PRACTICAL MANUAL NATIONAL DIPLOMA

ELECTRICAL / ELECTRONICS DEPARTMENT

The Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro Ogun State Nigeria.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING SCIENCE/EEC112.........................................................3 Measurement of Resistance.............................................................................................4 Ohms Law (1) ................................................................................................................6 Ohms Law (2) ................................................................................................................8 Kirchhoffs 1st Law (Voltage Divider Rule).................................................................10 Resistors in series...........................................................................................................12 Kirchhoffs 2nd law (Current Law)...............................................................................13 Resistivity of Materials .................................................................................................15 Demonstration of Sinusoidal Signal .............................................................................16 ELECTRONICS 1.............................................................................................................17 COURSE CODE/EEC 124................................................................................................17 Physical Identification Of A PN-Junction Diode And Test Of Its Functionality..........18 Determination Of Transistor (Npn) Characteristic Curve.............................................20 Operation Of Zener Diode As Voltage Regulator.........................................................22 Output Characteristics Of A Common Source Fet........................................................24 Measurement and instrumentation I/EEC 128...................................................................26 Measurement of Resistance using Ohmmeter................................................................26 Determination of Errors in Measurement......................................................................28 Ohms Law (1)...............................................................................................................29 Ohms Law (2) ..............................................................................................................31 ELECTRONICS II/EEC 234.............................................................................................34 Performance Of A Common Emitter Amplifier............................................................34 Determination Of Gain/ Frequency Curve.....................................................................36 Application Of Negative Feedback To Amplifiers........................................................38 Operation Of Lc Oscillators...........................................................................................40 Rectification...................................................................................................................42 MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION II/EEC 235.........................................45 Measurement of voltage, current and frequency using digital instrument.....................45 Measurement of power using single-phase wattmeter...................................................47 TELECOMMUNICATIONS/EEC 244.............................................................................50 Demonstration Of Amplitude Modulation And Demodulation ....................................50 Determination Of Frequency Modulation......................................................................52 ELECTRICAL MACHINES/EEC 236..............................................................................55 Efficiency Of Transformers...........................................................................................55 Transformer Voltage Regulation...................................................................................56 Transformer Load Test..................................................................................................58 Determination Of No-Load Current Componets...........................................................60 Open Circuit And Short Circuit Test On A Transformer..............................................62

Department Of Electrical Engineering, The Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro Ogun State.

COURSE TITLE/CODE: ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING SCIENCE/EEC112

Department Of Electrical Engineering, The Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro Ogun State.

Experiment 1 Title:

Measurement of Resistance
Objective: At the end of the experiment the student should be able to:
Identify Resistors Measure Resistance using an Ohmmeter and Determine resistance values using colour codes

Background Theory: Resistor is a component, which determines the current

magnitude in an electric circuit according to Ohms law, depending on the resistor value and the voltage passed through it. The most commonly used resistors come in cylindrical packages with 4 colour rings. Three are close to each other while the last one is slightly far away. The three close rings indicates the value of the resistor and the fourth its tolerance.

Apparatus: Diagram

TPS 3321, Power supply, Multimeter, Banana wires and resistors1M, 91K, 10K, 5.1, 1K, 100

Brown = 1 Black = 0 Red = 2

Gold = 5%

Procedure:
1. Do not connect the TPS 3321 to the Power Supply 2. Identify five resistors on the TPS Trainer panel. 3. Having identified the five resistors, R1, R2, R3, R4 and R5 on the TPS3321, write out the colour of R1 determine the value using colour code method. 4. Write down the value in the table provided. 5. Repeat the same for the remaining resistors. 6. Turn the Multimeter selector to Ohms range, choose the 20K region. Insert the red probe to the voltage and resistance socket and the black probe to the common socket. 7. Connect the Multimeter probe to the two ends of the resistor R1. 8. Take the reading in the meter and if necessary adjust the range to have a readable value judging from your answer when colour code was used. 9. Record the reading in the space provided and 10. Repeat then same for the rest of the resistors.

Department Of Electrical Engineering, The Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro Ogun State.

RESULTS: No 1 2 3 4 5 6 Resistor Symbol R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 First colour Second colour Third colour Fourth colour 1st digit 2nd digit 3rd digit % toler ance Norminal Value Measured Value

EXERCISES:
What conclusions can you draw from the two readings? (i.e. Colour Code and Meter Values)

Department Of Electrical Engineering, The Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro Ogun State.

Experiment 2 Title:

Ohms Law (1)

Objective: At the end of the experiment, the student should be able to determine
the relationship that exists between Current and Voltage across a resistor. Background Theory: The current that flows through a resistor in a d.c. circuit is directly proportional to the potential difference between the two ends of the resistor, provided all physical conditions are constant. i.e. V/I =R

Apparatus: TPS 3321, Two multimeters and banana wires. Diagram:

I

+ -

Fig 2.1 Simple d.c. circuit for verification of Ohms law

Procedure:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Connect the TPS 3321 to power supply Switch On the power supply Turn the power supply control knob until you obtain 0V Connect the red probe of the meter to positive terminal of the power supply Connect the black probe of the meter to a terminal of the resistor R5 Connect the second terminal of the resistor to ground. Measure and record the current in the circuit through the ammeter. Repeat the procedure (4) (8) for Vs = 2-10V with steps of 2.

Department Of Electrical Engineering, The Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro Ogun State.

Result/Analysis: Tabulate the readings as shown below;

R5() Vs(V) 0 2 4 6 8 10 I(A)

Exercises:
Plot the graph of Voltage against Current From the experiment, draw your conclusions.

Department Of Electrical Engineering, The Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro Ogun State.

Experiment 3 Title:

Ohms Law (2)

Objective: At the end of the experiment, the student should be able to determine
the relationship that exists between Current and Resistance. Background Theory: The current that flows through a resistor in a d.c. circuit is Inversely proportional to the resistance of the resistor for a constant voltage. i.e. I1/R.

Apparatus: TPS 3321, Two multimeters and banana wires. Diagram:

A + -

5V

1K

Fig 2.1 Simple d.c. circuit for verification of Ohms law

Procedure:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Connect the TPS 3321 to power supply Switch On the power supply Turn the power supply control knob until you obtain 5V Connect the red probe of the meter to positive terminal of the power supply Connect the black probe of the meter to a terminal of the resistor R5 (1K ) Connect the second terminal of the 1K resistor to ground. Measure and record the current in the circuit through the ammeter and record as shown below. 8. Repeat the procedure (5) (7) for resistors 1M, 91K, 10K, 1K, 100.

Department Of Electrical Engineering, The Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro Ogun State.

Result/Analysis: Tabulate your readings as shown below; R 1 2 3 4 5 6 Vs(V) 5 5 5 5 5 5 Resistance I(mA)

Exercises: Plot the graph of Current against Resistance From the experiment, draw your conclusions.

Department Of Electrical Engineering, The Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro Ogun State.

Experiment 4 Title:

Kirchhoffs 1st Law (Voltage Divider Rule)

Objective: At the end of the experiment, the student should be able to the principle
of Voltage Divider Rule from the connection of resistors in a circuit.

Background Theory: This connection is very common in electronics circuits,

a case where some resistors are connected in series. This brings about a voltage divider since the 1st Kirchhoffs law states that the algebraic sum of voltages in a circuit is zero. The equation holds that i.e.

Apparatus:
100

TPS 3321, Two multimeters and banana wires, Resistors 1K &

Diagram:
I R R
2 1

I R5 1K R6 100

+ -

+ 12 V -

Rn

Fig 2.1 Simple d.c. circuit for verification of Ohms law

Procedure:
1. Connect the TPS 3321 to power supply 2. Connect the circuit as shown in fig 4.2, connecting the free sockets of R5 and R6 using banana wires. 3. Connect the +12v socket to the first socket of R5 and then the other socket of R6 to the negative of the power supply (the GRD) 4. Allow the Supervisor to crosscheck the connections then Switch On the power supply 5. Turn the multimeter to voltage mode and use the 20Volts range. Connect the meter probes to the socket of R6. Write out the voltage VR6 Department Of Electrical Engineering, The Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro Ogun State. 10

6. Measure and record VR5 as well and record.

RESULTS:
VR6 = VR5 = Measure the Source Voltage Vs Check if Vs = VR5 + VR6 9. = = =?

Exercise: What does the formula in step 9 calculate? Write down your comments.

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Experiment 5 Title:

Resistors in series
Objectives: At the end of the experiment the student should be able to establish
that resistances connected in series add up to be the total resistance.

Theoretical Background: Resistors connected in series which is a common

case in electronics circuits, add up to be the total resistance Rt in the circuit or branch such that Rt = R1+R2+R3.Rn as it is in the following circuit.

Diagram:
R 1 1 M R 91 2 K R 10K 3 R 5.1K 4 R 1 5 K

Apparatus:
1. TPS 3321, Power supply and multimeter 2. Banana wires 3. Resistors

Procedure:
1. Make sure the TPS 3321 is in OFF position 2. Connect the circuit in fig 5.1 using banana wires to link alternate sockets of the resistors shown. 3. Use the multimeter to measure the total resistance by placing the probes across open socket of Rs and that of R1 4. Take the reading 5. Rt=? 6. Check if truly Rt=R1+R2+R3+R4+R5 from the readings you got in experiment 1

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Experiment 6 Title:

Kirchhoffs 2nd law (Current Law)

Objectives: At the end of the experiment the student should be able to understand
the condition of parallel connection of resistors resulting in current divider.

Theoretical Background:

From the 2nd Kirchhoffs law which states that in a closed loop, the sum of the products of the current and resistance of each part of the current and resistance of each part circuit equals the resultant e.m.f in the circuit when resistances are connected in parallel, we have a current divider while the same voltage flows into each branch as in fig. 6.1

Apparatus: TPS 3321, Power Supply, a Multimeter and Resistors Procedure:

1. Make sure the TPS 3321 is switched off. 2. Connect the circuit as shown in fig 6.2 with the multimeter set to measure current connected in series with the 1k which is R1. 3. Allow the supervisor to crosscheck the connections. 4. Then turn on the TPS 3321 5. Adjust the power supply voltage to +3V 6. Check the reading for IR5 (1K) 7. Record your readings 8. Reconnect the circuit to fig 6.3 so as to read the meter for IR4 (5.1k) 9. Check if IR5/R4=IR4/R5 exist and 10. Verify if IR4*R4=IRS*R5 11. Connect as in fig 4 12. Justify the law Sum of all currents that enter a point in electrical circuit equals to zero check if IT-IR4-IR5=0

Diagram:
I

+ -

R1 I1

R2 I2

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Fig 6.1

Readings :
Tabulate your readings as shown below IR4 IR5 IT

Exercises:
What does the formula in step 10 calculate? Verify if IT=IR4+IR5 and make your comment.

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Experiment 7 Title:

Resistivity of Materials
Objective: At the end of the experiment, the student should be able to establish that
the resistivity of a material is directly proportional to its length and inversely proportional to its cross sectional area.

Background Theory: The resistance of

a material (conductor ) is directly proportional to its length and inversely proportional to its cross sectional area. The relationship exists that And resistivity is derived from the relation = where A is constant. where is the resistivity therefore

Apparatus: Potentiometer, Multimeter, Procedure:

1. On the Potentiometer, measure using its meter rule, 0.3m. 2. Set the Multimeter to Ohms range 3. Place one Probe of the multimeter at the beginning of the constantan wire on the potentiometer, and the other probe directly on the point of 0.3m. 4. Take the reading on the Meter

Result/Analysis: Tabulate the readings as shown below;

L(m) R() 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

Exercises:
Plot the graph of Resistance against length Calculate the slope What does the slope suggest? From the experiment, draw your conclusions.

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Experiment 8 Title:

Demonstration of Sinusoidal Signal

Objective: At the end of the experiment, the student should be able to appreciate
the representation on sine waves on the Oscilloscope, determine the parameters involved the Amplitude, frequency and also the Period by calculation.

Background Theory: The Sine Wave describes the voltage available at the
household socket outlets as well as the alternating current on the power lines connected to residential and industrial areas. Consider sinusoidal varying voltage v(t) = VmaxSint. The amplitude of the Sine wave is Vm and the argument (angular displacement) is t. The function repeats itself every 2 radians and its period is 2 radians which is T. Its frequency f is Hz. Since t = 2 (which is the period) = 2f

Apparatus: Oscilloscope and function generator. Procedure:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Connect the Function generator to the Oscilloscope using the connector link Press the Sine Wave function on the Function Generator. Select one channel on the Oscilloscope and switch it ON. Turn ON the Function Generator. On the Oscilloscope, set the time/div knob to 0.2ms and the volt/div knob to 0.2v. Adjust the Viewed waveform up or down and sideways to match a convenient reading scale. 7. Make sure the supervisor guides you 8. Take your readings

Exercises:
Re-present the waveform on your graph book take note of the number of divisions in the grid scale. Calculate the Amplitude A, Period P and deduce the Frequency f

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COURSE TITLE/CODE:

ELECTRONICS 1 COURSE CODE/EEC 124

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Experiment 1 Title:

Physical Identification Of A PN-Junction Diode And Test Of Its Functionality.

Objective: At the end of the experiment the student should be able to identify pnjunction diode physically and test for its functionality.

Background Theory:

The pn-junction diode is formed by growing one crystal, (it must be continous) of semiconductor, material and doping separate but adjacent layers of it with the appropriate impurities. At equilibrium, a depletion layer is formed at the junction that is void (depleted) of loosely held charge carriers. When conducting leads are attached to a pn-junction, the device exhibits a useful characteristics and is called a PN-junction diode.

Apparatus:
1. Multi-meter 2. Semiconductor diode type IN4007.

Diagram:
P +++ +++ +++ +++ N -+---+---+---+---

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Procedure:
1. Identifying the PN-junction diode physically 2. The Semiconductor diode IN4007 looks cylindrical in shape 3. Identify the cathode by locating the end with a white stripe around it as shown in the diagram 4. The other end with no white stripe is the anode 5. Test of Functionality using a multi-meter 6. Switch on the multimeter 7. Select the semiconductor test mode on the digital multimeter 8. Connect the red probe to the anode as earlier identified. 9. Connect the black probe to the cathiode 10. Observe what happens 11. Connect the balck probe to the anode 12. Connect the red probe to the cathode 13. Observe what happens

Results:
Resistance reading Forward bias Reverse bias

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Experiment 2 Title:

Determination Of Transistor Characteristic Curve

draw the output characteristic curve of an NPN transistor.

(Npn)

Objective: At the end of the experiment the student should be able to measure and Background Information: Every bipolar junction transistor have base (B),
an emitter (E) and a collector (C) as its electrodes. However, when the transistor is connected such that the emitter is common to both the base-emitter side and the collectoremitter output side, then the configuration is said to be common emitter configuration. The output or collector characteristics plots of the output current (Ic) versus output voltage (Vce) for fixed values of input current, Ib.

Apparatus: TPS 3321,and Multimeters, Procedure:

1. 2. 3. 4. Connect the circuit as shown above. Output characteristics Adjust the input resistance R1 and R2 until Ib = 0A initially. Turn R3 to increase Vce in steps of 1V, starting from 0V to 10V, measure and record corresponding values of Ic using table1. 5. Follow the procedure in step 1 and set Ib =20A to 80A for each fixed value of Ib, repeat step 2 and complete the table.

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Diagram:
0 30mA 100 R2 1M 0 100mA A Ib 100K R1 5V Vce A Ic 10V

Results:
Table 1 Ib(A) Vce(V) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 20 40 60

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Experiment 3 Title:

Operation Of Zener Diode As Voltage Regulator

Objective: At the end of the experiment the student should be able to understand
regulation in power supplies and measurements in linear voltage regulators.

Background Information:

The zener diode is the basic component in regulation circuits. The zener diode is a diode operated in the reverse breakdown region. It is made from a heavily doped PN junction and reverse breakdown voltage or zener voltage is specified by the manufacturer.

Apparatus: TPS 3321, Multimeters, Banana wires. Procdure:

1. Implement the circuit as shown above 2. Turn the trainer 3. Change Vi and fill the following table

Diagram:
IN4001 Vi Meter 1 1K Vo Meter 2

Results:
t 1 2 3 4

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Vi Vo Vo Sv

7V 4.33

8V 4.42

9V 4.49

10V 4.52

Exercises:
Vo (t) = Vo (t+1) Vo (t) Plot graph of Vi against Vo Calculate the regulation coefficient for each column Sv = Vo/ Vin Determine the zener voltage State your observations Draw your conclusions

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Experiment 4 Title:

Output Characteristics Of A Common Source Fet

Objective: At the end of the experiment the student should be able to understand
the operation of a field effect transistor and draw its output characteristics.

Background Information: The field effect transistor is a three terminal

unipolar device, the FET is a voltage controlled device used in digital and analogue circuits for control and switching. It has three terminals, the Gate, the Drain and the Source. A plot of the drain current against the gate source voltage yields the output characteristics.

Apparatus: TPS 3321, Voltmeters and Ammeters. Procedure:

1. Connect the TPS 3321 trainer to the power supply and the power supply to the mains. 2. Implement the diagram shown above 3. Turn on power supply 4. Change VGG according to the following table and register the measured values of VGS, VD and VS

Diagram:
+ 12V 5.1 K

VG

VGG

1M

1K

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Results:
No VGG (V) VG (V) VD (V) VS (V) VGS (V) ID (mA) IS (mA) VDS (V) 1 3 2 2.5 3 2 4 1.5 5 1 6 .5 7 0 8 -0.5 9 -1 10 - 1.5 11 -2

Exercises:
Calculate VGS for every VGG value according to the following formulae: VG = VGG VGS = VG - VS ID = (VDD VD)/ RD VGS, = VS/RS Calculate VPO and IDSS of the component. Plot ID against VGS.

COURSE TITLE/ELECTRICAL

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Measurement

and instrumentation I/EEC 128

Experiment 1 Title:

Measurement of Resistance using Ohmmeter

Objective: At the end of the experiment the student should be able to:
Identify Resistors Measure Resistance using an Ohmmeter and Determine resistance values using colour codes

Background Theory: Resistor is a component, which determines the current

magnitude in an electric circuit according to Ohms law, depending on the resistor value and the voltage passed through it. The most commonly used resistors come in cylindrical packages with 4 colour rings. Three are close to each other while the last one is slightly far away. The three close rings indicates the value of the resistor and the fourth its tolerance.

Apparatus: Multimeter, resistors- A J and connecting leads Procedure:

1. Place the Multimeter on the table and adjust the Pointer to zero Department Of Electrical Engineering, The Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro Ogun State. 26

2. Set the selector switch to Ohms range 3. Short the two terminals of the meter by bringing the two probes to touch each other 4. See that the pointer turns to infinity 5. Pick resistor A and connect the two leads to the two ends of the resistor 6. Take the reading on the Ohms Scale (Be sure to select an appropriate ohms range) 7. Record your reading in the table provided 8. Repeat the same for the remaining resistors B - J

RESULTS:
RESISTORS A B C D E F G H I J VALUE FROM OHM METER

EXERCISES:
What are the other units of resistance? What difficulties did you encounter while taking the readings? What precautions did you take? Give two instances where resistors are used.

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Experiment 2 Title:

Determination of Errors in Measurement

Objective: At the end of the experiment the student should be able to determine
errors in measurements.

Background Theory:

Measurements are prone to errors which may arise either from meter variances, temperature differences and other factors. It is hereby possible to determine the Absolute error and the relative error by calculations.

Apparatus: Multimeter, resistors- A J and connecting leads Procedure:

1. Place the Multimeter on the table and adjust the Pointer to zero 2. Set the selector switch to Ohms range 3. Short the two terminals of the meter by bringing the two probes to touch each other 4. See that the pointer turns to infinity 5. Pick resistor A and connect the two leads to the two ends of the resistor 6. Take the reading on the Ohms Scale (Be sure to select an appropriate ohms range) 7. Record your reading in the table provided Department Of Electrical Engineering, The Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro Ogun State. 28

8. Repeat the same for the remaining resistors B - J

RESULTS:
RESISTORS A B C D E F G H I J NORMINAL VALUE, RN MEASURED VALUE,RM ABSOLUTE ERROR RA=RN-RM RELATIVE ERROR =RA/RM

EXERCISES:
Calculate the Absolute and Relative errors How can you minimize the errors in your measurement? What precautions did you take?

Experiment 3 Title:

Ohms Law (1)

Objective: At the end of the experiment, the student should be able to determine
the relationship that exists between Current and Resistance.

Background Theory:

The current that flows through a resistor in a d.c. circuit is Inversely proportional to the resistance of the resistor for a constant voltage. i.e. I1/R.

Apparatus: Diagram:

TPS 3321, Two multimeters and banana wires.

+ -

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I

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Fig 2.1 Simple d.c. circuit for verification of Ohms law

Procedure:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Connect the TPS 3321 to power supply Switch On the power supply Turn the power supply control knob until you obtain 5V Connect the red probe of the meter to positive terminal of the power supply Connect the black probe of the meter to a terminal of the resistor R5 (1K ) Connect the second terminal of the 1K resistor to ground. Measure and record the current in the circuit through the ammeter and record as shown below. 8. Repeat the procedure (5) (7) for resistors 1M, 91K, 10K, 1K, 100.

Result/Analysis:
Tabulate your readings as shown below; R 1 2 3 4 5 6 Vs(V) 5 5 5 5 5 5 Resistance I(mA)

Exercises:
Plot the graph of Current against Resistance Department Of Electrical Engineering, The Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro Ogun State. 30

From the experiment, draw your conclusions.

Experiment 4 Title:

Ohms Law (2)

Objective: At the end of the experiment, the student should be able to
Determine the value of an unknown resistor using the Rheostat, Determine the relationship that exists between Current and Voltage across a resistor.

Background Theory: the value of an unknown resistor could be determined

by using the Rheostat with the arrangement below. By taking various readings for voltage and current, plotting the graph and calculating the slope. The Slope value is the unknown resistance.

Apparatus: Procedure:

Ammeter (0-10mA), Voltmeter (0-10V), Rheostat (920, 0-3A) Power Supply Unit, (d.c. 10V), Resistors A-J, banana wires.

1. Connect the above Circuit

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2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Set the power supply to 10V and energize the circuit. Adjust the rheostat to obtain a reading of 5V on the Voltmeter Record both Voltmeter and the ammeter readings Repeat the procedure for 1-9V by adjusting the rheostat Tabulate the results as shown below

Result/Analysis:
Tabulate the readings as shown below; Voltage (V) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Current I (mA) Resistor Value

Exercises:
Plot the graph of voltage against current and calculate the slope. What can you say about the shape of the graph? Comment on the accuracy of this method.

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Department Of Electrical Engineering, The Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro Ogun State.

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COURSE TITLE / CODE ELECTRONICS II/EEC 234

Experiment 1 Title:

Performance Amplifier.

Of

Common

Emitter

Objective: The student at the end of the experiment should be able to determine the
relationship between the base current and the collector current in a common emitter Amplifier

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Background Theory:
For a transmitter amplifier circuit to function correctly, it should be properly fed with a d.c voltage source. In other words, the circuit must be correctly biased. This means the base, emitter and collector of the transistor in the amplifier circuit must be at a certain voltage values either relative to ground or relative to one another.

Apparatus:
TPS - 3321, Multimeters, stabilizer power supply.

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown below using banana wires as provided in the training kit. 2. Switch on the power supply. 3. Four resistors are provided for the base resistance R bx; determine using the color codes the value of these four resistors and record your readings in the table below. 4. For each of the base resistance given R bx, measure Vb and Vc and record as shown above.
VCC=12V

RBX A A

RC= 1K

VC

Vb

RE=100

Results:
Department Of Electrical Engineering, The Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro Ogun State. 35

S/N 1 2 3 4

Rbx

VB

VC

VRB

VRC

Ib (mA)

Ic (mA)

Hfe Comments -2 (10 )

Exercise:
Plot the graph of Vb against Vc. State what you deduced from this graph

Experiment 2 Title:

Determination Of Gain/ Frequency Curve

Objective: The student at the end of the experiment should be able to determine the
relationship between the gain of an amplifier and its frequency of operation, calculate the bandwidth of the amplifier and understand what is meant by frequency response of an amplifier.

Background Theory:
An importance characteristic of an amplifier is that it does not amplify an input signal equally at all frequencies. Thus, the voltage gain of an amplifier is frequency-dependent. Department Of Electrical Engineering, The Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro Ogun State. 36

The frequency response of an amplifier is a plot of gain versus frequency ( at many frequency points).

Apparatus:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Signal generator Oscilloscope Power supply Multimeters An experimental board (with transistors, resistors and capacitors).

Diagram:
0.1F 56K 1K 22F 22F BC109 22F

VCC = 10V

VO
5.6 K

1 K

80F

Procedure:
1. Connect the single stage amplifier circuit as shown in the diagram using the experimental board. 2. Connect the input of the amplifier to the signal generator and the output to the multimeter to measure the amplitude of the signal. 3. Connect another multimeter set to measure frequency to the input. Start at 700Hz and measure the corresponding voltage peak to peak, and record your results in the table below

Results:

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Frequency (Hz) Vin Vo A=20log10(Vo/Vin)

700

1K

2K

3K

4K

5K

6K

7K

8K

Exercise:
Using the data in table above, plot the frequency response curve on a single semilog graph paper. Determine the bandwidth of the amplifier from the frequency response curves What is meant by the frequency response of an amplifier?

Experiment 3 Title:

Application Of Amplifiers.
Background Theory:

Negative

Feedback

To

Objective: At the end of this experiment, the student should be able to understand
The effect of negative feedback on amplifier voltage gain,the effect of negative feedback on input and output impedances of an amplifier.

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The voltage gain of an amplifier is reduced over all the frequency range when a negative feedback is applied to it. If the amplifier gain without feedback is A, and is the feedback factor, then the overall gain is reduced by a factor of (1 + A).

Apparatus:
1. Sine wave oscillator 2. Oscilloscope 3. stabilized d.c power supply, training kit TPS 3321.

Procedure:
Without negative feedback (i. e CE is connected across RE) 1. Connect the circuit as shown below with the decoupling capacitor connected. 2. Apply an input sine wave Vi from the signal generator to the amplifier. 3. Measure and record the amplitude of the corresponding undistorted output signal, Vo as provided in the table below.
Vcc= 12v

SIGNAL GENERAT OR V
i

91K

5.6K

VO

Oscilloscope

10K

1K

80 F

Results:
Vin (V) Iin (A) Vout (V) A=20log10(Vo/Vin) Zin Commen on stability of amplifier

With negative feedback (i.e. CE not connected across RE): Department Of Electrical Engineering, The Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro Ogun State. 39

Repeat steps 1 (ii) and tabulate your result as in table 1

Exercise:
Calculate the gain for each Vin setting Determine the input impedance for each Vin setting . Comment on the stability of each type of amplifier. State your observations and conclusions.

Experiment 4 Title:

Operation Of Lc Oscillators.
Objective: The student at the end of the experiment should be able to understand
operation of the colpitts oscillator circuit and determine the value of the unknown inductor using the frequency measured from the output of the oscillator.

Background Theory:
X1 X
3 Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro Ogun State. Department Of Electrical Engineering, The X2

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Based on the proofs: For oscillation occur, (i) the reactance X1 and X3 must be of opposite sign and (ii) X1+X2+X3=0 For oscillation to be maintained 1+hfe= -(X1/X3). Oscillation type Colpitt Hartley X1 L C X2 C L X3 C L

For colpitts, X1= L, X2= (1/jC2) and X3= (1/jC3) f= 1/2 {LC2C3/ (C2+C3)}1/2

Apparatus:
1. TPS 3321 2. Multimeters 3. Oscilloscope.

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown below using banana wires. 2. Connect the output of the oscillator to the oscilloscope.

10K

Diagram:
L 12V
100pF 100pF

Department Of Electrical Engineering, The Federal 1K Polytechnic, Ilaro Ogun State.

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Results:
Measure and record the output frequency of the oscillator

Exercise:
Calculate the value of the inductor using f= 1/2 {LC2C3/ (C2+C3)}1/2 Comment on your results.

Experiment 5 Title:

Rectification.
Objective: The student at the end of the experiment should be able to connect and understand the action of a PN junction diode in rectification of AC signals and observe the output signals when connected as half wave and full wave rectifiers.

Background Theory:
Since the most convenient and economic source of power is the domestic ac supply, it is advantageous to convert this alternating voltage to dc voltage. This process of converting ac voltage into dc voltage is called rectification and is accomplished with the help of Rectifier Filter Department Of Electrical Engineering, The Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro Ogun State. 42

Voltage regulator circuits

Apparatus:
TPS - 3321, multimeters, oscilloscope.

Procedure:
Connect the circuit as shown below.

Diagram:
Half wave rectifier circuit

D1 SIGNAL GENERATO R

CH1 CH2 SW1 C1

1. Switch on the power supply, with SW1 at the OFF position. 2. Channel 1 of the oscilloscope shows the output of the rectifier and channel 2 shows the AC signal from the signal generator. 3. ON position: with the switch ON, the filter capacitor is connected to the output of the rectifier. Draw the wave forms observed.

Full wave rectifier circuit

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4. Connect the full wave rectifier as shown above and draw the waveform observed at the output

COURSE TITLE / CODE

Department Of Electrical Engineering, The Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro Ogun State. 44

MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION II/EEC 235

Experiment 1 Title:

Measurement of voltage, current frequency using digital instrument.

the use of digital instruments to measure voltage, current and frequency.

and

Objectives: At the end of the experiment the student should be able to understand Background Information:
A digital voltmeter is used to measure the potential diffenrence across two points and is connected across the supply or in parallel with the load. The ammeter measures the amount of current flowing through a load; it is connected such that it is in series with the load.

Department Of Electrical Engineering, The Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro Ogun State.

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Apparatus:
1. Digital multimeter 2. Digital Frequency meter 3. A.C. loads.

Procedure
1. 2. 3. 4. Connect the frequency meter as shown above across the load Connect the ammeter in series with the load across the volt meter Connect the combination using a switch across the mains. Record your readings on the voltmeter, ammeter and frequency meter

Diagram:

Readings :
Record your readings as shown below: Voltage Load 1 Load 2 Current Frequency

Exercises:
Calculate the power dissipated by load 1 and load 2 respectively

Department Of Electrical Engineering, The Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro Ogun State.

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Experiment 2 Title:

Measurement of power using single-phase wattmeter.

Objectives: At the end of the experiment the student should be able to measure
power using a wattmeter and compare the readings with that obtained on voltmeters and ammeters.

Background Information:

The wattmeter works on the principle of electrodynamometer, it is used for measurement of A.C. and D.C. power The fixed coil in the wattmeter connected in series with the load such that the total current flows through it. The movable coil is connected in series with a current limiting resistor across the supply line. Department Of Electrical Engineering, The Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro Ogun State. 47

Apparatus:
1. Single Phase Wattmeter 2. Voltmeter 3. Ammeter

Procedure:
1. Connect the source to the load and main terminal on the wattmeter as shown above. 2. Connect the load terminal to the common terminal and then to the load 3. Connect V2 to the neutral of the source and load 4. Connect the ammeter in series with the load as shown 5. Connect the voltmeter in parallel with the load as shown 6. For each load record your reading for wattmeter, voltmeter and ammeter.

Diagram:

Department Of Electrical Engineering, The Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro Ogun State.

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Readings:
Record your readings in the table below: S/N Type of load Power Measured using wattmeter Voltage measured Current measured Calculated power

Exercises:
Comment on the measured values.

COURSE TITLE / CODE

Department Of Electrical Engineering, The Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro Ogun State.

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TELECOMMUNICATIONS/EEC 244

Experiment 1 Title:

Demonstration Of Amplitude Modulation And Demodulation

Objectives: At the end of the experiment the student should be able to Background Information: When the amplitude of the carrier wave is varied
according to the modulating wave, it is called Amplitude modulation (A.M). This enables information at low frequencies to be transmitted at much higher frequencies. When the A.M. signal is received at the receiving end it is fed into a diode detector whose output is a D.C. signal, which varies in amplitude as that of the modulating signal.

Department Of Electrical Engineering, The Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro Ogun State.

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Apparatus:
1. Oscilloscope 2. Training Kit TPS 3421

Procedure:
Connect the output of the function generator to the A.M. input of the A.M. modulator stage. Connect the output of the modulator to the oscilloscope. With the function generator output at zero amplitude Vvar=0, observe and draw the waveform seen (i.e. carrier wave) With Vvar=1/2Vmax(midway between zero and maximum), observe and draw the waveform seen (i.e. modulated carrier) With Vvar=Vmax (maximum), Observe and draw the wave form seen. Connect the output of the modulator to the input of the diode detector and observe the output of the demodulator on the oscilloscope channel 2. Draw the demodulated signal waveform. Record your observations Write your conclusions on the experiment.

Diagram:
Vvar
Pre - Amplifier AM/FM Modulator Oscilloscope

Audio Amp

AM Diode Detector Loudspeaker 51

Department Of Electrical Engineering, The Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro Ogun State.

Readings :
Record your observations

Exercises:
Write your conclusions on the experiment Draw the waveforms seen in steps 4,5 and 6.

Experiment 2 Title:

Determination Of Frequency Modulation

Objectives: At the end of the experiment the student should be able to understand
how the amplitude of the modulating signal is used to vary the frequency of the carrier.

Background Information: Frequency modulation is the process in which

the frequency of the modulating carrier is varied while the amplitude is kept constant. The maximum deviation of the carrier is obtained when the cosine term in F=(Fc(1+KvmcosWmt) has its maximum value of 1 i.e. F=Fc(1=+/-KVm)

Apparatus:
1. TPS 3421 2. Sescope Software on PC Department Of Electrical Engineering, The Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro Ogun State. 52

3. Multimeter

Procedure:
Set up the circuit as shown in the diagram Adjust the potentiometer and see how the signal frequency varies accordingly. Record your readings in the table below

Diagram:
AM/FM Modulator AM FM1 VVAR VCO High Out Oscilloscope

Low

Readings :
No Vi No of cycle T F F KF 1 2 3 4 5

Exercises:

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For each measured voltage calculate F Calculate KF for each F Draw a graph of the frequency dependence on the VCO voltage

COURSE TITLE / CODE

Department Of Electrical Engineering, The Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro Ogun State. 54

ELECTRICAL MACHINES/EEC 236

Experiment 1a Title:

Efficiency Of Transformers.
Objective: The student at the end of the experiment should be able to measure the
efficiency of a transformer.

Background Information:
Transformers are electrical machines, which operates at a very high efficiency. The two main losses experienced are attributed to copper and iron losses. Copper loss is the i 2R loss as a result of the resistance of the transformer windings while the iron losses are due to hysteresis and Eddy-current loss. The eddy current loss is reduced by laminating former cores and the laminated surfaces vanished before assemblage.

Apparatus:
1. E70 - A.C Service Module 2. E73 Transformer Experimental Module Department Of Electrical Engineering, The Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro Ogun State. 55

3. E86 single phase power supply

Procedure:
1. Connect E70 and E86 together using the provided 6-way wires 2. Set the power supply E86 to 100v 3. Also connect the E73, the transformer experimental module to E70 AC service module 4. Feed a voltage of 100v to the primary side of the transformer B. 5. Place a 10 resistor connected in series with an ammeter across the secondary of transformer B 6. Take reading of the secondary side power, voltage and current. 7. Take reading of the primary side power, voltage and current.

Results:
PRIMARY SIDE CURRENT (A) VOLT (V) POWER (VA) SECONDARY SIDE

Exercise:
Determine the efficiency of the transformer of the transformer B when feeding a load of 100V.

Experiment 1b Title:

Transformer Voltage Regulation.

Objective: The student at the end of the experiment should be able to determine the
voltage at the secondary terminals of a voltage transformer.

Background Information:
The transformer on electrical machine; operates mainly on the principle of mutual inductance. When the primary side is connected to supply, voltage is induced on the secondary side as a result of the mutual flux linkage. However, the magnitude of the induced voltage depends on the turns ration between the primary and secondary windings. Equipment E73 comprises three different transformers labeled as A, B and C. The primary sides of the transformers are internally connected to the supply input on E73. The supply input to each of the transformer can be measured by switching the channel selector on the supply; that provides a variable a.c supply to the service module E70. Department Of Electrical Engineering, The Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro Ogun State. 56

Apparatus:
A.C Service Module E70, A.C supply E86, Transformer (bank) E73

Diagram:

Procedure:
Connect transformer B to the supply ac supply E86 through the service module E70 as shown in fig 1 Ensure the supply voltage is set to 100V. Using the voltmeter on the E70 AC service module, measure the various secondary voltages. Measure the voltages between terminals b1 and b2 Measure the voltages between terminals b1 and b3 Measure the voltages between terminals b2 and b3

Results:
Set the supply voltage to 100V and measure the following secondary voltages. b1 b2 b1 b3 b3 b2

Exercise:
The primary winding has 500 turns, estimate the following: No. of turns in section b1 b2 No. of turns in section b1 b3 No. of turns in section b3 b2 Determine the maximum flux in the magnetic circuit of the transformer.

Department Of Electrical Engineering, The Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro Ogun State.

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Experiment 2 Title:

Transformer Load Test.

Objective: The student at the end of the experiment should be able to determine the
parameters of a transformer when it loaded.

Background Theory:
When the transformer is loaded, the secondary current I2 is set up. The magnitude and phase of I2 with respect to V2 is determined by the characteristic of the load. I2 is in phase with V2 if the load is resistive, it lags when the load is inductive and it lags when the load is capacitive.

Apparatus:
E70 - A.C Service Module , E73 Transformer Experimental Module , E86 single phase (1-) power supply

Diagram:
Department Of Electrical Engineering, The Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro Ogun State. 58

Procedure:
Connect E73 transformer experimental module to E86 through E70, the AC service module. Set E86 to 100V Open SB and connect load resistors across the secondary as shown above Arrange to measure the primary voltage V1, primary current I1, secondary voltage V2 and secondary current I2. Interconnect the 10 resistors provided to achieve several values of the load resistor. For each value of the load resistor close SB and set the primary voltage at 100V. SA and SC should be off Complete the following table.

Results:
Load Resistor () s5 10 20 e.t.c. V1 (V) V2 (V) V1/V2 I2 (A) I1 (A) I2/I1

Exercise:
Plot on the same scale a graph of V1/V2 against I2/I1 for the four values of the load current. Why are the voltage and current ratios different and why are they dependent on load currents?

Department Of Electrical Engineering, The Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro Ogun State.

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Experiment 3 Title:

Determination Componets.

Of

No-Load

Current

Objective: The student at the end of the experiment should be able to determine the
magnetizing current (Im) and the core- loss current (Ic) of a 1- transformer.

Background Information:
The no-load current in a transformer is made up of two components namely, the magnetizing current (Im) which is responsible for the magnetic flux in the transformer. The other component is the core- loss current (I c) which is the current flow in the iron laminations. The heat felt in the transformer core is partly due to the flow of this current.

Apparatus:
1. E70 - A.C Service Module 2. E73 Transformer Experimental Module

Department Of Electrical Engineering, The Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro Ogun State.

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3. E86 single phase (1-) power supply

Diagram:

Procedure: Connect E73 transformer experimental module to E86 through E70, the AC service module. Set E86 to 100V Switch on transformer B and leave the secondary side on open circuit. Apply a variable voltage to transformer B in steps of 10V, from 10-100V and record the value of the no-load current for each voltage.

Readings:
VOLT (V) CURRENT IO (AMP) IC=IO Cos Im=IO Sin 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 The assumed power factor of the transformer is given that Cos = 0.75

Exercise:
Plot a graph of IC against Im and determine the slope of the graph. Comment on your result

Department Of Electrical Engineering, The Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro Ogun State.

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Experiment 4 Title:

Open Circuit And Short Circuit Test On A Transformer

Objective: The student at the end of the experiment should be able to determine the
parameters of a voltage transformer.

Background Information:
Two tests are carried out on transformers to be able to determine their parameters. They are Open Circuit Test and (ii) Short Circuit Test. During the open circuit test, the primary or the high voltage side is on open circuit and the rated voltage is applied to the secondary side. Readings of power, current and voltage are taken from the secondary or low voltage side. During short circuit test, the low voltage side is shorted by means of an ammeter and variable voltages applied to the high voltage side until rated current flows in the low voltage side, the readings are taken.

Department Of Electrical Engineering, The Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro Ogun State.

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Apparatus:
E70 - A.C Service Module E73 Transformer Experimental Module E86 single phase power supply 5A

Procedure:
OPEN CIRCUIT TEST Connect transformer A to supply through E70, AC service module. Ensure the supply voltage is set to 100v. Keep the primary side of transformer B open circuit, by placing the toggle switch connected to it in the OH position Measure the output voltage of transformer A. Feed the output voltage of transformer A to the secondary side of transformer B. Take the readings of power, voltage and current of transformer B whose primary side is on open circuit. SHORT CIRCUIT TEST Use am ammeter to short circuit the low voltage (or secondary) side of transformer B. Vary the input voltage to the primary side of transformer B until a current o 1 Amp flows on the secondary side. Take readings of power, voltage and current flow on the primary side of transformer B

Results:
POWER (W) OPEN CIRCUIT TEST SHORT CIRCUIT TEST VOLT (V) CURRENT (A)

Exercise:
Determine the parameters of transformer B and comment on your results.

Department Of Electrical Engineering, The Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro Ogun State.

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