Values infusion into scientific actions in environmental learning: A preliminary research report
Udan Kusmawan
School of Education The University of Newcastle, Australia Paper presented at the AARE Annual International Education Research Conference, Parramatta, November 27 - 31 December 2005
ABSTRACT: Environmental education has often concentrated its focus on examining data that demonstrates negative aspects of environmental change. A more useful approach would be to focus on positive environmental change and how students can be more involved in this change. This paper describes an attempt to infuse a positive approach to addressing key community environmental issues in the secondary Science Curriculum in some key Indonesian schools. This curriculum approach focused on activities to enhance the learning of values in the Science curriculum and was designed to promote positive active citizenship. The activities consisted of student research and participation involving groups of students defining their own problems, solving the problem through either the research or participation method and finally communicating their results. Preliminary results indicate that infusing real world observation values in scientific action reinforced student concern for environmental problems and fostered positive attitudes to the environment.
Introduction
Despite being a young area of learning, Environmental Education has evolved at a remarkable pace (Tilbury, D. & Walford, R., 1996) as well as shifting away from the cognitive domain towards the affective domain in student learning. The environment is increasingly being seen as a sphere of personal experience and emotional commitment, as an object of interdisciplinary learning and research and as a sphere of socially important action (Williams, M., 1996, p.9). Harris (2004b), for example, has recognized that the level of existence of human impacts on the environment is related to the level of development, consumption and lifestyles and pollution. As far back as thirty years ago Disch (1970) suggested that ecological problems stemmed in large part from values, attitudes and beliefs prevalent within society. However, at the time this paper has been developed, these reports appear to be debated (see for examples: Lee, A.M. & Solmon, M.A., 2005; Sirait, J., 2005; Smith, S., 2005; Wahid, Y., 2005). This paper describes some preliminary results from a study of values infusion into environmental learning at some schools in Tasikmalaya, Indonesia. The problem based science actions proposed in this study consist of student field research and community participation. Some bioethical-values such as non-maleficence (not inflicting harm), beneficence (active goodness) and justice (fairness) (Morris, L.J., 1994) that are considered critical to an encouragement of the positive attitudes and citizenship towards the environment become key issues in this study.
learning of environment need to begin and progress. The following paragraphs highlight essential current issues in environmental education that range from a belief that science and technology has together threatened human survival to a vision of a future society that is considered not only ecologically, but also socially, economically and politically sustainable. Generations of people have viewed nature as being an incessant source of energy (Harris, F., 2004a; Cairns, J., 1991; Hippel, F.V., 1978). This is evident in the world demand for energy (Petford, N., 2004; Krauch, C.H., 1993; Meszaros, E., 1993). Continuously developing sciencebased technologies have too often been implemented with inadequate consideration of their consequences at each step of development (Andrews, J.E., Brimblecombe, P., Jickells, T.D., Liss, P.S., & Reid, B.J., 2004; Glantz, M.H., 1978; Griffiths, J.F., 1978; Hippel, F.V., 1978; States, S.J., 1978). Norwine (1978b) argued that progress led by a science-based technology and motivated by economic growth and efficiency is threatening human survival. However, even though the risks of such progress have long been recognized, a stronger tendency still apparently continues based on a technocentric belief that Nature exists to be subdued (Harris, F., 2004a) and that human domination of Nature can overcome any risks to human health and wellbeing (Norwine, J., 1978a). Harris (2004b) specifically suggested that the degree of human impact on the environment relates to levels of development, consumption, lifestyles and pollution. Technocrats have often valued consequences of such science-based development of human possibilities, rather than looking at the benefit for nature itself (Harris, F., 2004a; Norwine, J., 1978b). Taylor and Morrissey (2004) argued that current human attitudes towards urban lifestyle are problematic , because people have so conquered the natural environment that they appear to be essentially removed from its influences, especially in the industrial, urbanized nations (Andrews, J.E. et al., 2004; Harris, F., 2004a; Norwine, J., 1978b). Many experts have been working on alternative solutions as a response to the existing environmental issues and problems, locally, nationally, or internationally. Some of them have started their thinking from the issue itself and worked from the current problems (Berner, E.K. & Berner, R.A., 1996; Cairns, J., 1991). Some others have, as it is adopted in my study, directly activated a contribution from which individuals are assumed as being subject to environmental issues and problems (Bijker, W.E., 2004; Schlesinger, W.H., 2004; Barraza, L., DuqueAristizabal, A.M., & Rebolledo, G., 2003; Gough, S., 2002; Reid, A., 2002; Pande, A., 2001). Gough (2002), Rauch (2002), and Reid (2002) indicated a further development in environmental educational consideration by connecting the environmental issues with the ideas of education for sustainable development. Rauch (2002) went further with respect to the school context, by promoting a socio-economic and ecological environmental education approach. Rauch believed that environmental issues and sustainable development are not limited to (natural) scientific facts, but are constructed socially and context-dependent...(p.46). Reid highlighted that to conserve the environment, while being true to educational goals, requires education which increases the value of the environment as people tend to want to keep what they value (2002, p. 7). Environmental education needs to aim at building peoples knowledge and understanding as a function of context where values and values systems owned by different people and groups of people. International initiatives and actions regarding the environment have led to the adoption of the resolution on the decade of Education for Sustainable Development planned to begin in this year of 2005 (Reid, A., 2002). This is a movement in which the role of education is restructured to reach a vision for the future of society that, as suggested by Fien (2001),
2 of 15
isnot only ecologically, but also socially, economically and politically sustainable.(p. 1). The term sustainable becomes a measure of the current and future success of education in relation to a functional relationship between development and the environment. It appears that the environmental crisis involves human values and value systems that are critical to future generations. The advancement in science and technology together has encouraged human life styles that to some extent accelerate environmental issues and problems. Environmental education inevitably plays an important part in providing support for the future. Future society is conceived as a society where people actively participate in responsible actions to pursue a sustainable society. This implies that environmental education has to lead learners towards awareness and understanding of the environment through active participation in reflective and responsible actions to pursue a sustainable society.
Instrument
To meet the purpose of this study a Likert-type questionnaire was developed to measure the extent to which students express their sensitivity towards environmental issues. This study adapted a Likert scale developed by Fien, Yencken, & Sykes (2002). This scale concentrates on examining aspects of student ecological affinity in terms of valuing science and technology, understanding the balance of nature, accepting the limits of growth, and recognising people dominating nature. This questionnaire also measures students environmental knowledge, awareness and lifestyles. Table 1 shows the structure and contents of the scale instrument. Scales measuring student environmental knowledge familiarity, awareness and lifestyles were developed in varies forms of multiple choice. The environmental knowledge item questions range from 1 (have no heard), 2 (have heard), 3 (have discussed in class), and 4 (have discussed at home). Item questions of the scale dealing with student awareness and lifestyles were developed in the form of 0 (not my choice) and 1 (my choice) to indicate student responses specifying some student environmental report.
Table 1. Scale structure and contents 1 Environmental knowledge familiarity: Environmental awareness Environmental problem found around home Environmental problem found around school Environmental problem found between home and school Environmental lifestyles Environmentally ignorant lifestyles Environmentally considerate lifestyles Ecological affinity Valuing science and technology, Understanding the balance of nature, Accepting the limits of growth, Recognising people dominating nature
Respondent profile
The survey was conducted in 2002 in 7 (seven) public senior high schools from the 10 schools available in Tasikmalaya, West Java province, Indonesia. Respondents are mainly students who were sitting in the second grade (16-year old students) of the seven schools and consented willingly to participate in this study. This paper uses three descriptions for participants, namely school participant, student questionnaire participant and student action group participant. School participant are schools that consented to invite their students to take part in this study. Student questionnaire participants are students who consent to provide their responses to the instrument questionnaires. Student action group participants are students who consent to partake in a field activity during the second phase of this study. Action group is a more specific term used to specify student participant roles as a student field researcher or community participation persons during the second phase of study. To ensure research objectivity as well as to secure student participant confidentiality, the teachers whose students took part in this study were hired to
4 of 15
develop a student coding system. These teachers, on the completion of every instrument administration, provided the researcher with their student answered questionnaires that contained a student code representing to whom the answered questionnaire instrument belongs. It is only the teachers who recognized which code belongs to whom. This way provided the study with parallel information between the questionnaire administrations. All the seven school participants have participated in the first phase of study. Five hundred and seventy seven (577) student participants participated in the first phase of the study. Entering the second phase of study, of the seven school participants who completed their participation in the first phase, three schools were chosen purposively representing three regions of study, namely city, country and transition between city and country. Each school participant from each of the regions has provided the researcher with student group participation consents endorsed by their parents to partake in the second and third Surveys of this study. Regional categorization refers to an availability of the public communication facilities such as telephone line (including public internet station), transportation, industries, and market places (including traditional and modern). In addition, educational administrations in the city and country develop different policies in dealing with their educational curriculum and management. The city department has empowered individual teachers with autonomy to develop their own teaching blueprint. On the other hand, the country department has provided a general teaching blueprint and practices that have to be followed by every teacher. Fourteen groups of four or five students took part in the second phase. Six group-actions came from school I (city), 4 were from school II (country), and another 4 were from school III (transition). Each of the group actions developed their own plans and schedule of group activity. They followed four main steps of activity such as search, solve, create and share (SSCS) being discussed in the following section of this paper. Completing the second phase, this study administered the third instrument questionnaire. Two hundred and forty five (245) students from the three schools participated in this phase.
5 of 15
Chlorofluorocarbon Aerosol Greenhouse effects Acid rain Smog Compose DDT pesticide NPK fertilizer
6. Around the school location you are studying at, which one(s) of the following do happen frequently? Please tick ( ) ONE or MORE from the following statements [ ] noise from motorcycles, cars, industries. [ ] much smoke from motorcycles, cars, industries [ ] bad smell from garbage [ ] bad smell from polluted water 7. When you are going to go or going back from your school, which ones of the following do you find frequently? Please tick ( ) ONE or MORE from the following statements [ ] bed garbage smell from certain places, like market [ ] bed garbage smell from the river [ ] a river whose water is polluted [ ] musty-smoked air resulted by motor-cars
6 of 15
Mean values
Knowledge line
Mean values
PreClassroom teaching
An increase in the mean values from pre-classroom teaching and post-classroom teaching, shown by knowledge line of the graph accompanying Table 2, implies that student environmental knowledge familiarity increased after involvement in a formal classroom activity. Having the students involved in activities beyond their classroom context of environmental learning, their mean scores increased rather dramatically indicating that activity beyond classroom reinforced knowledge familiarity of student a lot more than those gained from classroom activity. A similar picture is true for student environmental awareness performance, shown by awareness line.
Figures 3 and 4 show closer analyses of participating schools. Figure 3 shows that the school on the outskirts of the city has started with a higher mean score of knowledge familiarity than the country or city schools. However, having completed a problem based environmental fieldwork the country school has increased their knowledge dramatically and tended to approach the other two school levels of knowledge familiarity. The reverse picture is true for the environmental awareness, which the three schools started from near the same point of awareness. However, the city school increased in a more dramatic way than the others. Over all, it appears from this study that in general, involving students in a problem based environmental fieldwork has expanded their knowledge familiarity and awareness about some key environmental issues and problems that have traditionally been gained through regular classroom activities. However, comparing the average achievement of student knowledge familiarity about the environmental issues among the regions of this study, it appears that even
7 of 15
PostClassroom teaching
PostActions
PostActions
though they started with different performances, involving them in real science experiences beyond their classroom has led to a condition where their knowledge achievement converged. This achievement was not evident for the awareness where students in the city school tended to be aware of the existing environmental issues and problems after they have been involved in the science fieldworks further than they who were involved in the country and transition schools.
Lifestyles
Figure 5 shows the scale instrument used for measuring environmental lifestyle. The question of the classes surveyed was taken from the environmental education content covered in the locally mandated science courses delivered by the participating schools. This content focused on pesticides and pollution. Actions that were considered consistent with sustainability were considered to be environmentally considerate and those that were not were considered to be environmentally ignorant. This contrast between consideration and ignorant connect with values of non-maleficence (not inflicting harm), beneficence (active goodness) and justice. Items representing ignorant lifestyles were reversed scored to obtain directional consistency with items representing considerate lifestyles. For example see Figure 5: Question number 8 item 3 - Use household synthetic Environmental lifestyles insecticide. This item was classified as an environmentally ignorant choice. A student 8. Please tick ( ) on ONE or MORE boxes of the following statements that you use mostly: choice of not to use synthetic insecticide [ ] aerosol-spray room perfume (coded as ) is interpreted as an [ ] aerosol-spray body perfume environmentally considerate choice, and so [ ] household synthetic-insecticide [ ] gardening synthetic-pesticide on. Their response was recoded into 1 meaning that this participant indicated an 9. Please tick ( ) on ONE or MORE boxes of the following statements that you prefer to do: environmentally considerate lifestyle [ ] use a synthetic fertilizer when do gardening value. Table 6 shows general descriptive [ ] use natural fertilizer when do gardening data on environmental lifestyles. The mean [ ] use plastic bags when shopping at a traditional market values shown on the Table 6 represent the [ ] separate between recycle and non recycle garbage percentage of student responses on environmentally considerate lifestyle choices. Figure 5. Instrument scale of environmental lifestyles Comparing data between survey administrations indicates that there was a statistically significant different in pre-classroom and post-classroom teaching for the group of considerate lifestyle (mean scores were 62.14 and 59.51 respectively, t=2.605, p= .010, N=230). Similarly, there was a statistically significant different in post-classroom teaching and post-actions (mean scores were 59.51 and 68.15 respectively, t=12.50, p= .000, N=230). Mean scores of preclassroom activity decreased to post-classroom teaching and dramatically increased to postaction (see Figure 6).
8 of 15
It is obvious that classroom teaching does not help to develop student environmentally considerate intentions and actions but that problem-based fieldwork does. In fact, the data suggest that teaching in the classroom may have hindered development of positive environmental attitudes.
Ecological affinity
The environmental crises is much influenced by peoples patterns of thought dealing with environmental issues (Tikka, P.M., Kuitunen, M.T., & Tynys, S.M., 2000; Shetzer, L., Stackman, R.W., & Moore, L.F., 1991). Further Tikka et al. (2000) argued that the most statistically significant factor affecting the natural environment is public willingness to take care of the environment, in other words it can be said to depend on human ecological affinity. To examine these issues this study has compared the results of survey questionnaire administrations on the three study phases on each aspect of ecological affinity. The scale was formatted as the following: No. Left-side item 1 2 3 4 5 Right-side item
a. Valuing science and technology The following statement shows the instructional statements to deal with items in the ecological affinity Likert scale.
Place your views along the scale by circling ONE number between 1 5, where: [1] means you strongly agree with the statement on the LEFT, [2] means you agree with the statement on the LEFT, [3] means your views are evenly balanced between the left and right statements, and [4] means you agree with the statement on the RIGHT, [5] means you strongly agree with the statement on the RIGHT
a. Science and technology have improved our quality of life (Left) -Science and technology have worsened our quality of life (Right) b. Modern technology has reduce our freedom and independence (Left) -Modern technology has increased our freedom and independence (Right) c. Complex technologies will always be risky because of the chance of human error (Left) -Complex technologies can be made virtually risk-free through continual improvements (Right) Table 4 describes ecological affinity as represented by valuing science and technology. A comparative statistical analysis between survey administrations shows statistically significant differences in the mean scores (F=4.037, df=(2, 698), p= .018). Figure 7 line a indicates that students tended to become agree that science and technology have improved our quality of life, and having engaged in a problem based environmental fieldwork they tended to strongly agree with this idea. Graph of Item b and Item c indicate that students are around in the middle of both left and right statements. However, on item b there was a tendency towards an agreement that modern technology has reduced human freedom and independence.
9 of 15
Items
N 245 230
Item a.
Pre-Classroom teaching Post-Classroom teaching
0.06
Post-Actions 226 1.71 0.64 0.04 Anova statistical analyses (F=4.037, df=(2, 698), p= .018)
Item b
Pre-Classroom teaching Post-Classroom teaching 243 230 3.30 3.09 1.10 0.95 0.07 0.06
Post-Actions 226 2.73 0.79 0.05 Anova statistical analyses (F=20.703, df=(2, 698), p= .000)
Item c
Pre-Classroom teaching Post-Classroom teaching 243 230 2.70 2.63 1.07 0.97 0.07 0.06 0.06
Post-Actions 226 2.69 0.93 Anova statistical analyses (F=0.332, df=(2, 698), p= .718) Table 4. Valuing science and technology
Item a
Item b
Item c
b. Understanding the balance of nature The second group of ecological affinity describes student understanding of the balance of nature. The following statements d, e and f show the items representing this group. d. Modern industrial countries are very seriously disturbing the balance of nature (Left) -The balance of nature is strong enough to cope with the impacts of industrial countries (Light) e. The earth is like the spaceship, with limited room and resources (Left) -The earth is vast, with almost unlimited room and resources (Right) f. Science and technology will always be able to find solutions to our problems (Left) -Science and technology often create more problems than they solve (Right)
N Mean 2.91 2.83 Std. Deviation 1.24 1.08 Std. Error
Item d.
Pre-Classroom teaching Post-Classroom teaching 243 230 0.08 0.07 0.05
4.00 3.50 3.00 2.50 2.00 1.50 1.00 PrePostteaching Item e item f PostActions Classroom Classroom
Post-Actions 226 2.14 0.75 Anova statistical analyses (F=37.713, df=(2, 698), p= .000)
Item e.
Pre-Classroom teaching Post-Classroom teaching 244 230 2.65 2.57 1.30 1.28 0.08 0.08 0.05
Post-Actions 226 2.08 0.68 Anova statistical analyses (F=17.377, df=(2, 698), p= .000)
Item f.
Pre-Classroom teaching Post-Classroom teaching 243 230 2.69 2.86 1.06 1.00 0.07 0.07 0.07
teaching Item d
Post-Actions 226 3.12 1.05 Anova statistical analyses (F=9.874, df=(2, 698), p= .000) Table 5. Understanding the balance of nature
10 of 15
Table 5 describes ecological affinity representing the aspects of understanding the balance of nature. A comparative statistical analysis between survey administrations shows statistically significant differences in the mean scores. The solid line on Figure 8 indicates that students tended to move from ambivalent ideas about this issue to agree that modern industrial countries are very seriously disturbing the balance of nature. The students tended to strongly agree with this statement after engaging in science fieldwork. This picture was true to Item e meaning that more students tended to agree that the earth is like a spaceship, with limited room and resources. Item f indicating that more students tended to agree that science and technology often create more problems than they solve, showing a parallel direction of meaning with the other two lines. c. Recognising people dominating nature The third group of ecological affinity is recognising people dominating nature. The following statements g, h and i describe the item statements representing this group. g. People should adapt to the environment whenever possible (Left) -The environment should be changed to meet people needs (Right) h. Economic growth should be given priority over environmental protection (Left) -Environmental protection should be given priority over economic growth (Right) i. Nature should be used to produce goods for people (Left) -Nature should be preserved for its own sake (Right)
N Mean 245 230 1.88 1.89 Std. Deviation 0.98 0.83 Std. Error 0.06 0.05
Item g.
Pre-Classroom teaching Post-Classroom teaching
Post-Actions 226 1.70 0.67 0.04 Anova statistical analyses (F=3.467, df=(2, 698), p= .032)
Item h.
Pre-Classroom teaching Post-Classroom teaching 243 230 3.49 3.39 0.98 0.87 0.06 0.06
Post-Actions 226 3.42 0.78 0.05 Anova statistical analyses (F=0.696, df=(2, 698), p= .499)
Item i.
Pre-Classroom teaching Post-Classroom teaching 244 230 3.76 3.68 1.10 0.93 0.07 0.06
Post-Actions 226 3.93 0.78 0.05 Anova statistical analyses (F=4.166, df=(2, 698), p= .016) Table 6. Recognising people dominating nature
Item g
Item h
Item i
Table 6 describes ecological affinity representing the aspects of recognising human domination of nature. A comparative statistical analysis between survey administrations shows statistically significant differences in the mean scores, except for the item h. Figure 9 line g indicates that students were in agreement with the idea that people should adapt the environment whenever possible. Figure 9 item i shows parallel direction with the idea that people should preserve nature for its own sake, before classroom activity. Classroom activity has then tended to weaken student recognition towards this issue. However, having engaged in science actions the situation tended to change towards the belief that nature should be preserved for its own sake.
11 of 15
d. Accepting the limits of growth The fourth group of ecological affinity is accepting the limits of growth. The following statements j, k and l describe the item statements representing this group. j. Because we are human, we are not subject to the laws of nature as are other species (Left) Despite our abilities, human are subject to the laws like other species (Right) k. Natural resources should be saved for the benefit of future generation (Left) -Natural resources should be used for the benefit of future generation (Right) l. People must learn to control nature in order to survive (Left) -People must learn to live in harmony with nature to survive (Right)
N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error
Item j.
Pre-Classroom teaching Post-Classroom teaching 243 230 3.85 3.89 1.15 1.02 0.07 0.07
4.50
Mean values of scale
4.00 3.50 3.00 2.50 2.00 1.50 1.00 PreClassroom teaching Item j. PostClassroom teaching Item k. Item l. Post-Actions
Post-Actions 226 4.17 0.69 0.05 Anova statistical analyses (F=7.302, df=(2, 698), p= .001)
Item k.
Pre-Classroom teaching Post-Classroom teaching 244 230 3.14 3.08 1.22 1.13 0.08 0.07
Post-Actions 226 3.16 0.82 0.05 Anova statistical analyses (F=0.305, df=(2, 698), p= .737)
Item l.
Pre-Classroom teaching Post-Classroom teaching 244 230 3.88 3.90 1.15 1.11 0.07 0.07
Post-Actions 226 4.08 0.88 0.06 Anova statistical analyses (F=2.671, df=(2, 698), p= .070) Table 7. Accepting the limits of growth
Table 7 describes ecological affinity representing the aspects of accepting the limits of growth. A comparative statistical analysis between survey administrations shows statistically significant differences in the mean scores of item j, but not of items k and l. Figure 10 line j indicates that students were in agreement that despite our abilities, human are subject to the laws like other species. Student tended to accept this idea after being involved in the classroom activity. Having engaged in science fieldwork, more students tended to accept the idea. A closer picture was shown by line l representing the belief that people should live in harmony with nature. Observing line k of the graph appears that students were ambivalent about the whether or not people should control nature or to live in harmony with nature.
Discussion
In general, involving students in a problem based environmental fieldwork has reinforced their knowledge and awareness about some key environmental issues and problems that have traditionally been taught through regular classroom activities. As shown on Figures 3 and 4, it is apparent that the three schools performed differently in relation to classroom knowledge acquisition and awareness about environmental issues and problems. However, this situation changed after students engaged in a problem based environmental fieldwork.
12 of 15
In relation to student awareness about environmental issues and problems, it is apparent that although classroom activity will make some impacts on knowledge and awareness, problem-based fieldwork has a significant effect. These effects appear to have a regional dimension in that students from city schools appear more environmentally aware and problem based field experiences has a greater impact on school at city region than it does on country school. Social infrastructure and information and technologies provide tangible advantages to city students and the clearly apparent experience of environmental problems may occur for the greater awareness. However, the converging impact of field experience on these awareness of students from city margin in worth nothing. Miller (2005), Brummet (2004), Harris (2004b) and Petford (2004) have suggested that current society lifestyles constitute challenges as well as demands for environmental education. In this study, an alarming result has appeared as to relate lifestyle performances with ways of the teaching of environmental issues and problems. Traditional classroom activity may provide a contra-productive influence on student choices of an environmentally considerate lifestyle. However, involving students in a problem based environmental fieldwork increased the likelihood of their adopting environmentally considerate lifestyles. This provides a positive signal for the problem based environmental fieldwork approach proposed in this study to enable environment learnings and to promote positive environmental citizenship. Kubow, Grossman, and Ninomiya have indicated that the willingness to change ones lifestyles and consumption habits to protect the environment(1998, p 116) is the nature as well as the measure of a successful (environmental) citizenship. Finally, observing student opinion on ecological affinity, it is obvious that students involvement in a problem based environmental fieldwork has increased students understanding of the balance of nature while highlighting the beliefs that due to a limited in space and resources of nature then modern countries accomplishments from industrial progresses have disturbed the balance of nature. This attitude corresponds to students recognition of people dominating nature with emphasizes on the beliefs that people should adapt to the environment whenever possible and should preserve it for its own sake. Overall, it appears that students involvement in a problem based environmental fieldwork has fostered positive attitudes towards the environment.
Conclusion
In general, involving students in a problem based environmental fieldwork has reinforced their knowledge and awareness of some key environmental issues and problems that have traditionally been gained through regular classroom activities. Traditional classroom activity may generate a contra-productive influence on student choice of an environmentally considerate lifestyle. However, involving students on a problem based environmental fieldwork may reinvigorate their belief in an environmentally considerate lifestyle. Findings of this study have led to the conclusion that in general such a problem based environmental fieldwork focusing on activities to enhance the learning of values in the science environmental curriculum have to some degree promoted students positive active citizenship. However, some statistically significant differences in student performances between city, transition and country schools involved in this study suggests that students performances of environmental knowledge and awareness, lifestyles and ecological affinity are associated with social and cultural development built up in their surrounding community.
13 of 15
Acknowledgement: I sincerely appreciate and thank you very much to Dr. Mitch OToole and Dr. Ruth Reynolds for so much understanding and attachment that this paper is now heading towards a publicly sharing.
References:
Andrews, J. E., Brimblecombe, P., Jickells, T. D., Liss, P. S., & Reid, B. J. (2004). An introduction to environmental chemistry (2nd ed.). Victoria: Blackwell publishing company. Barraza, L., Duque-Aristizabal, A. M., & Rebolledo, G. (2003). Environmental education: from policy to practice. Environmental Education Research, 9(3), 347-357. Berner, E. K., & Berner, R. A. (1996). Global environment: Water, air, and geochemical cycles. London: Prentice-Hall. Bijker, W. E. (2004). Sustainable policy? A public debate about nature development in the Netherlands. History and Technology, 20(4), 371-391. Boediono, Hamka, & Pudjiastuti, T. (2000). Standar nasional kemampuan dasar SD/MI, SLTP/MTs, SMU/MA sesuai kurikulum 1994 (translated into National basic competence standard for elementary, secondary and higher school levels based on the 1994 curriculum (researcher, Trans. February 2000 ed.). Jakarta: Badan Penelitian dan Pengembangan, Department Pendidikan Nasional. Cairns, J. (1991). The need for integrated environmental systems management. In John Cairns, J. & Crawford, T. V. (Eds.), Integrated environmental management (pp. 5-20). Michigan: Lewis Publishing. Disch, R. (1970). The ecological conscience: Values for survival. Englewood, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. Fien, J. (2001). Education for sustainability: Reorienting australian schools for a sustainable future. Australia: Australian Conservation Foundation. Fien, J., Yencken, D., & Sykes, H. (2002). Young people and the environment: An Asia-Pacific perspective (1st ed.). London: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Glantz, M. H. (1978). The political, legal, economic and environmental implications of a reliable coastal upwelling forecast. In Norwine, J. (Ed.), Climate and human ecology (pp. 216-231). Texas: D Amstrong Co. Gough, S. (2002). Increasing the value of the environment: A 'real option' metaphor for learning. Environmental Education Research, 8(1), 61-72. Griffiths, J. F. (1978). The climate implications of lansdcape design. In Norwine, J. (Ed.), Climate and human ecology (pp. 197-207). Texas: D. Amstrong Co. Harris, F. (2004a). Human-environment interactions. In Harris, F. (Ed.), Global environmental issues (pp. 3-20). Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Harris, F. (2004b). Sustainable development. In Harris, F. (Ed.), Global environmental issues (pp. 265276). England: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Hippel, F. V. (1978). How fast must we move into the post-fossil fuel era? In Norwine, J. (Ed.), Climate and human ecology (pp. 193-196). Texas: D. Amstrong Co. Hulme, M. (2004). A change in the weather? Coming to terms with climate change. In Harris, F. (Ed.), Global environmental issues (pp. 21-44). England: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Krauch, C. H. (1993). Future energy sources and the atmospheric challenges for research and development. In Birks, J. W., Calvert, J. G. & Sievers, R. E. (Eds.), The chemistry of the atmosphere: Its impact on global change (pp. 109-128). Washington DC: American Chemical Society. Kubow, P., Grossman, D., & Ninomiya, A. (1998). Multidimensional citizenship: Educational policy for the 21th Century. In Cogan, J. J. & Darricott, R. (Eds.), Citizenship for the 21st Century: An international perspective on education (pp. 115-134). London: Cogan Page Limited.
14 of 15
Lee, A. M., & Solmon, M. A. (2005). Relationships among dispositional ability conceptions, intrinsic motivation, perceived competence, experience, persistence, and performance. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 24(1), 51-65. Meszaros, E. (1993). Global and regional changes in atmospheric composition. Michigan: Lewis Publisher. Miller, G. T. (2005). Living in the environment: Principles, connections, and solutions. USA: Brooks/Cole - Thomson Learning. Morris, L. J. (1994). Bioethical dilemmas. The Science Teacher, 61(2), 38-41. Norwine, J. (1978a). Coping with climate 'Fluctuations': The role of geography in a global debate. In Norwine, J. (Ed.), Climate and human ecology (pp. 232-239). Texas: D. Amstrong Co. Norwine, J. (1978b). Urban climates and human ecology. In Norwine, J. (Ed.), Climate and human ecology (pp. 189-192). Texas: D. Amstrong Co. Pande, A. (2001). Environmental Education in rural central Himalayan schools. The Journal of Environmental Education, 32(3), 47-51. Petford, N. (2004). Meeting society's demand for energy. In Harris, F. (Ed.), Global environmnetal issues (pp. 154-191). England: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Pizzini, E. L. (1989). SSCS problem solving: Implementation handbook. Iowa: Science Education Department, the University of Iowa. Pizzini, E. L., Shepardson, D. P., & Abell, S. K. (1989). A rationale for and the development of a problem solving model of instruction in science education. Science Education, 75(5), 523-534. Pusat Kurikulum Jakarta. (2003). Pelayanan profesional kurikulum 2004 (translated into Professional guidelines of the national 2004 curriculum). Jakarta: Balitbang, Departement Pendidikan Nasional Indonesia. Rauch, F. (2002). The potential of education for sustainable development for reform in school. Environmental Education Research, 8(1), 43-51. Reid, A. (2002). On the possibility of education for sustainable development: An introduction. Environmental Education Research, 8(1), 1-8. Schlesinger, W. H. (2004). Environmental education for a sustainable development. Applied Environmental Education and Communication, 3(not mentioned), 75-77. Shetzer, L., Stackman, R. W., & Moore, L. F. (1991). Bussiness-Environment attitudes and the New Environmental Paradigm. Journal of Environmental Education, 22(4), 14-21. Sirait, J. (2005). Tahun 2006, Lingkungan hidup masuk kurikulum sekolah (translated into The Year 2006, The living environment integrated into school curriculum). Retrieved November 12, 2005, from http://www.bk.or.id/nasional/pelajar/lingkungan_hidup_masuk_kurikulum_sekolah_1 Smith, S. (2005). Education for sustainable future: Challenges and directions for formal education in the decade of education for sustainable development. Paper presented at the International Conference on Education for a Sustainable Future, Ahmedabad, India. States, S. J. (1978). Weather and deaths in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: Acomparison with Birmingham, Alabama. In Norwine, J. (Ed.), Climate and human ecology (pp. 208-215). Texas: D. Amstrong Co. Taylor, R., & Morrissey, K. (2004). Coping with pollution: Dealing with waste. In Harris, F. (Ed.), Global environmental issues (pp. 229-262). England: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Tikka, P. M., Kuitunen, M. T., & Tynys, S. M. (2000). Effects of educational background on students' attitudes, activity, levels, and knowledge concerning the environment. The Journal of Environment Education, 31(3), 12-19. Tilbury, D., & Walford, R. (1996). Grounded Theory: Defying the dominant paradigm in environmental education research. In Williams, M. (Ed.), Understanding geographical and environmental education (pp. 52-64). London: Cassell. Wahid, Y. (2005). Action as an educational virtue: Towards a different understanding of democratic citizenship education. Educational Theory, 55(3), 323-342. Williams, M. (1996). Positivism and the quatitative tradition in geographical and environmental education research. In Williams, M. (Ed.), Understanding geographical and environmental education (pp. 6-12). London: Cassell.
15 of 15