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Co-existence of Gravity and Antigravity:

The Unification of Dark Matter and Dark Energy


Xiang-Song Chen
Department of Physics, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China
and Joint Center for Particle, Nuclear Physics and Cosmology, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China
Electronic address: cxs@scu.edu.cn, cxs@chenwang.nju.edu.cn
(Dated: February 2, 2008)
Massive gravity with second and fourth derivatives is shown to give both attractive and repulsive
gravities. In contrast to the attractive gravity correlated with the energy-momentum tensor, the
repulsive gravity is related to a fixed mass mx , which equals a spin-dependent factor fσ times
the graviton mass. Therefore, particles with energy below mx are both dark matter and dark
energy: Their overall gravity is attractive with normal matter but repulsive among themselves.
Detailed analyses reveal that this unified dark scenario can properly account for the observed dark
arXiv:astro-ph/0506070v2 7 Jun 2005

matter/energy phenomena: galaxy rotation curves, transition from early cosmic deceleration to
recent acceleration; and naturally overcome other dark scenarios’ difficulties: the substructure and
cuspy core problems, the difference of dark halo distributions in√galaxies and clusters, and the cosmic
coincidence. Very interestingly, Dirac particles have fσ = 1/ 2, all bosonic matter particles have
fσ = 0, and the only exceptional boson is the graviton itself, which may have fσ > 1.

PACS numbers: 95.35.+d, 95.30.Sf

In this rapid communication we show that the theo- we get


retical complications inherently contained in the gravita-
1
tional interaction provide a natural and perfect solution L1 = hµν ψ̄γ µ ∂ ν ψ + ψ̄γ µ ψ∂ ν hµν , (3)
to the cosmological dark matter/energy puzzles [1]. If 2
constructed as a quantum theory of a tensor field, grav- where we have discarded the antisymmetric piece in hµν
ity is intrinsically more complicated than the standard- since the lowest order graviton propagator is symmetric:
model interactions both in the gravity-matter coupling
and in the Lagrangian of the gravity itself. The dimen- ∆(q 2 )µν,αβ = ∆(q 2 )(ηµα ηνβ + ηµβ ηνα − ηµν ηαβ ). (4)
sionlessness of the metric field allows for fourth-order In massless Einstein gravity, ∆(q 2 ) ∼ 1/q 2 , the deriva-
derivatives without violating the power-counting renor- tive coupling in Eq. (3) just gives a trivial contact in-
malizability. The gravity-Dirac coupling, put in the stan- teraction. If we include fourth-order derivatives together
dard tetrad formalism, also exhibits a rich structure: with a mass term, the graviton propagator takes the form
[2]
1
L = −ψ̄γ c εc µ (∂µ + σ ab ωµab )ψ, (1)
2 ∆(q 2 ) ∼ 1/(q 2 + m2g )(q 2 + MP2 l ). (5)
The coupling of Eq. (3) and the propagator of Eq. (5)
where εc µ is the tetrad field, σ ab = 41 (γ a γ b − γ b γ a ), and
give a very interesting one-graviton-exchange potential:
1 1 e−mg r − e−MP l r (2P1 · P2 )2 − m21 m22
ωµab = εa ν (∂µ εbν − ∂ν εbµ )+ εa ρ εb σ (∂σ εcρ − ∂ρ εcσ )εc µ . V (r) ∼ −
2 r MP2 l − m2g E1 E2
(2)
Unlike the bosonic case, Eq. (1) contains a derivative 1 m2g e−mg r − MP2 l e−MP l r P1 · P2
+ , (6)
coupling to the tetrad field. As will be detailed below, al- r MP2 l − m2g 2E1 E2
though this derivative coupling is trivial in the standard
where P1,2 are the four-momenta of the two Dirac parti-
Einstein gravity with massless graviton and only second
cles, m1,2 are their rest masses, and E1,2 are their rela-
derivatives, it becomes crucial if one considers the full
tivistic energies. Except at very early universe with ex-
theoretical complications allowed for gravity by includ-
tremely high density, e−MP l r can be safely neglected. Eq.
ing fourth derivatives and graviton mass. In fact, the
(6) clearly exhibits a standard attractive term correlated
one-graviton-exchange potential between Dirac particles
with energy-momenta of the two Dirac particles, and a
is found to contain both attractive and repulsive terms
novel repulsive term proportional to the graviton mass mg
with distinct properties.
[4], which tells that:
To explore the one-graviton-exchange potential, we
write the tetrad field as εa µ = δ a µ + ha µ + o(h), 1. The repulsive term is negligible for normal matter
εa µ = δa µ − hµ a + o(h), and single out the terms linear Dirac particles (like quarks and electrons) whose
in h in Eq. (1). After dropping the total derivatives and masses are many orders of magnitude larger than
making use of the equation of motion for the Dirac field, mg .
2

2. For Dirac particles with energy comparable to mg , centrifugal force helps further to repel ALEPs from the
the repulsive term becomes significant, and can galaxy center.
dominate over the attractive term if, roughly speak- Difference of dark matter distributions in galax-
ing, the product of the two particles’ energies is ies and clusters. Weak-lensing observations reveal that
smaller than m2g /2. galaxy clusters contain more dark matter in the center
than galaxies do. The ALEP paradigm provides two pos-
3. The repulsive gravity between normal matter and sible mechanisms for this phenomenon: (1) The centrifu-
Dirac particles with energy comparable to mg , on gal effect: galaxy clusters rotate much slower than galax-
the other hand, is still negligible. ies do. (2) The acceleration effect: clusters have deeper
Such co-existence of attractive and repulsive gravities gravitational potential well, thus when ALEPs are ab-
strongly violates the equivalence principle for Dirac par- sorbed by clusters more of them can increase their energy
ticles with energy comparable to or much smaller than to become condensable particles.
the graviton mass. It should be noted that bosonic mat- Early cosmic deceleration and recent acceler-
ter fields have no derivative coupling to the graviton field, ation: Just like that heavier liquid falls closer to the
in consequence the gravity between bosons or between a bottom in a container, higher-energy ALEPs have higher
Dirac particle and a boson does not contain the repulsive priority to be attracted by the normal matter core,
term. In the language we used in the Abstract, bosons and lower-energy ones stay more to the outside. When
have fσ √ = 0, and Eq. (6) says that Dirac particles have the growth of the dark halo completes and no more
fσ = 1/ 2. However, there is one kind of boson which ALEPs can be attracted, the relic lower-energy back-
is exceptional: the graviton itself, which contains deriva- ground ALEPs feel an overall repulsive gravity from the
tives in its self-coupling. The fσ factor for the graviton galaxy or cluster together with their dark halos. This
strongly depends on construction of the complete gravi- in turn means that the background ALEPs provide a re-
ton Lagrangian, which we postpone till later studies. At pulsive force for the halo-filled galaxy or cluster. When
the moment we just assume that the graviton Lagrangian this background repulsion dominates over the attraction
is constructed to give fσ > 1, so that at low enough en- between the galaxies themselves, the cosmic expansion
ergies the repulsive gravity can still dominate. starts to speed up. Before the dark halo gets large
The co-existence of attractive and repulsive gravities enough, however, the ALEP background serves as at-
has far-reaching implications for cosmology. In what fol- tractive gravity source for the normal matter, and the
lows, we explain that antigravitating low-energy parti- cosmic expansion slows down.
cles (ALEPs) can serve as both dark matter and dark Cosmic coincidence. The fine-tuning or cosmic co-
energy. The ALEP paradigm is capable of solving all the incidence problem is a major difficulty for many theo-
observed cosmological dark matter/energy puzzles, and ries of cosmic acceleration, e.g., with a cosmological con-
also naturally overcomes the difficulties associated with stant. This difficulty is also naturally avoided in the
traditional dark scenarios. ALEP paradigm, which assigns only matter content to
Dark halo formation and galaxy rotation curve. the universe and no cosmological constant or vacuum en-
ALEPs with energy lower than mx = fσ mg repel each ergy, yet the cosmic expansion inherently transits from
other and do not cluster by themselves. However, they deceleration to acceleration with the process of forming
are attracted by normal matter and can condense around the ALEP dark halo.
galaxies and form a dark halo. As the dark halo gets In closing, we remark that:
larger and larger, the attraction of the normal matter (1) The ALEPs must have high enough density to be
core is compensated and finally no more ALEPs can be cosmologically relevant. Pauli exclusion principle dic-
attracted. On the other hand, this ALEP dark halo pro- tates that the maximum number density of fermions with
vides extra attraction for normal matter particles and energy below the graviton mass is roughly one per cubic
contribute to the galaxy rotation curve. graviton Compton length, which is too low given any re-
The dark halo substructure and cuspy core alistic graviton mass. Graviton density is not subjected
problem. In traditional paradigms, the dark matter has to such limitation.
the same gravitational property as the normal matter, (2) Many authors have suggested that dark mat-
which predicts too many dark matter sub-halos and too ter and dark energy may come from the same source
high dark matter density at the galaxy center. These are [5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12]. In most of these suggestions the
usually referred to as the substructure and cuspy core dark components are of the traditional features. Namely,
problems [1]. The ALEP paradigm naturally solve these the dark matter has the same gravitational property as
problems, since ALEPs can only condense around a nor- the normal matter and the dark energy repels galaxies
mal matter core or when they have relatively high ener- directly in cosmic expansion. In our paradigm, how-
gies. This significantly reduces (but does not exclude) the ever, ALEPS serve as both dark matter and dark energy
probability of forming substructures. The repulsive grav- because they attract the normal matter but repel each
ity also prevents ALEPs from over-condensing, such as other. The repulsive effect overcomes several difficulties
at the galaxy center, and makes the ALEPs more loosely with the traditional dark matter scenarios. And in cos-
bounded in comparison to the normal matter, therefore mic expansion, the repulsive force from the background
3

ALEPs acts on the dark halo, which then pulls the nor- a novel repulsive gravity correlated with a fixed mass. By
mal matter core to accelerate together. The only author fitting the measurements one may figure out the magni-
who explained an idea similar to ours about cosmic ac- tude of this fixed mass, and whether the repulsive gravity
celeration seems to be R. Khuri [9]. should be universal or only apply to certain type of par-
(3) In this paper we have followed the deductive way ticles.
of research. Namely, we first theoretically derived a re- Acknowledgements: I thank Terry Goldman for very
pulsive gravity proportional to a fixed (graviton) mass, helpful discussions. I also thank Terry and the T-16
then found it fascinatingly capable of solving the dark group at Los Alamos National Lab, and Rupert Mach-
matter/energy puzzles. Our analyses of these puzzles leidt and the Physics Department at University of Idaho,
also suggest that phenomenologically the best solution to for hospitality during my visit, during which part of this
them is to assume the co-existence of the usual attractive work was done. The work was supported by China NSF
gravity correlated with particle’s energy-momentum and grant 10475057.

[1] For a review, see, e.g., V. Sahni, astro-ph/0403324. [6] R. Mainini, L. Colombo and S.A. Bonometto,
[2] We postpone till later studies the task of constructing an hep-th/0503062.
explicit Lagrangian, which is not uniquely determined [7] M.C. Bento, O. Bertolami and A.A. Sen, Phys. Rev. D
by the lowest order propagator. In general, fourth-order 70, 083519 (2004); Gen. Rel. Grav. 35, 2063 (2003);
derivative theories contain ghost states with negative Phys. Rev. D 66, 043507 (2002).
norm. However, if properly formulated, the ghost states [8] R. Mainini and S.A. Bonometto, Phys. Rev. Lett. 93,
can be avoided or made irrelevant for physical process 121301 (2004).
[3]. [9] R.R. Khuri, Phys. Lett. B 568, 8 (2003).
[3] S.W. Hawking and T. Hertog, Phys. Rev. D 65, 103515 [10] B.A. Bassett, M. Kunz, D. Parkinson and C. Ungarelli,
(2002). Phys. Rev. D 68, 043504 (2003).
[4] This phenomenon falls into a general category discussed [11] T. Padmanabhan and T.R. Choudhury, Phys. Rev. D 66,
by this author in hep-ph/0502237, where it was proven 081301 (2002).
that a suitable effective running coupling can convert at- [12] N. Bilic, G.B. Tupper and R.D. Viollier, Phys. Lett. B
traction to repulsion (or vice versa) at long distance. 535, 17 (2002).
[5] O. Bertolami, astro-ph/0504275.

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