.
St T . .
3 4 c5 . 2
h
St T
4 . 3
3
4
2
7 .
mh
M
5 .
. r
h
2
26 .
.1 .
c
x
. h
282
4 . 3
3
4
.1 .
c
x
. h
4 .1 . x
3 c5 . 2
h
6
h
x
H r 3, M 3
6
( 4 . ) .
.H . h
St T
1
c
St T
4 .1 . x
3 c5 . 2
h
1
c
1
.H
.
. 4
h
6
( 4 . ) .
2 .
.H . h
.
. 4
h
.H . h
.H . h
2 .
1
.H
T U5( r , M )
.H
.
. 4
h
KW
c
.ln
( 4 . ) .
6
( 4 . ) .
1.
1
.H
1
c
1
.H
.
. 4
H U5( r , M ) h
H
.
. 4
h
.
. 4
h
2 .
2 .
1
.H
. 2
.H ( r , M ) 5
U5
6. HU3, HU4, HU5, TU3, TU4, TU5

H U3 R o , M G
H U4 R o , M G
H U5 R o , M G
T U3 R o , M G
T U4 R o , M G
T U5 R o , M G
H U3 r x5.R o , m g5 .M G
= 67.084304 67.095419
T U3 r x5.R o , m g5 .M G
= 2.724752 2.725 ( K )
67.084304 67.095419
67.084304 67.095419
2.724752 2.725
2.724752 2.725
1 . H
U4 R o , M G
H0
H U5 R o , M G
T U3 R o , M G
1 . T
U4 R o , M G
T0
T U5 R o , M G
H U3 R o , M G
km
.
s Mpc
5.515064 5.499409
1=
5.515064 5.499409 ( % )
5.515064 5.499409
1=
.
9.08391310
.
8.37394610
.
9.08391310
.
8.37394610
.
9.08391310
.
8.37394610
(%)
7. Time dependent characteristics

T U3( H ) K W .St T .ln
H H .H
. H5
T U3 H
K W .St T .ln
1
H
. H .H

5 .
1 .
d
K W .St T .ln
H .H
dH
H
H _min ,
2
5 .
H _max H _min
1 .10
H e
2
5 .
.. H _max
T U3 H
283
H _min
10
H _max
K W .St T .ln
1
H
. H .H

5 .
T U3 e
2
5 .
. 31 ( K )
= 3.19551810
2
5 . .
. 61
H = 1.39858410
km
s .Mpc
2
5 . .
= 2.206287 10
H U2 R o , M G
42 .
= 7.928705 10
T U2 H
61
T U3( 1 )
( K)
Computational environment initialisation value H 2 56.4503086205567

Given
T U2 10
H 2
10
H 2
273.( K )
.H
H 2 = 56.450309
Find H 2
H 2
.H
.
= 1.02858610
14
10
(s)
10
H 2
H 2
.H
km
.
s Mpc
.H = 2.99992310
. 5
6
= 3.259461 10 .yr
T U2 10
H 2
.H
= 273 ( K )
See Fig. 4.22, 4.23.

1
H .H
T U3 H
1 . 1
K W .St T .
t t5
d
T U4( t )
dt
K W .St T .ln
t1
. 5 .ln H .t . 2
1 . 1
K W .St T .
2
5
t
t
dT2 dt2 ( t )
d t3
T U4( t )
2
5 .ln H .t .
5 .
K W .St T .
. 5 . 2 . ln H .t . 5 . 2
ln H .t . 5 .
2
2
5 . . ln H .t . 5 .
1 . 1
K W .St T .
3
5
t
t
. 5 .ln H .t . 2
.t
10 .
. 5 .
2
2.
5 .
1 . 1
K W .St T .
5
t
t
1 . 1
T U4( t ) K W .St T .
2
5
d t2
t
t
d
K W .St T .
dT dt ( t )
1
T U4( t ) K W .St T .ln H .t .
t
1
2
5 . .
5 .
. H .H

5 .
t2
2
2
5 . . 5 .
1
1
. 1
H
.t2
. 5 . 2 .ln H .t . 5 . 2 . 5 . 2
284
2
2
15. . 5 .
K W .St T .
1 . 1
t
2
2
15 . . 5 .
t3
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
. 5 . 2 .ln H .t . 5 . 2 . 5 . 2
dT2 dt2 t 2 = 0
4.196153
10
6.205726
dT2 dt2 t 1
dT2 dt2 t 2
. 114
2.02615310
. 112
8.77595210
dT2 dt2 t 3
K
3
. 72
1.05719310
. 71
9.25283810
dT3 dt3
. 116
7.65967810
. 74
1.32321810
dT dt t 3
dT dt t 2
t3
dT2 dt2
dT dt t 1
42 .
2
2
15. . 5 .
dT3 dt3 t 3 = 0
dT dt
0.364697
t2
K
s
2.206287
. 1
H
2
2
15. . 5 .
dT dt t 1 = 0
t1
2
2
2
5 . .ln H .t . 5 . . 5 . 3
2
K W .St T .
2
5 . . 3
t
t
dT3 dt3 ( t )
1
. 159
6.22716710
dT3 dt3 t 1
. 156
3.77545710
.
1.45285710
155
dT3 dt3 t 2
dT3 dt3 t 3
T U2 H
T U2
T U2
T U2
t1
=
1
t2
. 31
3.19551810
( K)
. 31
3.03432210
4
. 34 ( K )
T U2 10 .H = 7.41414610
. 31
2.83254210
1
t3
4
10 .H
= 0.364697 10
46 .
T U2 H U2 R o , M G
= 2.724752 ( K )
See Fig. 4.24 4.35.
285
T U3( H ) K W .St T .ln
H
. 2
d
d
.H5
K W .St T .ln
T U3( H )
dH
dH
H
. H5
5 .
H
. 2
d
.H5 K .St . H
K W .St T .ln
W T
dH
H
H
5 .
H
K W .St T .
d
d
T U3( H ) .
t
dH
d T U4( t )
5 .
5 .
( H .t )
2
5 . .
. 5 .ln H .t . 2
. 2
. 5 .ln
. 2
. 5 .ln H .t . 2
2
5 .ln H .t .
2
5 .ln H .t .
5 .ln
1 . 1
t t5
t . . 5 . 2 . . H . 2
(H t)
5 ln
H
H
. 5 .ln H .t . 2
. 2
. 5 .ln H .t . 2
. 2
1 . 1
t t5
. 5 .ln
d
H
dt
. 5 .ln
5 .
. 2
. 2
1 . 1
t t5
K W .St T .
. 5 .ln
. 5 .ln
1 . 1
K W .St T .
t t5
K W .St T .
d
H
dt
1
H .H
5 .ln H .
d
H
dt
H .
dH dt H
1
H .H
5 .
.
2
5 .ln
1
H .H
. 2
2
H .H
. 5 .ln 1 . 2
2
H
.
5
H
2
H .H
d
. 5 .ln 1 . 2
2
dH
H
5 .
H
1
. 2
.
H H
d
dH dt H
dH
2
H .H
d
. 5 .ln 1 . 2
2
dH
H
.
5
H
2
5 .
. 5 .ln 1 . 2 . 1
H
5 .
H
H
2
5 .
. 5 .ln 1 . 2 . 1
H
5 .
H e
2
2
5 . . 5 .
286
1
1
t4
2
2
5 . . 5 .
. 1
H
dH2 dt2
d t2
d
dt
d t2
2
5 .ln H .t .
.
. 2
5 .
( H .t )
t
5 .ln
. 2
1
1
d
dt
.
. 2
5 .
( H .t )
t
2
5 .ln H .t .
5 .ln
2
2
5 . . ln H .t . 5 .
. 2
. 2
5 .2
( H .t )
t
5 .ln
2
H
H .
1
H .H
2
5 . . ln H .
5 .
.
2
1
H .H
H .H
d
. 5. 2 . ln 1 . 5 . 2
2
dH
H
5 .
H
3
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
Let:
H H
ln
3
H .H
. 5 . 2 . 5. 2 . 5. 2 .ln 1
2
H
5 .
H
2 .ln
t5
ln
1
H
2 .ln
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
. 2
2
1
1
. 5 . 2
.
H H
5 .ln
3
H .H
. 5 . 2 . 5 . 2 . 5 . 2 .ln 1
2
H
5 .
H
H e
3
2
H .H
. 5 . 2 . ln 1 . 5 . 2
2
H
.
5
H
dH2 dt2 H
. 2
d t2
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
2
1
. 1
H
Computational environment initialisation value
4.595349
Given
dH dt
H U2 R o , M G
H
H U2 R o , M G
Find( )
287
t1
2
5 . .
H
10 .
t2
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
2
15 . . 5 .
t3 e
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
. 1
H
2.206287 2.206287
4.196153 4.196153
2
2
= 6.205726 6.205726
. 1
H
t5 e
8.385263 8.385263
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
2
5 . . 5 .
42 .
20.932666 20.932666
t4
10
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
. 1
H
2
. 1
H
1
dH dt t 1 .H
dH dt e
5 .
10 .
dH dt t 2 .H
dH dt e
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
2
15 . . 5 .
dH dt t 3 .H
dH dt e
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
2
3
dH dt t 4 .H
dH dt e
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
2
5 . . 5 .
dH dt t 5 .H
= 4.595349
dH dt e
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
dH dt
. 68
7.50137510
. 68
7.50137510
. 83
9.06689310
. 83
9.06689310
= 1.22575310
. 84
. 84
1.22575310
. 84
1.55351810
. 84
1.55351810
. 84
1.38436210
. 84
1.38436210
Hz
2
1
H U2 R o , M G
= 4.726505 10
36 .
Hz
288
dH2 dt2 t 1 .H
dH2 dt2 e
2
5 .
10 .
dH2 dt2 t 2 .H
2
2
5 . . 5 .
dH2 dt2 e
2
2
15 . . 5 .
dH2 dt2 t 3 .H
dH2 dt2 e
. 125
8.50679910
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
. 125
8.50679910
dH2 dt2 t 4 .H
dH2 dt2 e
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
2
5 . . 5 .
dH2 dt2 t 5 .H
dH2 dt2
dH2 dt2 e
. 125
1.16257810
. 124
8.2461110
. 124
8.2461110
. 125
1.33162810
. 125
1.33162810
Hz
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
.
1.16257810
125
H U2 R o , M G
= 0 Hz
See Fig. 4.36 4.45.

H
d
d 1
H
dt
dt t
1
t
1
t
d
H
dt
=1
dH dt 1
dH dt 1
H U2 R o , M G
dH dt
. 61
8.46094110
67.084257
km
.
s Mpc
See Fig. 4.46, 4.47.

d
H
dt
( H .t )
5 .
.
2
2
5 .ln H .t .
.t
5 .ln
5 .
. 5 .ln
. 2
2
5 .ln H .t .
1 dH
5 .
1
dt
.t
H
5 .
. 5 .ln
5 .
.ln
. 2
H
H
5 .
1 dH H
.ln
2
5 .ln H .t .
H
H
ln H .t
t
5 .
has the solution:
5 .
.t
1
dt
ln H .t
t
5 .
1
t
289
T U2
T U2
dH dt 1
dH dt
T U3( 1 )
T U3
dH dt
dH dt e
dH dt
T U2
dH dt
dH dt
T U3 e
2
2
5 . . 5 .
T U3 e
0
2
2
2
5 . . 5 .
. 31 3.19551810
. 31
2.97174510
2
2
15 . . 5 .
2
3
= 3.18632310
. 31 3.03432210
. 31 ( K )
. 31 2.83254210
. 31
3.18071410
5 .
10 .
T U3 e
T U3
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
H U2 R o , M G
T U2
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
( K)
T U3( 1 )
2
2
15 . . 5 .
T U2
0 2.724752
H U2 R o , M G
2
5 .
10 .
0 2.724751
dH dt 1
T U2
T U2
T U2
H U2 R o , M G
2
3
2.724751
2.724752
H U2 R o , M G
H
2
5 .
1 = 7.002696 ( % )
T U3 e
5 .
See Fig. 4.48, 4.49.
dH dt H
2
H .H
. 5 .ln
H
t7
t 7 = 2.206287 10
=1
t1
. 2
H e
2
5 .
42 .
H H
2
5 .
t7
2
5 . .
1
H
ln H
ln t 7 .H
ln H
ln t 1 .H
ln t 7 .H
ln t 1 .H
=1
2
H .e
. 5 .ln
2
5 .
1
5 .
5 .
. 2
. 68 Hz2
1 = 7.50137510
5 .
290
2.
dH dt H
H H
4 .
. 5 .ln 1 . 2
H
2.
5.
H e
5 .ln
5 .
H e
. 68 Hz2
1 = 7.50137510
2.
. 2
5.
5 .ln e
5 .
. 2
5 .ln
1 = 0 Hz
. 1
3
1
1
5.
1 =0
10
42
t 1 .10
8
Scaled Derivative (Hz^2)
4
dH dt H
10
79
2
0
0
2.20624
2.20625
2.20626
2.20627
2.20628
2.20629
2.2063
2.20631
2.20632
H .H
2.20633
2.20634
2.20635
2.20636
2.20637
2.20638
.1042
Scaled Cosmological Age (s)
H
=
dH dt t 4 .H
H U2 R o , M G
H0
. 123
1.47916710
71
km
s .Mpc
km
s .Mpc
.
1.55351810
84
H
dH dt
H U2 R o , M G
2
H0
291
.
3.84599410
61
. 84
7.51858710
. 61
8.46094110
dH dt t 4 .H
dH dt t 4 .H
. 123
7.15875210
67.084304
H
( Hz)
dH dt t 4 .H
.
1.24640210
42
= 2.199936
dH dt t 4 .H
H
. 42
2.74200410
km
.
s Mpc
Hz
t 4 .H
2
= 4.839718
1
. 3
4.50030410
3
5.041.10
km
s .Mpc
1
H
t1
3.646967
= 22.062867
10
43 .
9
= 14.575885 10 .yr
H U2 R o , M G
209.326658
t4
A U K .R o , x. h , K m.M G, m x.m h .H U2 R o , M G = 1
T U2 H
T U2 t 1
T U2 t 4
0
. 31
3.19551810
. 31
= 2.05994510
2.724752
T U2 H U2 R o , M G
T U3 H U2 R o , M G .H
c.
( K)
t1
t4
6.614281
10
62.754553
34 .
2.724752
2.725
T0
t
16.326238
c . 1
=
154.899031
h t4
c
H U2 R o , M G
9
= 14.575885 10 .Lyr
R U K .R o , x. h , K m.M G, m x.m h .H U2 R o , M G
=1
8. History of the Universe

T U2 H = 0 ( K )
T U2
10
T U2
10 .
T U2
. 15 ( K )
= 3.43308810
31
1
13 .
1
9.
5 .10 ( yr )
( K)
T U2
10
T U2
(s)
.
= 1.92400510
28
34 .
( K)
(s)
. 9 ( K)
= 1.01325410
2.
10 ( s )
= 978.724031 ( K )
10 ( s )
T U2
.
= 3.19551810
t1
T U2
1
9.
= 11.838588 ( K )
10 ( yr )
= 4.898955 ( K )
T U2 H U2 R o , M G
292
= 2.724752 ( K )
T U2
1
.
1 (s)
1
1 .( day )
T U2
T U2
1
31.( day )
T U2
T U2
1 .( yr )
1
T U2
2
10 .( yr )
T U2
. 7 521.528169
2.52413210
41.823796
. 4
8.07751510
11.838588
9
10 .( yr )
. 4
2.29089210
3.35005
. 3
6.49496110
0.947724
( K)
10 .
( yr )
1
11 .
10
= 1.00307810
.
10
147.71262
8
10 .( yr )
T U2
1
.
116 ( day )
. 6
3.86401510
T U2
10 ( yr )
T U2
. 10 1.84076810
. 3
1.2497710
7.
T U2
4.
6
10 .( yr )
10 ( yr )
10 ( yr )
T U2
T U2
3.
T U2
5.
10 ( yr )
T U2
T U2
( yr )
. 6
1.87808710
.
3.98831410
( K)
TL
9. ML, rL, tL, tEGM

5
C _J1 r 1 , M 1
M1
C _J1 r 2 , M 2
26
r1
R EGM
M 2 M 1.
26
r2
. 71 ( kg )
M L = 4.86482110
tL
M2
rL
rL
.
t L = 7.6372910
19
M EGM
2
R EGM.c
=1
t EGM
ML
r1
K m.M G.
M EGM
r2
r1
R EGM
K .R o
5 5
R EGM
K .R o
M U K .R o , x. h , K m.M G, m x.m h
A U K .R o , x. h , K m.M G, m x.m h
2 .G
M EGM
5 5
. 19 109 .Lyr
r L = 7.6372910
R BH M L
9
10 .yr
r2
t EGM
=1
R EGM
c
2
R EGM.c
2 .G
t EGM
R EGM
c
M L M EGM
rL
tL
R EGM t EGM
293
ML
M EGM
. 18
5.23967510
rL
tL
= 5.23967510
. 18
R EGM
. 18
5.23967510
tL
. 6
= 1.86196810
TL
t EGM
10. Radio astronomy

9
9
M
St J .
St J .
26
r
St J .
26
St G.
St J .
5
26
St G.
_3
St J .
26
9
_3
26
St G
_3
26
_3
26
St G
26 9
M
M
St J . _3
St J .St G
45
26
52
26
.St 5
G
27
5
26
26
.St 5
G
5
St J . _3 .
27
26
.St 5
G
4
5
4
9 .c .
5.
5.
.
_3 St G M
.
4
3
5
.St 5
G
2
9 .c .
9
St G .St G
.
4
4
52
M
26
26 9
5
St J . _3 .
5
St J . _3 .
26
26
45
9 .c .
St G
4 .
4
4
5
9 .c .
4 .
4
C _J _3 , M
_3
4.
St G M
5
.
_3
5.2
C _J _3 , M
4
9 .c . _3
4 . St 0.8 .M 0.6
G
10
10
C _J _4 10 .M S , 10 .M S = 180.283336( nJy )
294
St J .
Test 1 _3 , M
St G.
_3
27
.M
45
Test 2 3 .( EHz) , M S = 5.438023 10
43 .
Jy
Test 3 3 .( EHz) , M S
Test 2 _3 , M
Test 1 _3 , M
C _J 3 .( EHz) , M S = 5.438023 10
.
1 = 5.70654610
43 .
12
12
(%)
C _J _3 , M
.
1 = 3.66373610
10
10
C _J _4 10 .M S , 10 .M S
(%)
Jy
.
1 = 2.0428110
Jy
43 .
Test 2 _3 , M
Test 5 _3 , M
C _J _3 , M
45
Test 1 _3 , M
Test 4 _3 , M
26
45 .
_3
Test 1 3 .( EHz) , M S = 5.438023 10
Test 3 _3 , M
St J .St G
Test 2 _3 , M
26
26
10
10
C _J1 R BH 10 .M S , 10 .M S
12
(%)
= 0.999999999999968
ix. Gravitational Cosmology

G.M E G.M M
2
r4
r4
r5
r4
r4
r5
. 5
3.46028110
.
3.83719110
( km)
a EGM_ r 5 , M M
0 .( s ) ,
T PV 1 , r 4 , M E
500
a PV( r , M , t )
D E2M. M M .M E
i .
g r 4, M E
g r 5, M M
.
3.33165310
.
3.33165310
.. T PV 1 , r 4 , M E
C PV n PV, r , M .e
. 3
3.33165310
.
3.33165310
m
s
r5
M M .M E
MM
a EGM_ r 4 , M E
r 5 D E2M
m
s
g r 4, M E
r4
g r 5, M M = 0
m
s
a EGM_ r 4 , M E
D E2M
a EGM_ r 5 , M M = 0
m
s
21
n PV
N, 2
N .. N
.n PV . PV( 1 , r , M ) .t .i
n PV
295
Harmonic Acc. & Grav. Interference

T PV 1 , r 5 , M M
Acceleration
a PV r 4 , M E , t
a PV r 5 , M M , t
a PV r 4 , M E , t
a PV r 5 , M M , t
t
Time
Gravitational Acceleration due to The Earth

Gravitational Acceleration due to The Moon
Resultant Acceleration (Interference)
a g ( r , M , , t )
g av ( r , M )
0 .( s ) ,
.T r 5 , M M
200
.. .T r 5 , M M
g ( r , M ) . .sin 2 . . ( r , M ) .t
2
2
T ( r, M )
1.
T ( r, M )
2
.
0 .( s )
g av R E, M E = 9.809009
m
s
a g( r, M , 0 , t ) d t
r 4 , M E = 56.499573 ( YHz) r 5 , M M = 72.138509( YHz)
Conjugate WaveFunction Acc. Pairs
a g r 4, M E, 0, t
Acceleration
a g r 4, M E, 0, t
a g r 5, M M, , t
a g r 5, M M, , t
t
Time
+ve WaveFunction From The Earth

-ve WaveFunction From The Earth
+ve WaveFunction From The Moon
-ve WaveFunction From The Moon
296
Conjugate WaveFunction Acc. Beats
Acceleration
a g r 4, M E, , t
a g r 5, M M, , t
a g r 4, M E, , t
a g r 5, M M, , t
t
Time
+ve WaveFunction Interference Beat

-ve WaveFunction Interference Beat (Conjugate)
x. Particle Cosmology
h
tL
m
5
m 2
r e.
r 2
m 2
m gg2
tL
m 2
2 .m 2
m gg2
r gg2
2
m e .c
r 2
4 .r 2
r gg2
r 2
r 2
2 .r 2
K . h
K . h
2 .r 2
h
r gg2
2 .r 2
0.178967
0.357933
0.236148
2 .r 2
(%)
7.250508
9.567103
246.127068
2 .r gg2
0.472296
K . h
211.731798
2 .r gg2
E ( r, M )
h . ( r , M )
Q r , m e
N ( r, M )
E ( r, M )
m
= 2.655018 10
eV
38 .
423.463597
r gg2
2 .r gg2
10
51 .
279.381783
0.406294
2 .r gg2
10
3.431956
324.766614
h
K . h
1.715978
558.763566
0.307913
30
Qe
297
Q ( r, M )
Q _PDG
Qe
N ( r, M )
5 .10
30 .
Qe
Q _PDG
= 1.883226
Q ( r , M )
tL
Q ( r, M )
N ( r, M )
Q = 1.129394 10
Qe
T L m 2 Q 2
m 2
Q 2 = 6.065593 10
85 .
Q 2
78 .
Q ( r, M )
Q ( r , M )
Qe
= 7.049122 10
60
Qe
.
= 1.86196810
= 3.785846 10
Q 2
66
Q
m
.m
2
r e, m e
.m
r , m e
E r ,me
Qe
E r , m e
r e, m e
.m
r , m e
r e, m e
h .m
1.525768
1.525768
10
46 .
eV
E r e, m e
h .m
0.165603
0.165603
( J )
Qe
r e,m e
2
E r e, m e
249.926816
249.926816
me
( YHz)
2.
c Q
. 11
1.7588210
198.286288
kg
NOTES
298
b. Calculation engine

ii. Standard relationships
1
A0
r0
H0
H0
m( r , M )
VL VL
9
A 0 = 13.772016 10 .yr
V( r )
M .c
E( M )
G.M
g( r , M )
VL
2 .G.M
R BH( M )
V( r )
4. . 3
r
3
E ( ) h .
9
r 0 = 13.772016 10 .Lyr
iii. Derived constants

4 . 2
6
3
3.
St G
mx
3 . h
4 . .h
. c
2
St J
10 .
t1
t2
t4
3
1
r3
. 1
H
x. h
= 3.646967 10
2
2
5 . . 5 .
245
10
5
m.s
t5
M3
43 .
St g = 1.828935
m x.m h
c.
St BH
6
3
3 . h
13 2
2 . .c
9
c .St G
( 2 .G)
. 1
H
t3
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
ng
St T
. 1
H
mx
3
9
10 .yr
224 .
St G = 8.146982 10
2
3
. 1
H
13
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
.
T L = 4.10173110
4. 3. 1 . x
3 4 c5 . 2
h
3
2
2
15 . . 5 .
2
2
5 . . 5 .
1
St g
1
2
2
5 . . 5 .
TL
9 .c .
St G
4 .
1
2
5 . .
2. 9
kg s
299
t7
2.698709
1.349354
5 .
. 1
H
.
H = 8.46094110
61
km
.
s Mpc
.
T L.H 0 = 2.97830810
12
1 . St G
G
.
1 = 3.33066910
14
(%)
St g
146 . kg
St J = 1.093567 10
4 . 26
18
119
10 .
r 3 = 1.093333 10
kg
.
St BH = 4.83080210
.
M 3 = 7.36147410
ym
.
St T = 6.35557910
9
95
5
9
( kg )
t1
5 .
10 .
t2
. 1
H
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
2
15 . . 5 .
t3 e
. 1
H
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
2.206287 2.206287
2
3
. 1
H
4.196153 4.196153
=
t4
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
2
5 . . 5 .
t5 e
. 1
H
6.205726 6.205726
10
20.932666 20.932666
t7
42 .
=1
t1
8.385263 8.385263
2.206287 2.206287
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
. 1
H
t7
2
5 . .
1
H
iv. Base approximations / simplifications
1( r , M )
6 .c
r . PV( 1 , r , M )
C _1( r , M )
G.M .
2
T _1( r , M )
3 .M .c
2
.
n _1( r , M )
_1( r , M )
1 R M,M M
1 R E, M E
R M, M M
R E, M E
1 R J, M J
1 R S, M S
R J, M J
R S, M S
R NS , M NS
n _1( r , M )
2 . .h . PV( 1 , r , M )
1 R NS , M NS
_1( r , M )
_1( r , M )
1=
1( r , M )
12
n _1( r , M ) . PV( 1 , r , M )
c
_1( r , M )
K Depp ( r , M )
1
. 14 4.44089210
.
6.66133810
14
. 14 6.66133810
.
4.44089210
14
2 .G.M
r .c
(%)
1 = 0 (%)
300
n _1 R M , M M
n _1 R E, M E
n R M,M M
n R E, M E
n _1 R J , M J
n _1 R S , M S
n R J, M J
n R S, M S
n _1 R NS , M NS
n R NS , M NS
_1 R E, M E
R M,M M
R E, M E
_1 R J , M J
_1 R S , M S
R J, M J
R S, M S
R NS , M NS
T _1 R E, M E
T R M,M M
T R E, M E
T _1 R J , M J
T _1 R S , M S
T R J, M J
T R S, M S
T R NS , M NS
_1 R E, M E
R M,M M
R E, M E
_1 R J , M J
_1 R S , M S
R J, M J
R S, M S
R NS , M NS
.
2.22044610
14
.
4.44089210
14
.
8.88178410
14
(%)
1=
.
6.66133810
14
.
2.22044610
14
.
6.66133810
14
.
8.88178410
14
(%)
1=
.
7.77156110
14
.
2.22044610
14
.
5.55111510
14
.
7.77156110
14
.
7.77156110
14
.
2.22044610
14
.
6.66133810
14
.
7.77156110
14
(%)
1 = 0 (%)
_1 R M , M M
_1 R NS , M NS
14
1 = 0 (%)
T _1 R M , M M
T _1 R NS , M NS
.
6.66133810
1 = 0 (%)
_1 R M , M M
_1 R NS , M NS
1=
1=
K Depp R E, M E
1 = 0 (%)
K PV R E, M E
(%)
1.00000000069601
1.00000000069601
v. SBH mass and radius

3
m x. h , m x.m h
r S M BH
. 94 kg
m x. h , m x.m h = 1.34467810
3
m
3 .M BH
4 . . S
M BH r S
4. .
3
S .r S
3
. 87 ( YPa)
U m x. h , m x.m h = 1.20853710
301
r S m x.m h
m x. h , m x.m h
. 90
= 9.55041510
m R S, M S
rS MS
.
3.28046310
5.
r S 10 M S
1=
144.219703
.
4.21884710
(%)
13
r S mh
( am)
0.015227
0.706754
10
r S 10 .M S
r S mh
1 . r m .m
S x h
h
x
1 = 22.109851 ( % )
R BH m h
M BH r
M BH r
M BH r
M BH r
. 43 3.22881910
. 49 3.18519310
. 49 3.12378410
. 43
9.27104510
M BH r
M BH r en
M BH r n
M BH r n
. 44 4.88723910
. 37 1.58452310
. 40 4.23240210
. 41
1.03305410
M BH r uq
M BH r dq
M BH r sq
M BH r cq
= 2.55332710
. 40 5.86600510
. 40 3.94279810
. 40 7.32116510
. 40
M BH r bq
M BH r tq
M BH r W
M BH r Z
. 40 4.52155110
. 40 1.19243610
. 41 6.74112410
. 40
6.91875410
M BH r H
M BH r e
M BH r Bohr
M BH r gg
. 40 1.26038310
. 51 8.34661610
. 63 1.64821910
. 9
4.68486410
( kg )
M BH r
M BH r
M BH r
M BH r
. 13 1.62379510
. 19 1.60185510
. 19 1.57097210
. 13
4.66247210
M BH r
M BH r en
M BH r n
M BH r n
. 13 2.45782610
. 7
5.19529810
1 . M
BH r uq
M BH r dq
M BH r sq
M BH r cq
= 1.28408510
. 10 2.95005410
. 10 1.9828610
. 10 3.68186410
. 10
M BH r bq
M BH r tq
M BH r W
M BH r Z
. 10 2.27391910
. 10 5.99684310
. 10 3.39015710
. 10
3.47948910
M BH r H
M BH r e
M BH r Bohr
M BH r gg
. 10
2.3560510
MS
. 20
6.3385510
. 9 2.12850410
. 11
7.96867110
. 33
4.1975710
14.554628
. 6
5.06892810
R BH M BH r n
16.217926
.
7.67248410
R BH M BH r sq
R BH M BH r cq
= 4.00847210
.
R BH M BH r tq
R BH M BH r W
R BH M BH r Z
0.010862
R BH M BH r e
R BH M BH r Bohr
R BH M BH r gg
.
7.35477510
R BH M BH r
R BH M BH r
R BH M BH r
R BH M BH r
R BH M BH r
R BH M BH r en
R BH M BH r n
R BH M BH r uq
R BH M BH r dq
R BH M BH r bq
R BH M BH r H
.
9.2090510
.
7.0983910
.
1.97867710
. 6
5.0004410
4.904034
.
2.48754410
0.066445
.
6.18980410
0.011494 ( Lyr )
0.01872
0.010583
.
1.31033610
21
vi. n
1
1
3 9
n _2( r , M )
n _4 M BH
n BH M BH
1. 3
2
.m h
M
. r
h
n _5 M BH
n _4 M BH
3
9
n _3 x
n _5 M BH
3.
n _2 x. h , m x.m h
n _2 r S m x.m h , m x.m h
n _2 x. h , m x.m h
n _2 R BH m x.m h , m x.m h
302
1=
.
3.33066910
13
. 14
4.44089210
(%)
n _2 r S m x.m h , m x.m h
n _2 x. h , m x.m h
n _2 r S M S , M S
n _2 R BH M S , M S
5
5
n _2 r S 10 .M S , 10 .M S
5
5
n _2 R BH 10 .M S , 10 .M S
10
10
n _2 r S 10 .M S , 10 .M S
10
10
n _2 R BH 10 .M S , 10 .M S
n _3
n _3
.
. 24
9.00254210
3.51086810
5
. 6 1.93953910
. 28
1.93265910
. 7 4.1786110
. 31
1.06388810
1
3
0.248017
0.324994
2
=
n _3( 1 )
0.515897
0.818935
n _3( 2 )
n _3 x
1.073108
n _3( 3 )
n _4 m x.m h
n _5 m x.m h
n BH m x.m h
n _4 M S
n _5 M S
n BH M S
5
n _4 10 .M S
5
n _5 10 .M S
5
n BH 10 .M S
10
n _4 10 .M S
10
n _5 10 .M S
10
n BH 10 .M S
1
=
. 5 9.00254210
. 24 2.56419310
. 19
3.51086810
. 6 1.93953910
. 28 1.0035610
. 22
1.93265910
. 7 4.1786110
. 31 3.92767810
. 24
1.06388810
vii. , T,
2 .c .
n PV.
g( r, M )
2
.r
3
PV2 n PV, r , M
9 M
St G .
_7 M BH
PV_1 M BH
_4 M BH
St BH.
_5 M BH
1.
2
St g .g ( r , M )
r
_3( r , M )
_2( r , M )
_3 r S M BH , M BH
_4 M BH
n _5 M BH
_6 M BH
BH M BH
1
M BH
_5 M BH
n _4 M BH
_5 M BH
_4 M BH
_6 M BH
_7 M BH
303
PV2 1 , R M , M M
PV2 1 , R E, M E
PV 1 , R M , M M
PV 1 , R E, M E
PV2 1 , R J , M J
PV2 1 , R S , M S
PV 1 , R J , M J
PV 1 , R S , M S
PV2 1 , R NS , M NS
PV 1 , R NS , M NS
1=
.
3.14037710
.
6.96004310
.
1.9723310
.
2.12158610
1 = 7.117159 ( % )
PV2 n R M , M M , R M , M M
PV2 n R E, M E , R E, M E
_3 R M , M M
_3 R E, M E
PV2 n R J , M J , R J , M J
PV2 n R S , M S , R S , M S
_3 R J , M J
_3 R S , M S
PV2 n R NS , M NS , R NS , M NS
_2 R M , M M
_2 R E, M E
_1 R M , M M
_1 R E, M E
_2 R J , M J
_2 R S , M S
_1 R J , M J
_1 R S , M S
_1 R NS , M NS
1=
.
4.1871410
.
9.2800510
. 6
2.62977310
.
2.8287810
1=
.
1.04678510
.
2.32001510
.
6.57443310
.
7.07196310
(%)
1 = 2.491576 ( % )
_3 R M , M M
_3 R E, M E
_2 R M , M M
_2 R E, M E
_3 R J , M J
_3 R S , M S
_2 R J , M J
_2 R S , M S
1=
. 14
8.88178410
.
1.11022310
13
. 13
1.11022310
.
1.11022310
13
(%)
_4 m x.m h
_3 R NS , M NS
_2 R NS , M NS
.
1 = 6.66133810
14
(%)
1
_3 x. h , m x.m h
_5 m x.m h
_6 m x.m h
_7 m x.m h
_3 r 0 , m x.m h
.
7.88327910
_3 r 0 , M S
5
_3 r 0 , 10 .M S
10
_3 r 0 , 10 .M S
(%)
1 = 9.375146 ( % )
_3 R NS , M NS
_2 R NS , M NS
(%)
1
=
1
1
1
10
0.163994
( EHz)
2.118067
27.355887
304
_3 r 0 , m x.m h
_3 r 0 , m x.m h
VL( 400 ( nm ) )
VL( 750 ( nm ) )
_3 r 0 , M S
_3 r 0 , M S
VL( 400 ( nm ) )
VL( 750 ( nm ) )
5.
.
1.05183110
_3 r 0 , 10 M S
_3 r 0 , 10 M S
VL( 400 ( nm ) )
VL( 750 ( nm ) )
10
_3 r 0 , 10 .M S
10
_3 r 0 , 10 .M S
VL( 400 ( nm ) )
VL( 750 ( nm ) )
. 3
5.29883310
. 4
3.64997710
. 4
6.84370610
_6 m x.m h
_7 m x.m h
_4 M S
_5 M S
_6 M S
_7 M S
5.
410.269418
.
2.82604410
_5 m x.m h
5.
. 42 1.87219710
. 42 1.87219710
. 42 1.87219710
. 42
1.87219710
=
5.
_4 10 M S
_5 10 M S
_6 10 M S
_7 10 M S
10
_4 10 .M S
10
_5 10 .M S
10
_6 10 .M S
10
_7 10 .M S
. 29 4.55727410
. 43 1.29804810
. 38 6.93112610
. 4
6.23977510
. 28 6.9805610
. 43 3.61189510
. 37
1.34431910
_5 m x.m h
_6 m x.m h
_7 m x.m h
_4 M S
_5 M S
_6 M S
_7 M S
5
_5 10 .M S
5
_6 10 .M S
5
_7 10 .M S
10 .
10 .
_5 10 M S
BH m x.m h
PV_1 m x.m h
BH M S
PV_1 M S
5
BH 10 .M S
5
PV_1 10 .M S
10
BH 10 .M S
10
PV_1 10 .M S
_4 10 M S
10 .
0.253004
14
.
6.158585 1.75414910
.
1.81667910
15
.
9.433354 4.88102410
.
14.44945 1.35817410
_7 10 M S
.
7.30358710
. 33
1.8727810
13
0.253004
.
8.43227510
10 .
_6 10 M S
0.253004
0.253004
( Hz)
0.693113
. 26 1.06924110
. 44 1.00503110
. 37 6.93112610
.
2.89624710
_4 m x.m h
1 .
5
h _4 10 .M S
_4 m x.m h
5.
.
1.97218410
218.810356
5.
. 15 5.21112310
. 37
5.19263810
. 17 1.45002610
. 42
3.69181510
viii. Gravitation
r .
9
_2( r , M )
St g
a EGM_( r , M )
a g ( r , M , , t )
g av ( r , M )
MM
g ( r , M ) . .sin 2 . . ( r , M ) .t
2
2
T ( r, M )
D E2M. M M .M E
r4
r5
M M .M E
D E2M r 4
1.
T ( r, M )
2
.
0 .( s )
a g( r, M , 0 , t ) d t
a EGM_ R M , M M
a EGM_ R E, M E
g R M,M M
g R E, M E
a EGM_ R J , M J
a EGM_ R S , M S
g R J, M J
g R S, M S
1=
.
1.49880110
12
.
1.49880110
12
.
1.5432110
12
.
1.57651710
12
305
(%)
a EGM_ R NS, M NS
.
1 = 1.65423210
g R NS, M NS
g r 4, M E
g r 5, M M
. 3
3.33165310
. 3
3.33165310
a EGM_ r 4 , M E
a EGM_ r 5 , M M
g av R E, M E = 9.809009
r5
. 5
3.46028110
. 4
3.83719110
g r 5, M M = 0
.
3.33165310
m
s
a EGM_ r 4 , M E
( km)
m
s
r4
( %)
g r 4, M E
.
3.33165310
12
a EGM_ r 5 , M M = 0
r 4 , M E = 56.499573 ( YHz) r 5 , M M = 72.138509 ( YHz)
ix. Flux intensity

5
r _3 , M
St G.
_3
C _J ( r , M )
2 d
( r , M ) . U m( r , M )
dr
C _J1( r , M )
St J .
5.2
C _J _3 , M
26
r VL( 400 ( nm ) ) , m x.m h
r VL( 750 ( nm ) ) , m x.m h
r ( 400 ( nm ) ) , m x.m h
1 . VL
r 0 r VL( 750 ( nm ) ) , m x.m h
0.239057
0.741144
( Lyr)
.
1.73581410
11
.
5.38152510
11
r VL( 400 ( nm ) ) , M S
r VL( 750 ( nm ) ) , M S
5
r VL( 400 ( nm ) ) , 10 .M S
5
r VL( 750 ( nm ) ) , 10 .M S
10
r VL( 400 ( nm ) ) , 10 .M S
10
r VL( 750 ( nm ) ) , 10 .M S
r VL( 400 ( nm ) ) , M S
1 . r 30.( PHz) , 105 .M
S
r0
10
r 30.( PHz) , 10 .M S
5
. 5
2.2445.10 6.95860210
= 2.2445.107 6.95860210
. 7
r VL( 750 ( nm ) ) , M S
1 . r ( 400 ( nm ) ) , 105 .M
VL
S
r0
10
r VL( 400 ( nm) ) , 10 .M S
r 30.( PHz) , M S
4
9 .c . _3
4 . St 0.8 .M 0.6
G
5
r VL( 750 ( nm ) ) , 10 .M S
10
r VL( 750 ( nm ) ) , 10 .M S
r 30.( EHz) , M S
5
r 30.( EHz) , 10 .M S
10
r 30.( EHz) , 10 .M S
9
10 .Lyr
9
. 9
2.2445.10 6.95860210
. 4 5.05271110
. 4
1.62975410
= 1.62975410
. 6 5.05271110
. 6
. 8 5.05271110
. 8
1.62975410
21.2751776034345 8.46980075872643.10
= 2.12751776034345
.103 8.46980075872643.10
.105
2.12751776034345
306
0.846980075872643
r 30.( PHz) , m x.m h
r 30.( EHz) , m x.m h
. 6
2.95234410
r 30.( PHz) , m x.m h

1 .
r 0 r 30.( EHz) , m x.m h
3
10 .km
11.753495
r 30.( PHz) , M S
r 30.( EHz) , M S
5
r 30.( PHz) , 10 .M S
5
r 30.( EHz) , 10 .M S
10
r 30.( PHz) , 10 .M S
10
r 30.( EHz) , 10 .M S
r 30.( PHz) , M S
1 . r 30.( PHz) , 105 .M
S
r0
10
r 30.( PHz) , 10 .M S
. 5
2.93002110
= 2.93002110
.
5
r 30.( EHz) , 10 .M S
10
r 30.( EHz) , 10 .M S
.
21.275178 8.46980110
= 2.12751810
. 3 8.46980110
.
. 5
2.12751810
0.84698
C _J 100.( km) , M M
C _J R S , M M
C _J 100.( km) , M E
C _J1 100.( km) , M J
.
2.95903310
.
9.40034410
1=
C _J 100.( km) , M J
C _J1 R S , M E
C _J R S , M E
C _J1 R S , M J
(%)
C _J1 R S , M S
0.979587
C _J 100.( km) , M S
C _J R S , M S
C _J1 100.( km) , M NS
C _J1 R S , M NS
C _J 100.( km) , M NS
C _J R S , M NS
C _J VL( 400 ( nm) ) , m x.m h

C _J 30.( PHz) , m x.m h
C _J1 r 30.( PHz) , m x.m h , m x.m h
C _J 30.( PHz) , M S
C _J1 r 30.( PHz) , M S , M S
C _J VL( 750 ( nm) ) , m x.m h

C _J 30.( EHz) , m x.m h
C _J1 r 30.( EHz) , m x.m h , m x.m h
C _J 30.( EHz) , M S
C _J1 r 30.( EHz) , M S , M S
5
C _J 30.( PHz) , 10 .M S
5
C _J 30.( EHz) , 10 .M S
5
5
C _J1 r 30.( PHz) , 10 .M S , 10 .M S
5
5
C _J1 r 30.( EHz) , 10 .M S , 10 .M S
10
C _J 30.( PHz) , 10 .M S
10
C _J 30.( EHz) , 10 .M S
10
10
C _J1 r 30.( PHz) , 10 .M S , 10 .M S
10
10
C _J1 r 30.( EHz) , 10 .M S , 10 .M S
C _J1 r 0 , m x.m h
10
C _J1 r 0 , 10 .M S
1=
.
3.57491810
12
.
4.23150410
10
.
1.35061710
.
1.41439110
.
1.41439110
(%)
.
1.90958410
12
.
1.92068610
12
.
1.9428910
12
.
1.93178810
12
.
1.58761910
12
.
1.59872110
12
.
1.50990310
12
.
1.50990310
12
.
1.48769910
12
.
1.50990310
12
(%)
C _J1 r 0 , M S
5
C _J1 r 0 , 10 .M S
1=
C _J R S , M J
0.979587
C _J1 100.( km) , M S
6
10 .Lyr
116.646228
C _J1 R S , M M
14
1.166462
C _J1 100.( km) , M M
.
3.63872410
.
2.2659710
. 9 1.16646210
. 4
2.93002110
r 30.( EHz) , M S
C _J1 100.( km) , M E
.
1.48429110
.
8.89809310
10
20 .
yJy
5.334267
307
1
C _J1 r 0 , m x.m h
. 26
2.24315810
10
C _J1 r 0 , 10 .M S .
C _J1 r 0 , M S
= 3.59381410
. 5
599.48425
1
5
C _J1 r 0 , 10 .M S
C _J VL( 400 ( nm ) ) , m x.m h
C _J VL( 750 ( nm ) ) , m x.m h
28.979765
1.102778
10
16 .
yJy
C _J 30.( EHz) , m x.m h = 2.479532 ( fJy )
7
C _J 30.( PHz) , m x.m h = 6.228302 10 .yJy
C _J 30.( PHz) , M S
5.
2.164916
C _J 30.( PHz) , 10 M S
.
= 2.16491610
10
C _J 30.( PHz) , 10 .M S
.
2.16491610
C _J 30.( EHz) , M S
5.
10
29 .
10
14 .
yJy
8.618686
C _J 30.( EHz) , 10 M S
.
= 8.61868610
10
C _J 30.( EHz) , 10 .M S
.
8.61868610
10
10
C _J _4 10 .M S , 10 .M S
10
10
C _J1 R BH 10 .M S , 10 .M S
yJy
= 0.999999999999968
x. Photon and Graviton populations

g( M )
M .c
2 .h
n gg ( M )
g m x.m h
. 18
4.99252510
g MS
. 56
1.34855310
5
g 10 .M S
10
g 10 .M S
. 61
1.34855310
T L. g ( M )
n ( M )
2 .n gg ( M )
( YHz)
. 66
1.34855310
308
g m x.m h
_4 m x.m h
g m x.m h
_5 m x.m h
g MS
g MS
2.666667
50
_5 M S
. 36
2.95912210
. 57
1.0031510
5
g 10 .M S
. 63
4.65620810
5
_5 10 .M S
2.666667
_4 M S
.
2.1612210
5
g 10 .M S
5
_4 10 .M S
. 46
1.26122510
10
g 10 .M S
10
g 10 .M S
10
_4 10 .M S
10
_5 10 .M S
n gg m x.m h
. 72
6.46222510
n m x.m h
n gg M S
. 110
1.7455410
n M S
. 115
1.7455410
5
n 10 .M S
. 120
1.7455410
10
n 10 .M S
5
n gg 10 .M S
10
n gg 10 .M S
. 41
1.93186910
. 73
1.29244510
. 110
3.4910810
. 115
3.4910810
. 120
3.4910810
xi. Hubble constant and CMBR temperature

r 2( r )
K .r
K m.M
M 2( M )
K U( r , M )
A U( r , M )
ln
.ln n
_2 r 2( r ) , M 2( M )
TL
K U( r , M )
R U( r , M )
K T( r , M )
n g .ln
T U( r , M )
K T( r , M ) .T W ( r , M )
M U( r , M )
H U5( r , M )
T U5( r , M )
KW
c
( 3 . )
7 . .
256
32
.
.ln
. 4
H U5( r , M ) h
H
2 .
r3
1
.H
H U( r , M )
1
A U( r , M )
KW
_1 R U( r , M ) , M 3
3 .H U( r , M )
8 . .G
K W .St T .ln
T U2( H )
. m
.ln ( 3 ) . h
4
M
r 2( r )
c .A U( r , M )
U( r , M )
V R U( r , M ) . U( r , M )
M 2( M )
T W( r, M )
H U( r , M )
1 .
ln
TL
M3
3.
26
. 2
.H5
H
7 .
. r
h
2 .
2
7 .
mh
M
5 .
. r
h
2
26 .
. 2
.H ( r , M ) 5
U5
309
K W .St T .
dT dt ( t )
2
5 .ln H .t .
5 .
K W .St T .
dT2 dt2 ( t )
2
2
5 . . ln H .t . 5 .
.t
dT3 dt3 ( t )
2
2
2
5 . .ln H .t . 5 . . 5 . 3
2
K W .St T .
2
5 . . 3
t
t
dH dt H
2
H .H
. 5 .ln 1 . 2
2
H
5 .
H
2
2
15. . 5 .
dH2 dt2 H
5 .
.t2
3
2
H .H
. 5 . 2 . ln 1 . 5 . 2
2
H
5 .
H
Given
T U2 H U r x1.R o , M G
T U2 H U R o , m g1 .M G
T 0
T0
T0
T 0
r x1
r x2
m g1
m g2
Given
T U2 H U r x1.R o , m g1 .M G
T 0
T0
T0
T 0
r x3
r x4
m g3
m g4
Given
r x5
m g5
T0
Find r x1, m g1
T U2 H U R o
T U2 H U R o
1
R o , .K m.M G
3
1
R o , .K m.M G
3
r x1
=
2.733025
2.741859
r x2
( K)
m g1
m g2
310
0.989364
=
1.017883
1.057292
0.911791
2.724
=
2.726
2.724
m g3
7.914908
8.143063
( kpc )
1.063645 5.729219
1.788292
(%)
8.820858
2.724
2.726
( K)
0.977007
r x3
r x4
r x5
7.879647
8.106786
1.052361
MG
. 11
M G m g3
5.8620410
.
=
M S m g4
. 11
5.8620410
( kpc )
1.013403
m g5
m g5 .
0.977007
m g4
R o.
1=
r x2 m g2
1.013348
r x2
r x1 m g1
0.984956
r x4
r x1
2.726
. 11
M G m g1
6.34375310
.
=
M S m g2
. 11
5.47074910
r x3
R o.
( K)
r x5
. 11
= 6.31416710
m g5
MS
1=
r x3 m g3
r x4 m g4
5.236123
( %)
1.50441 2.29934
1.334822 2.29934
( %)
r x5.R o = 8.107221 ( kpc )
= 2.725 ( K )
1.340256
1=
H U r x5.R o , m g5 .M G = 67.095419
km
.
s Mpc
Given
dH dt
H U R o,M G
H U R o,M G
Find( )
9
A U R o , M G = 14.575885 10 .yr
U R o , M G = 8.453235 10
33 .
9
R U R o , M G = 14.575885 10 .Lyr
kg
3
.
M U R o , M G = 9.28458610
52
( kg )
cm
H U R o,M G
1
H U R o , .M G
3
67.084304
67.753267
km
.
s Mpc
T U R o,M G
1
T U R o , .M G
3
311
2.724752
2.739618
( K)
H U R o,M G
T U R o,M G
H0
T0
H U R o,M G
T U R o,M G
1
H U R o , .M G
3
1
T U R o , .M G
3
T U2 H U R o
.
5.515064 9.08391310
0.987352
(%)
0.542607
R o , M G
2.720213
T U2 H U R o , M G
T U2 H U R o
1=
2.724752
R o , M G
H U5 R o , M G
= 2.729021 ( K )
1
T U2 H U R o , .M G
3
2.739618
67.084304
km
67.095419
s .Mpc
2.810842
T U2 H 0
T U5 R o , M G
2.724752
2.725
H0
( K)
1=
5.499409
.
8.3739910
(%)
T0
T U2 H
T U2 t 1
dT dt
.
3.19551810
31
T U2 t 2
T U2 t 3
T U2 t 4
. 31
2.05994510
T U2 t 5
. 31
2.65086510
dT2 dt2
.
3.03432210
.
2.83254210
dT2 dt2 t 2
. 114
2.02615310
dT2 dt2 t 3
dT2 dt2 t 4
dT2 dt2 t 5
0
.
8.77595210
112
dT3 dt3 t 3
. 112
1.612210
dT3 dt3 t 4
. 112
7.1945910
dT3 dt3 t 5
312
1
. 159
6.22716710
dT3 dt3 t 2
.
9.25283810
. 71
7.47950610
. 156
3.77545710
dT3 dt3 t 1
K
. 71
3.03728910
dT dt t 5
dT3 dt3
. 72
1.05719310
71
dT dt t 4
. 116
7.65967810
dT dt t 3
dT2 dt2 t 1
dT dt t 2
( K)
31
. 74
1.32321810
dT dt t 1
31
1
H
. 155
1.45285710
. 153
1.48902210
. 153
9.53337910
dH dt ( 1 )
dH dt e
0
1
dH dt t 1 .H
dH dt e
5 .
10 .
dH dt t 2 .H
dH dt e
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
2
15 . . 5 .
dH dt t 3 .H
dH dt e
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
2
3
dH dt t 4 .H
dH dt e
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
2
5 . . 5 .
dH dt t 5 .H
dH dt e
dH2 dt2 e
. 123
7.15875210
. 107
7.14236410
. 107
7.14236410
. 122
8.63295710
. 122
8.63295710
. 123
1.16708910
. 123
1.16708910
. 123
1.47916710
. 123
1.47916710
. 123
1.31810810
. 123
1.31810810
km
s .Mpc
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
dH2 dt2 ( 1 )
. 123
7.15875210
0
1
dH2 dt2 t 1 .H
dH2 dt2 e
5 .
10 .
dH2 dt2 t 2 .H
dH2 dt2 e
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
2
15 . . 5 .
dH2 dt2 t 3 .H
dH2 dt2 e
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
2
3
dH2 dt2 t 4 .H
dH2 dt2 e
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
2
5 . . 5 .
dH2 dt2 t 5 .H
dH dt
H U R o,M G
H
dH2 dt2 e
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
. 3
= 4.50029710
km
.
s Mpc
. 186
1.27869510
. 186
1.27869510
. 184
2.49929710
. 184
2.49929710
.
3.41565310
.
3.41565310
. 183
2.42270610
. 183
2.42270610
. 183
3.91232210
. 183
3.91232210
183
183
km
s .Mpc
2
1
dH2 dt2
H U R o,M G
H
=0
km
.
s Mpc
=1
dH dt 1
313
dH dt 1
dH dt e
5 .
10 .
2
2
5 . . 5 .
dH dt e
. 61
2.55267410
2
2
15 . . 5 .
dH dt e
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
2
2
5 . . 5 .
km
.
s Mpc
. 60
4.13447210
. 60
9.11289510
67.084257
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
dH dt
= 1.16926910
. 61
2
2
5 . . 5 .
dH dt e
. 61
1.59787310
dH dt e
. 61
8.46094110
2
1
H U R o,M G
. 61
8.46094110
dH dt t 4 .H
. 61
= 3.84599410
67.084304
H U R o,M G
dH dt t 4 .H
km
s .Mpc
H U R o,M G
71
H0
H0
. 123
7.15875210
1
2
. 123
1.47916710
. 3
4.50030410
km
s .Mpc
3
5.041.10
1
H .
dH dt t 4 .H
H
dH dt t 4 .H
2.199936
4.839718
314
T U2
dH dt 1
T U2
5 .
dH dt e
10 .
T U2
2
2
5 . . 5 .
dH dt e
. 31
2.97174510
2
2
15 . . 5 .
T U2
dH dt e
2
2
5 . . 5 .
T U2
2.724751
2
3
H U R o,M G
dH dt
. 31
3.18071410
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
dH dt e
. 31
2.72300610
2
2
15 . . 5 .
T U2
= 3.18071410
. 31 ( K )
T U2
. 31
3.18632310
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
dH dt e
1
T U2 t 1
.T
U2
dH dt e
5 .
10 .
1
T U2 t 2
.T
U2
dH dt e
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
2
15 . . 5 .
1
T U2 t 3
.T
U2
dH dt e
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
1
T U2 t 4
.T
U2
dH dt e
2
2
5 . . 5 .
T U2 t 5
.T
U2
1
T U2 H U R o , M G
dH dt e
.T
U2
(%)
32.18827
.
3.90264410
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
dH dt
12.291857
19.987768
2
2
15 . . 5 .
5.00939
1=
1
7.002696
2
3
H U R o,M G
315
T U2 H
T U2
13 .
10 ( s )
1
T U2
10
10
10 .
(s)
T U2
T U2
1
.
31 ( day )
T U2
T U2
1 .( yr )
1
T U2
2
10 .( yr )
T U2
3.
. 9
1.01325410
2.724752
( K)
1
6.
10 ( yr )
. 10 1.84076810
. 3
1.2497710
. 7 521.528169
2.52413210
7.
. 6
3.86401510
147.71262
= 1.00307810
. 6
41.823796
. 4
8.07751510
11.838588
9
10 .( yr )
.
2.29089210
3.35005
.
6.49496110
0.947724
1
8
10 .( yr )
( yr )
11 .
10
1
116.( day )
( K)
T U2
4.
T U2
4.898955
5.
10
10 ( yr )
T U2
. 15
3.43308810
10 .
10 ( yr )
T U2
9
5 .10 .( yr )
10 ( yr )
T U2
11.838588
10 ( yr )
1 .( day )
T U2
T U2
1 .( s )
1
T U2
T U2 H U R o , M G
2
10 .( s )
T U2
T U2
T U2
.
1.92400510
28
9
10 .( yr )
(s)
T U2
T U2
34 .
978.724031
T U2
( yr )
. 6
1.87808710
.
3.98831410
( K)
TL
xii. SBH temperature

Th
T BH( M )
Th
( 4 . )
.
2
mh
M
. 30 ( K )
= 1.66667410
2
8 . . x
T SPBH
.
1. mh c
h . h
c.
U m x. h , m x.m h
. 32
3.55137410
. 32
3.55137410
T BH m x.m h
. 30 ( K )
T BH m x.m h = 1.66667410
h .c
( K)
=1
2
16. . .G.m x.m h
10
T BH 10 .M S
h .c
T U2
=1
1
t1
T BH m x.m h
T U2
= 19.173025
1
t1
6 . .T BH m x.m h
1 = 1.716054 ( % )
2
10
16. . .G.10 .M S
316
T U2
1
t1
3 .T h
T SPBH
. 31 ( K )
T SPBH = 5.02766910
1 = 1.716054 ( % )
T BH m x.m h
= 30.165887
4 . . x
T SPBH
T U2
. 31 ( K )
K T SPBH = 3.20071410
= 1.57335
T U2
t1
4
T U2
3
K .T SPBH
3.
6 .c
. 31 ( K )
= 3.20071410
. .G
t1
2 K
W
.c .
5 G.
1 . 15 .
h .c
x 4 . .K W
15 .
h .c
= 2.659782
4 . .K W
1 = 0.248248 ( % )
1 = 1.442436 ( % )
T BH m e
T BH m p
T BH m n
T BH m
T BH m
T BH m en
T BH m n
T BH m n
T BH m uq
T BH m dq
T BH m sq
T BH m cq
T BH m bq
T BH m tq
T BH m W
T BH m Z
T BH m H
T SPBH
t1
2
c . KW
. 31 ( K )
= 3.18758510
5 G.
1 = 0.162602 ( % )
. 47
6.01617410
. 31
5.02766910
. 53 7.33529610
. 49 7.32519910
. 49 6.51392110
. 50
1.34687210
=
. 49 2.29416810
. 58 3.6223710
. 53 3.78159510
. 51
3.87312710
. 52 9.81839510
. 51 6.04208910
. 50 5.81830810
. 49
1.96367910
( K)
. 49 3.8570310
. 47 8.55766610
. 47 7.54763110
. 47
1.67121610
( K)
xiii. ZPF
EGM
U r x5.R o , m g5 .M G
3 .c .
ZPF .
H U R o,M G
8 . .G
2
U ZPF
EGM
PDG
PDG
U R o,M G
= 0.997339
U ZPF = 251.778016
U ZPF = 842.934914
yJ
3
ZPF
1.003
.
ZPF = 3.31400710
U ZPF = 251.778016( fPa )
U ZPF = 2.51778 10
13 .
U ZPF = 0.251778
mJ
U ZPF = 251.778016
km
EJ
. 12
U ZPF = 7.39723510
AU
EGM
EGM = 1.000331
mm
fJ
3
YJ
pc
317
Pa
. 41
U ZPF = 6.60189810
YJ
R U R o,M G
xiv. Cosmological limits

M U R o,M G
M EGM
ML
R EGM
K m.M G.
K .R o
R U R o,M G
R EGM
5 5
R EGM
rL
K .R o
. 71 ( kg )
M L = 4.86482110
t EGM
R BH M L
. 19 109 .Lyr
r L = 7.6372910
A U R o,M G
rL
tL
. 19 109 .yr
t L = 7.6372910
ML
M EGM
M EGM
2
R EGM.c
t EGM
=1
2 .G
. 18
5.23967510
rL
=1
R EGM
R EGM
tL
tL
= 5.23967510
. 18
. 6
= 1.86196810
TL
. 18
5.23967510
t EGM
xv. Particle Cosmology

5
m 2
h
tL
E ( r, M )
m gg2
h . ( r , M )
Q r , m e
Q _PDG
5 .10
2 .m 2
r 2
N ( r, M )
Q ( r , M )
30 .
Qe
r e.
m 2
m e .c
m gg2
1.715978
3.431956
4 .r 2
Q ( r, M )
N ( r, M )
r gg2
E ( r, M )
Q ( r, M )
m 2
10
318
51 .
eV
Qe
N ( r, M )
Qe
Q 2
r 2
r gg2
Q
m
.m
2
7.250508
9.567103
10
38 .
r 2
r 2
2 .r 2
K . h
K . h
2 .r 2
0.178967
2 .r 2
h
r gg2
0.357933
0.236148
558.763566
0.307913
324.766614
2 .r 2
(%)
279.381783
423.463597
0.406294
r gg2
246.127068
2 .r gg2
0.472296
K . h
211.731798
K . h
2 .r gg2
2 .r gg2
2 .r gg2
= 2.655018 10
Q _PDG
30
Qe
Q = 1.129394 10
= 1.883226
= 7.049122 10
60
Qe
.
= 1.86196810
Q 2
Q 2 = 6.065593 10
m 2
m
= 3.785846 10
r e, m e
.m
r , m e
Qe
E r e, m e
m
85 .
E r , m e
66
78 .
1.525768
1.525768
10
46 .
eV
r e,m e
=
0.165603
0.165603
( J )
h .m
249.926816
249.926816
( YHz)
Qe
me
2.
c Q
. 11
1.7588210
198.286288
kg
319
NOTES
320
MathCad 12
c. High precision calculation engine
Convergence Tolerance (TOL): 10-14.

Constraint Tolerance (CTOL): 10-14.
ii. Astronomical statistics
H0 := 71
s Mpc
H0 := 2
s Mpc
km
km
T0 := 0.001( K)
T0 := 2.725 ( K)
H0 H0 = 69
s Mpc
km
T0 + T0 = 2.726( K)
iii. Derived constants
:=
x := 4
Stt := 2 h
4

3
2
H :=
TL :=
h
m
iv. Algorithm
7
2
2
2
2
2
5
7
m
7
26
m
(
)
(
)
1
h
3 32 ln 3 h r
r
HU5( r , M) :=
ln
4 M M
TL
256
h
h
H
(
r
,
M
)
U5
KT ( r , M) := 8 ln
TU( r , M ) := KT ( r , M ) TW( r , M )
TW( r , M) :=
KW
HU5 ( r , M)
x
2
mh
H 9
5
Stt H
H
TU2( H) := KW ln
HU5( Ro , MG) 67.084134 km
HU5( Ro , M G) 67.753095 s Mpc
TU( Ro , MG) 2.724749
=
( K)
TU( Ro , MG) 2.739614
HU5( Ro , M G)
2.776618 ( %)
1=
H0 H0 HU5( Ro , MG)
1.807108
1
TU( Ro , M G)
0.045904 ( %)
1=
T0 + T0 TU( Ro , MG)
0.499413
1
321
TU2( H0 H0)
TU2( H0)
TU2 H0 + 0
2
2.767146
= 2.810842 ( K)
2.832481
H0 H0
H0
H
H0 + 0
2
69
km
= 71
s Mpc
72
d. Various forms of the derived constants
2.698709 2.698709
=
6
2 2.698709 2.698709
4
6
2
1
1 4
c3 H h
7
9
4 2 2
2 h c
5
7
1 4 2
4 c
3
h
6.355579 1095
5
s
= 6.355579 1095
9
6.355579 1095 m
NOTES
322
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the SLD Electroweak & Heavy Flavor Groups, Precision Electroweak Measurements on the Z
Resonance, CERN-PH-EP/2005-041, SLAC-R-774: http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ex/0509008v3
[17] The ZEUS Collaboration, Search for contact interactions, large extra dimensions and finite
Quark radius in ep collisions at HERA, Phys. Lett. B591 (2004) 23-41:
[18] James William Rohlf, Modern Physics from to Z, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1994.
[19] http://pdg.lbl.gov/2006/reviews/astrorpp.pdf
[20] http://zebu.uoregon.edu/~imamura/123/lecture-2/mass.html
[21] http://pdg.lbl.gov/2006/reviews/hubblerpp.pdf (pg. 20 - WMAP + All).
323
Periodic Table of the Elements
324
Cosmological Evolution Process
Figure 2.4,
325
Figure 2.5,
326
NOTES
327
NOTES
328
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Quinta Essentia: A Practical Guide to Space-Time Engineering - Part 2
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Quinta Essentia - Part 2

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A Practical Guide to Space-Time Engineering

i.e. in accordance with the principles of QM.

The spectral quantisation of gravity.

Quinta Essentia Part 4 (QE4)

Quinta Essentia Part 2 (QE2)

Quinta Essentia ................................................................................................................... 23

Material waves .................................................................................................................. 33

Equilibration and virtual reality ......................................................................................... 33

Bridging the gaps .............................................................................................................. 35

Electro-Gravi-Magnetics (EGM) ........................................................................................ 41

Precepts and principles ...................................................................................................... 42

Elementary particles .......................................................................................................... 47

The EGM spectrum .................................................................................................. 53

Key point summary ........................................................................................................... 63

Precepts and principles ...................................................................................................... 65

ZPF transformations .......................................................................................................... 66

The Natural Philosophy of Fundamental Particles ............................................................ 75

Harmonic representation of gravitational acceleration........................................................ 76

Poynting Vector S ........................................................................................................ 78

The size of the Proton, Neutron and Electron (radii: r, r, r) .................................. 79

Graphical representation of fundamental particles under EGM .......................................... 91

The Natural Philosophy of the Cosmos .............................................................................. 93

Hubble constant HU............................................................................................... 95

Concluding remarks......................................................................................................... 110

d2H/dt2 vs. (HH)-1 (vi): Figure 4.45 ................................................................. 135

q0, 0............................................................................................................................... 141

EGM vs. SMoC ............................................................................................................... 147

Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 148

Definition of Terms ........................................................................................................... 149

Dimensional Analysis Techniques (DAT's) ............................................................ 151

RMS Charge Radius of the Neutron r................................................................. 155

Glossary of Terms ............................................................................................................. 163

Key Artefact and Equation Summary .............................................................................. 181

9.1.8.1.4.1 Primary ................................................................................................... 185

9.2.7.5 N ..................................................................................................................... 197

MathCad 8 Professional: calculation engine............................................................ 223

MathCad 12: High precision calculation results ...................................................... 247

MathCad 8 Professional.......................................................................................... 253

ii. Standard relationships.............................................................................................. 299

MathCad 12............................................................................................................ 321

Principia (1687) and Opticks (1704).

Those following Maxwells lead to further describe ElectroMagnetism.

Newtons first law of motion.

Equilibration and virtual reality

We may consider the space-time curvature induced by the presence of matter to be a

Bridging the gaps

Einstein relied upon the equivalence principle to

Emerging Possibilities for Space Propulsion Breakthroughs, Interstellar Propulsion Society

The Polarisable Vacuum

GR is a descriptive tool, not a literal explanation of Nature.

i.e. enforces direction and order.

The QV surrounding a mass-object exists in a state of asymmetrical energy polarisation such

The speed of light

A method derived from a single paradigm, cross-fertilising core physical concepts.

Precepts and principles

Synonymous with the time domain.

The frequency distribution of the spectral energy density of the QV surrounding an

EGM is a mathematical modelling method considerate of standard control-systems

i.e. instantaneously prior to the Big-Bang.

i.e. the elementary particles presumed to mediate gravitational force.

i.e. until energy conditions return to normal.

We shall outline the method developed in QE2-4 to describe g in harmonised terms,

Facilitating an explanation of the accelerated Cosmological expansion phenomenon.