Synopsis

This report details an investigation made into the Ilmenite Smelting Process. The aim of this practical was the preparation and operation the 60 kW DC plasma-Arc Furnace and to obtain better understanding of the chemistry and thermodynamics of the ilmenite smelting process. This achieved by smelting the ilmenite at 1700C with anthracite as a reductant in an electric furnace to produce high Titania slag as a major product. In the process, liquid iron and carbon monoxide were produced as by-products. The amount of off-gas and iron evolved is 72.092 g and 104.58 g respectively. The amounts of product formed are dependent on the starting conditions. The intensity of the arc is proportion to the arc length and current.

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Table of Contents
Synopsis .................................................................................................................................................. 1 List of illustrations ................................................................................................................................... 3 Nomenclature ......................................................................................................................................... 4 Glossary ................................................................................................................................................... 5 1. 1.1. 1.2. 1.3. 1.4. 1.5. 2. 2.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 6 Subject of and motivation for report ...................................................................................... 6 Background to report .............................................................................................................. 6 Objectives of report ................................................................................................................ 7 Limitations and scope of investigation ................................................................................... 7 Plan of development ............................................................................................................... 7 Literature review......................................................................................................................... 8 Extractive metallurgy .............................................................................................................. 8

2.1.1 Stages in Metal Extractions ..................................................................................................... 8 2.2. Ilmenite smelting ........................................................................................................................ 9 2.2.1. Solid state reduction ............................................................................................................. 10 2.2.2. Slag processing ...................................................................................................................... 10 2.2.3. Energy constraints................................................................................................................ 11 2.3. Types of Furnaces ................................................................................................................. 12

2.3.1. DC Arc Furnace ..................................................................................................................... 12 2.3.2. Blast furnaces ....................................................................................................................... 13 3. 3.1. 3.2. 3.3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 9.1. 9.2. Experimental ......................................................................................................................... 14 Apparatus .............................................................................................................................. 14 The experimental set-up ....................................................................................................... 14 Experimental procedure ....................................................................................................... 15 Results ....................................................................................................................................... 17 Discussion.................................................................................................................................. 21 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................... 22 Recommendations .................................................................................................................... 23 References ................................................................................................................................ 24 Appendices ................................................................................................................................ 25 Raw experimental data ......................................................................................................... 25 Sample calculations............................................................................................................... 27

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List of illustrations

Tables
Table 1 Overall mass balance around the furnace ......................................................... 17 Table 2 Analysis of the feed material Ilmenite used during the smelting practical .......... 17 Table 3 Ultimate analysis of anthracite used in the plasma furnace experiments ........... 17 Table 4 Ash analysis ....................................................................................................... 18 Table 5 Pig Iron formed .................................................................................................. 18 Table 6 Slag formed ....................................................................................................... 18 Table 7 Dust formed ....................................................................................................... 19 Table 8 Effect of arc length and current on the arc characteristics ................................ 20 Table 9 Overall element balance around the furnace ..................................................... 20 Table 10 Raw/Feed materials ......................................................................................... 25 Table 11 Data for analysis of anthracite used in the plasma furnace experiments ......... 25 Table 12 Elemental balance for Ilmenite ......................................................................... 25 Table 13 Elemental balance for Pig Iron product ............................................................ 26 Table 14 Elemental balance for Anthracite ..................................................................... 26 Table 15 Elemental balance for slag product .................................................................. 26 Table 16 Elemental balance for Dust product ................................................................. 27

Figures
Figure 1 Smelting mechanism for ilmenite in a DC arc furnace ........................................ 9 Figure 2 Calculated liquidus diagram of ilmenite smelter slags (Pistorius, 2007) .......... 11 Figure 3 Required carbon input and resulting (%FeO) in ilmenite smelting .................... 11 Figure 4 Typical DC arc Furnace .................................................................................... 12 Figure 5 Typical Blast Furnace ....................................................................................... 13 Figure 6 Schematic diagram of the DC plasma furnace ................................................. 14 Figure 7 Diagram showing major input and outputs of the process ................................ 19

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Nomenclature
List of symbols Symbol H G S Description Enthalpy Gibbs free energy Entropy Units J/mol J/mol J/mol.K

List of abbreviations Abbreviation DC SAIMM C AC LOL

Description Direct current Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy Elementary Carbon Alternating current Mass gained or lost

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Glossary
Ore Is a type of rock that contains minerals with important elements including minerals. The science and technology of extracting and refining metals. Involves the extraction of metals through reactions conducted at high temperatures. Denoting rock that has undergone transformation by heat, pressure, or other natural agencies. Formed by the solidification of molten magma. An electrical conduction through a gas in an applied electric field. An enclosed chamber in which heat is produced to generate steam, destroy refuse, smelt or refine ores. In metallurgy, a substance that promotes the fusing of minerals or metals or prevents the formation of oxides A naturally formed chemical element or compound having a specific chemical composition and, most commonly, a characteristic crystal form. A chemical process involving reactions that produce a decrease in the oxidation state of elements such as iron or sulphur. A glassy waste of the smelting of ores. A mixture of impurities that separate from reduced metal during smelting. The metal-rich product of the beneficiation process that is fed to the smelter. The processing of ores for the purpose of regulating the size of a desired product, removing unwanted constituents. The valueless minerals in an ore; that part of an ore that is economically desirable but cannot be avoided in mining A condition of a physical system or device that does not change over time.

Metallurgy Pyrometallurgy

Metamorphic rock

Igneous rock Arc

Furnace

Flux . Mineral

Reduction

Slag

Concentrate

Beneficiation

Gangue . Steady state

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1. Introduction
1.1. Subject of and motivation for report This report details an investigation made into the Ilmenite Smelting Process. It is believed that practical preparation and operation of the 60 kW Plama-Arc Furnace will aid students to attain better understanding of the Ilmenite Smelting Process. 1.2. Background to report On 22 August 2012 a smelting practical was performed at Stellenbosch, Western Cape, attended by the directors and the students .Smelting is defined as the chemical reduction of metal-bearing material such as ore, most commonly by a process involving fusion, so that lighter and more fusible impurities can be readily removed (Hudson et al, 1999). The process commonly involves addition of reagents (fluxes) that facilitate chemical reactions and the separation of metals from impurities. The process exploits heat and a chemically reducing agent to decompose the ore, driving off all impurities as gasses or slag and retaining the pure elementary metal behind. The reducing agent is commonly a source of carbon which removes oxygen from the ore. Ilmenite is a commonly accessory mineral found in metamorphic and igneous rocks. During the 1950s, ilmenite was mined at Umgubaba as feedstock for a sulphate pigment plant located at Durban in KwaZulu-Natal In the late 1970s Richard Bay Minerals was founded on the east coast of South Africa. On the west coast of South Africa, Namakwa Sands was founded in the early 1990s to extract heavy metals from deposits situated near Vredendal. Dong et al (2012) suggested that ilmenite supplies about 90% of the worlds demand for titanium minerals and its production reached 5.8 million metric tons in 2010. Titanium is the ninth most plentiful element in the earths crust and the seventh most plentiful metallic element (Xue et al, 2012). As a structural metal, titanium is the fourth largest consumption after aluminium, iron and magnesium. Titanium is the main raw material in the production of titanium slag, synthetic rutile, titanium dioxide and spongy titanium. Titanium dioxide is an essential kind of white inorganic pigment which is largely used in coating, paper, plastics, inks, foods, chemical fibre, welding rod making, ceramics and metallurgical industries due to its brightness, high refractive index and whiteness (Kotze, 2007).

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1.3.

Objectives of report The objectives of this report are therefore: To obtain a better understanding of the thermodynamics of the ilmenite smelting process. To obtain a better understanding of the chemistry of the ilmenite smelting process. To obtain a better understanding of mineral/phase characterisation and the appropriate analytical techniques.

1.4.

Limitations and scope of investigation Although there are other types of furnaces available to be utilised in the smelting process, the focus of this report is limited to the matters that affect the Ilmenite smelting process operation using a 60 kW DC Plasma-Arc Furnace.

1.5.

Plan of development This report begins with a brief background of the smelting process before describing the basics of extractive metallurgy. It then focuses on the fundamentals of the Ilmenite smelting process and experimental methods. Attention is then paid in the overall mass balance around the furnace. Conclusions are then drawn on the basis of these results and finally, recommendations are made, based on these conclusions.

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2. Literature review
2.1. Extractive metallurgy

Extractive metallurgy is the study of the processes used in the separation and concentration of raw materials. It deals with extraction and refining of metals. More than sixty elements are metals which are generally extracted from various forms of natural occurrence in the earths crust (Ray and Ghosh, 1991). Chemical extraction operations are attained by mixing of the material to be processed with other chemically active species in a reactor. The reactor may be a furnace, a pressure vessel or a mixer. Ray and Ghosh (1991) suggested that when ore deposits are exploited in extractive metallurgy there is generally some waste product. This product is composed of some minerals in the ore which are not valuable from point of view of metal extraction and are denoted as gangue minerals. 2.1.1. Stages in Metal Extractions Rarely can the desired extraction be achieved efficiently in one stage. Metal extract ions, whether pyrometallurgical or hydrometallurgical in nature, require a series of processing stages before a high recovery of metal at the required degree of purity can be attained. The different stages of chemical processing can be group into four categories as follows: Preparation or pre-treatment stages. Extraction stages. Refining stages. Metal-recovery stages. Pyrometallurgy deals with chemical reactions at high temperatures. These reactions are carried out involves numerous deferent solids, liquids, and gases, and are carried out using many diverse types of furnaces (Erasmus, 2012).The metals are extracted by converting sulphides into oxides and then reducing the oxides into metals, using carbon or carbon monoxide. Advantages of pyrometallurgical methods (Ray and Ghosh, 1991) There is a greater ease of physical separation of the product metal from gangue when the products can be melted or vaporised at high temperatures. Pyrometallurgical methods of metal production are generally cheaper and appropriate for large scale production. Reaction rates are greatly accelerated at high temperatures hence small units can attain high production rates. Reactions which are not thermodynamically possible at low temperature become possible at high temperature.

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The heat of reaction (H) determines the energy costs of the process (Zietsman, 2004). If the reaction is exothermic, then heat is given off by the reaction, and the process will be partially self-heating. Contrary, if the reaction is endothermic, the reaction absorbs heat, which will have to be supplied to the process. Most of the reactions utilised in Pyrometallurgy are reversible but ilmenite smelting is characterised by departure from equilibrium in several ways. The Gibbs free energy (G) of a reaction is a measure of thermodynamic driving force that makes a reaction to occur (Zietsman, 2004). The entropy change (S) is a measure of the change in the possibilities for disorder in the products compared to the reactants.

2.2. Ilmenite smelting

Ilmenite has the nominal composition FeO.TiO2.South African beach-sand ilmenite are close to this nominal composition (Pistorous, 2007).During the smelting process, ilmenite is continuously fed with anthracite in a firmly controlled ratio through hollow electrode into the operating furnace (Kotze, 2007). The primary product is titanium oxide slag which contains approximately 85% of TiO2. In addition, the slag contains approximately 10% FeO and impurities. The main impurities are MnO, MgO, SiO2, and Al2O3 which add up to 3% of the mass of the ilmenite. During the ilmenite smelting process, the iron content of the oxide is lowered by reduction to metallic iron which takes place in the liquid phase at high temperatures (approximately 1650 to 1750C). Kotze (2007) reported that both smelting and reduction processes are conducted within a crucible of a solidified, high titanium content slag, conducted within the furnace refractory walls. The slag has a lower density than the iron hence separation of the two products occurs within the furnace.

Figure 1 Smelting mechanism for ilmenite in a DC arc furnace

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2.2.1. Solid state reduction When the electric furnace operates, the electric arc generates at the bottom of the electrode (Xue, et al, 2012). The temperature of the materials then rises due to the heat from electric arc and electrode. When the temperature is high enough, ilmenite reacts with carbon (reductant) and the main reactions are the following: Reduction of FeO from the slag: [1] Partial reduction of TiO2 in the slag: [2] The main reaction in the furnace can be summarised as: ( ) ( ) ( ) [3]

Thermodynamically, the major gas product is CO when the system temperature is lower or higher than the boudouard temperature. The CO gas produced by the furnace passes through the gas-cleaning plants, where the gas is cooled, scrubbed, and washed, to remove entrained dust from the furnace (Gous, 2006). The gas can then be directed to the gas-holder for use in pre-heating of ilmenite and the drying of anthracite. Gous (2006) further suggested that a portion of the ilmenite feed can be pre-heated in the pre-heaters, thus lowering the specific energy requirement of the process.

2.2.2. Slag processing Xue et al (2012) reported that particles begin to melt when the temperature rises up to the melting point of the titanium slag, metallic iron or the unreacted ilmenite. The slag is made up of unreacted ilmenite, titanium oxides and other impurity oxides. When the melting process has completed, the reduction of iron oxides from unreduced ilmenite depends on the reaction with solid carbon reductant particle that is suspended in the melt and CO bubble in the melt. Since the slag is less dense than iron, the slag floats on iron inside the furnace. Dong et al (2012) suggested that when the reduction process is complete, the electrodes are typically lifted for rising system temperature in order to improve fluidity and the separation of slag-iron. Slag and iron are then cooled naturally after being discharged from the furnace. The solidified slag is a largely single-phase (pseudobrookite-M3O5-phase), with only small proportions of other phases, mainly rutile and silicates (Pistorous 2007).The reactions are carried out at high temperatures since the melting point of the hightitania slag is around 1650C.

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Figure 2 Calculated liquidus diagram of ilmenite smelter slags (Pistorius, 2007) Pistorous (2007) suggested that Figure illustrates that both FeO and TiO1.5 serve to flux TiO2, thus lowering the liquidus temperature of the slag.

2.2.3.

Energy constraints

Pistorous (2007) suggested that figure has an important implications for the way in which inputs need to be changed relative to the existing set of points, if stable operation is to be maintained.

Figure 3 Required carbon input and resulting (%FeO) in ilmenite smelting

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It is approximated that 5.3 kWh increased in electrical energy input, the carbon input needs to be increased by 1 kg. The published enthalpy correlations show that heating 1 ton of pure ilmenite and 100 kg of carbon to 1600 C requires some 640 kWh per ton of ilmenite (Pistorius, 2007).

2.3.

Types of Furnaces
2.3.1. DC Arc Furnace

The conventional alternating current arc furnace operates by means of electric current flowing in three-phase operation from one electrode of three to another through the scrap charge (CMP, 2005).Commonly used DC furnaces are singleelectrode units where the current flows down the carbon electrode, which serves as a cathode, to an anode at the bottom of the furnace.

Figure 4 Typical DC arc Furnace The furnace vessel shown in Figure 2 is used to contain the metallurgical process of ilmenite smelting. Zietsman (2004) suggested that the furnace is divided into four parts: Hearth The hearth of a DC furnace has two holes. The first is to act as the floor of the furnace, containing metal bath present directly above. The second is to provide the anode connection of the DC electrical circuit. Zietsman (2004) further suggested that the hearth bricks are normally chosen to have high thermal conductivity, similar to the side walls. Then air or water cooling is used to extract heat from the outer surface of the hearth and cool it down. Sidewalls

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The sidewalls of an ilmenite-smelting furnace must extract heat from the slag bath at a high adequate rate to establish and maintain a freeze lining of the solidified slag on the wall. Roof The roof of the furnace acts as a lid, closing the furnace so that no gas, fames or dust escapes other than through the off-gas duct. Tap holes The tap holes are installed into the furnace sidewalls. They assemblies usually include water cooling intended at preventing overheating and excessive wear of refractory lining in the region of tap holes.
2.3.2. Blast furnaces

The function of a blast furnace is to produce pig iron. It is a furnace in which a blast of preheated air is blown in through tuyeres at the bottom. The furnace is charged with iron, pellets and coke. The resulting molten is tapped in the bottom of the furnace so that it can flow. Jones (2011) suggested that DC transferred-arc plasma technology is widely preferred for metallurgical processing for the following reasons: The electrical supply characteristics and geometry arrangement of the transferredarc are similar to those of conventional submerge arc-furnaces. Scale-up to industrial operation, when a graphite electrode used. Ability to sustain longer, more stable arcs than AC operation, with independent current and voltage control

Figure 5 Typical Blast Furnace

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3. Experimental
3.1. Apparatus 60 kW DC Plasma-ARC Furnace Ilmenite (TiO2Fe2O3) Anthracite Optical Pyrometer Iron cubes Weighing scale Alumina bubble Fiber-Frax (ceramic blanket insulator) Sample containers Hammer and chisel/diamond saw 3.2. The experimental set-up

Figure 6 Schematic diagram of the DC plasma furnace The numbers in Figure 4 corresponds to the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. Cathode Terminal Cooling Water Channel Feed Port Graphite Electrode 5. 6. 7. 8. Refractory Material Graphite Crucible Anode Terminal Off gas Outlet

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3.3.

Experimental procedure Feed preparation A mixture of ilmenite and anthracite was prepared for each furnace run. The reductant (anthracite) was added in a ratio of 127 kg per ton of ilmenite to ensure a carbon excess for maximum reduction. The total mass of ilmenite added was 241.60 g and the total mass of anthracite was 30.52 g. Before commencing The required amounts of anthracite and ilmenite were determined and mixed together in a container. The alumina fibrefrax thermal insulation lining was prepared for inside of the furnace to protect inner walls and to act as insulation. The power supply was then turned off at the mains and the cooling water bypass valve was opened (handle turned parallel to the pipe). The argon gas inlet pipes from sight ports were removed on the roof of the furnace and the electrode was turned up so that the tip of the electrode was above the bottom plane of the roof. The off gas system was then removed from the main furnace body and cleared away from the furnace. The stand was placed close to the furnace.

Operating procedure The roof of the furnace was then removed and placed on the stand. It was checked that the roof was not resting on any water pipes or electric cables before the alumina insulation fiber was inserted into the furnace. It was ensured that there were no gabs where the two ends off the fiber meet. Compressed air was then used to clean the inside of the furnace, ensuring that there were no particles in the notch in the bottom cathode. The bottom of the crucible was inserted into the notch of the bottom cathode and checked to see that the crucible was securely in place. A small amount of the ilmenite and anthracite was then placed into the bottom of the crucible and positioned in the centre of the crucible to act as a starter to strike an arc. The sight ports were removed from the furnace roof by removing the screws. The roof was then placed back on the furnace and ensured that it was secured. The off gas pipe was then aligned with off gas port on the roof of the furnace. The argon gas supply was connected to the sight ports and turned on to begin flushing of the furnace with argon gas. The cooling water bypass valve was then closed to allow the water to the furnace and all the valves were switched to open positions (parallel to the pipe). The extractor fan was turned on and it was ensured that the off gas outlet was free of blockages and that the end of the pipe was securely fixed in the excavator suction.
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Smelting The feeding funnel was inserted in one of the open sight ports and the discharge end of the vibrating feeder was then placed directly above it. It was insured that the end of the funnel was able to discharge into the centre of the crucible. Before switching on the power sources at the mains, it was ensured that the main power supply is off, by turning the power knob to the left. The main power supply source was turned on at the mains by flicking both switches upward and initial voltage 20V selected at a height of 1950 mm. The main power supply was then turned on by turning the power knob clockwise. The electrode was then turned down the furnace until it was about 5 cm above the bottom of the crucible. The electrode was carefully lowered further until the ark was struck. Once the ark was struck, the crucible was allowed to heat up for two minutes before feeding was started. After feeding was completed, the voltage and the electrode position were set to 17V and 1980 mm respectively and left to allow mixing to take place.

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4. Results
Table 1 Overall mass balance around the furnace
Material Ilmenite Antracite Iron cubes IN Mass g 241.598 30.520 51.865 Fraction Mass 0.746 0.094 0.160 Material Slag Iron phase Dust Unreacted material Off gas OUT Mass Fraction g Mass 140.600 0.434 45.300 0.140 46.100 17.800 72.092 321.892 0.142 0.055 0.229 1.000

Total

323.984

1.000

Table 2 Analysis of the feed material Ilmenite used during the smelting practical
Component Al 2O3 CaO Cr2O3 Fe 2O3 K2O MgO MnO Na2O P2O5 SiO2 TiO2 LOL Total Mass g 0.918 0.145 0.121 118.697 0.169 1.208 2.609 0.459 0.072 1.860 105.530 -7.538 224.251 2.184 Moles mol 0.009 0.003 0.001 0.743 0.002 0.030 0.037 0.007 0.001 0.031 1.321 Composition Mass % 0.380 0.060 0.050 49.130 0.070 0.500 1.080 0.190 0.030 0.770 43.680 -3.120 92.820

Table 3 Ultimate analysis of anthracite used in the plasma furnace experiments

Component H2O Ash S C H N O Total
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Mass g 0.748 4.157 0.198 22.524 0.922 0.555 1.416 30.520

Moles mol 0.042 0.006 1.875 0.457 0.020 0.044 2.444

Composition Mass % 2.450 13.620 0.650 73.800 3.020 1.820 4.640 100.000

Table 4 Ash analysis

Component SiO2 Al 2O3 Fe 2O3 P2O5 TiO2 CaO MgO K2O Na2O SO3 Total Mass g 2.282 1.168 0.326 0.012 0.083 0.049 0.041 0.096 0.057 0.010 4.126 Moles mol 0.038 0.011 0.002 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.000 0.057 Composition Mass % 54.900 28.100 7.850 0.300 2.000 1.190 0.990 2.310 1.380 0.240 99.260

Table 5 Pig Iron formed

Component Fe C Total Mass g 45.02 0.28 45.30 Moles Mol 0.81 0.02 0.83 Composition Mass % 99.37 0.63 100.00

Table 6 Slag formed

Component Al 2O3 CaO Cr2O3 Fe 2O3 K2O MgO MnO Na2O P2O5 SiO2 TiO2 LOL Total Mass g 1.195 0.127 0.197 72.156 0.070 0.745 1.786 0.056 0.028 2.348 67.488 -6.186 140.01 Moles Mol 0.012 0.002 0.001 0.452 0.001 0.018 0.025 0.001 0.000 0.039 0.845 1.40 Composition Mass % 0.850 0.090 0.140 51.320 0.050 0.530 1.270 0.040 0.020 1.670 48.000 -4.400 99.58

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Table 7 Dust formed

Component Al 2O3 CaO Cr2O3 Fe 2O3 K2O MgO MnO Na2O P2O5 SiO2 TiO2 LOL Total Mass g 0.535 0.134 1.028 12.991 0.023 0.373 0.221 0.009 0.009 23.018 7.454 2.125 47.921 Moles Mol 0.005 0.002 0.007 0.081 0.000 0.009 0.003 0.000 0.000 0.383 0.093 0.585 Composition Mass % 1.160 0.290 2.230 28.180 0.050 0.810 0.480 0.020 0.020 49.930 16.170 4.610 103.950

A mass balance for the furnace General mass balance At steady state there is no accumulation. The simplified mass balance becomes:

Titania rich slag Ilmenite Pig Iron

Furnace
Antracite Iron tubes

Dust Off gas Unreacted material

Figure 7 Diagram showing major input and outputs of the process

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Table 8 Effect of arc length and current on the arc characteristics

Arc length mm 1950.00 1980.00 1990.00 Voltage V 20.00 17.00 19.00 Current A 2.00 1.70 1.90 Resistance W 10.00 10.00 10.00

Table 9 Overall element balance around the furnace

IN Element Al Ca O Cr Fe K Mg Mn Na P Si Ti H S C N Total Mass g 1.104 0.139 84.063 0.083 135.120 0.220 0.753 2.021 0.383 0.037 1.937 63.421 0.545 0.202 22.524 0.278 312.831 Moles mol 0.041 0.003 5.254 0.002 2.419 0.006 0.031 0.037 0.017 0.001 0.069 0.032 0.540 0.006 1.875 0.020 10.353 Mass g 0.915 0.186 71.357 0.838 104.579 0.077 0.675 1.554 0.049 0.016 11.860 45.003 0.000 0.000 0.283 0.000 237.394 OUT Moles mol 0.034 0.005 4.460 0.016 1.872 0.002 0.028 0.028 0.002 0.001 0.422 0.938 0.000 0.000 0.024 0.000 7.832 Difference g 0.189 -0.047 12.706 -0.755 30.541 0.143 0.079 0.467 0.335 0.021 -9.923 18.418 0.545 0.202 22.241 0.278 75.437

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5. Discussion
Table 1 shows the results of the overall mass balance around the furnace. The total mass fed and leaving the furnace is 323.98 g and 321.89 g respectively. The resulting error is 0.64 %. The amount of off-gas formed is 72.09 g. Table 2 shows the analysis of ilmenite used during the smelting process. The mass loss at 1000 C is 7.54 g. This weight loss includes the total volatiles content at the rock (including the water combined to the lattice of silica minerals) and gain on ignition related to the oxidation of the rock (mostly due to Fe). The resulted error and weight loss might have been due to the fact that the composition of Fe 2O3 and TiO2 in the ilmenite analysis fell outside the calibration range. Thus the values were extrapolated by software and currently there are not adequate standards to correct this extra extrapolation.

The other sources of error might be the assumptions made in the calculations. The off-gas was assumed to be complete carbon monoxide (CO) from the reduction reactions whereas the gas might contain other compounds like hydrogen from volatiles in the reductant, carbon dioxide, moisture, nitrogen and sulphur dioxide. It further assumed that the conversion of the moisture in the ash to hydrogen and carbon monoxide was 100 %. Table 3 shows the ultimate analysis of the anthracite. The mass of carbon (reductant) is 22.52 g at purity 73.8 %. In table 5 it is observed that the mass of metallic iron formed is 45.05 g at purity of 99.37 %. The mass of the TiO 2 formed in the Titania rich slag is 67.49 g at purity of 48 %. The corresponding mass loss is 6.19 g. the mass of TiO2 formed in the dust stream is 7.45 g at purity of 16.17 %. The corresponding mass gained is 2.12 g. Table 8 shows the effect of arc length and current on the arc characteristics. It is observed that as the arc length is increased, the intensity of the arc decreased and suddenly the arc will disappear. The separation of the anode and cathode becomes longer. Raising the electrode made the furnace unstable and switched off the arc. When the arc was started again a sparking sound was heard during the start up. The electrode had a bright orange colour when the furnace was switched off. As the arch length is increased the current increases and the resistance stays the same. Thus more energy is generated and the arc intensity increases. The operating temperature is approximately 1700 C and this value was obtained from literature.

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6. Conclusions
Based on the forgoing information, the following conclusions have been made:

The amounts of product formed during the ilmenite smelting process are dependent on the initial conditions namely the mass of ilmenite, anthracite and the iron cubes.

The arc intensity is directly proportional to the arc length. The current affects the amount of energy evolved hence the intensity of the arc formed. The operating temperature of the furnace lies somewhere between 1600-1700 C.

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7. Recommendations
On the basis of the above conclusions, the following recommendations are made: Find alternative software that will accurately predict the compositions of the compounds reduce chances of weight loss. The experiment should be repeated several times for error analysis. Find an alternative device to measure the temperature during the smelting process.

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8. References
1. Pistorius, P.C., 2007, Ilmenite smelting: the basics, SAIMM, 75-84. 2. Kotze, H., 2007, Investigation into the effects of cooling conditions on the particle size distribution titania slag, Metallurgical Engineering, 1-15. 3. Sun, H., Wang, T., Dong, X. and Xue, Q., 2012, A literature review of titanium slag metallurgical processes, Metallurgical Engineering, 39-75. 4. Gous, M., 2006, An overview of the Nomakwa Sands Ilmenite Smelting Operation, SAIMM, 1-14. 5. Pistorius, P.C., 2008, Ilmenite smelting: the basics, SAIMM, 108, 6. Kotze, H., Bessinger, D. and Beukes, J., 2006, Ilmenite Smelting at Ticor SA, SAIMM, 1-12. 7. Coetzee, C., Lamont, P.H., Bessinger, D., Rabe, J., Zietsman, J. and Muller, J., 2006, Application of UCAR Chill Kote to ilmenite smelting, Kumba resources, 112. 8. Pistorous, P.C. and Zietsman, J.H., 2005, modelling an ilmenite-smelting DC arc furnace process, Minerals Engineering, 1-18. 9. Hudson, T.L., Fox, F.D. and Plumlee, G.S., 1999, Metal Mining and the Environment, AGI Environmental Awareness Series, 3, 60-68. 10. Ray, F. and Ghosh, A., 1991, Principles of Extractive Metallurgy, New Age International, 50-100. 11. Zietsman, J.H., 2004, Interactions between freezing lining and slag bath in Ilmenite Smelting, Metallurgical Engineering, 1-80. 12. Erasmus, M., 2012, Leaching of Nickel laterite with a solution of Ammonia and Ammonium Carbonate utilising solids liquid separations under pressure, Metallurgical Engineering, 21-22. 13. CMP, 2005, DC arc furnace, Melting Performance Analysis, 3, 1-2. 14. UCT, 2012, Mineral Processing Practical Manual, 33-41. 15. Jordan, P., 2011, Evaluation of reductants used for ilmenite smelting based on CO2 reactivity (Boudouard reaction) measurement, SAIMM, 111, 1-8. 16. Jones, R.T., 2011, Plasma development in Africa, 1-2.

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9. Appendices
9.1. Raw experimental data Table 10 Raw/Feed materials
Material Ilmenite Antracite Iron cubes Total Mass g 241.598 30.520 51.865 323.984 Fraction Mass 0.746 0.094 0.160 1.000

Table 11 Data for analysis of anthracite used in the plasma furnace experiments
Proximate analysis Moisture Ash Volatile Combustible Matter Fixed Carbon % 2.45 13.62 8.46 74.47 Ultimate analysis Moisture Ash Sulphur Carbon Hydrogen Nitrogen Oxygen % 2.45 13.62 0.65 73.8 3.02 1.82 4.64 100

Total

99

Table 12 Elemental balance for Ilmenite

Element Al Ca O Cr Fe K Mg Mn Na P Si Ti Total Mass g 0.4859 0.1036 80.7197 0.0827 83.0262 0.1404 0.7286 2.0208 0.3405 0.0316 0.8698 63.3713 231.9212 Moles mol 0.0180 0.0026 5.0450 0.0016 1.4866 0.0036 0.0300 0.0368 0.0148 0.0010 0.0310 1.3213 7.9922 Molar mass g/mol 26.9800 40.0800 16.0000 52.0000 55.8500 39.1000 24.3100 54.9400 22.9900 30.9700 28.0900 47.9600

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Table 13 Elemental balance for Pig Iron product

Table 14 Elemental balance for Anthracite

Element H O S C N Si Al Fe P Ti Ca Mg K Na Total Mass g 0.5446 3.3436 0.2023 22.5245 0.2778 1.0670 0.6182 0.2283 0.0054 0.0499 0.0354 0.0248 0.0797 0.0426 29.0440 Moles mol 0.5402 0.2090 0.0063 1.8753 0.0198 0.0380 0.0229 0.0041 0.0002 0.0010 0.0009 0.0010 0.0020 0.0019 2.7227 Molar mass 1.0080 16.0000 32.0600 12.0110 14.0100 28.0900 26.9800 55.8500 30.9700 47.9600 40.0800 24.3100 39.1000 22.9900

Table 15 Elemental balance for slag product

Element Al Ca O Cr Fe K Mg Mn Na P Si Ti Total Mass g 0.6325 0.0904 51.3817 0.1347 50.4716 0.0584 0.4495 1.3829 0.0417 0.0123 1.0978 40.5269 146.2804 Moles mol 0.0234 0.0023 3.2114 0.0026 0.9037 0.0015 0.0185 0.0252 0.0018 0.0004 0.0391 0.8450 5.0748 Molar mass g/mol 26.9800 40.0800 16.0000 52.0000 55.8500 39.1000 24.3100 54.9400 22.9900 30.9700 28.0900 47.9600

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Table 16 Elemental balance for Dust product

Element Al Ca O Cr Fe K Mg Mn Na P Si Ti Total Mass g 0.2830 0.0956 19.9756 0.7034 9.0869 0.0191 0.2252 0.1714 0.0068 0.0040 10.7618 4.4764 45.8093 Moles mol 0.0105 0.0024 1.2485 0.0135 0.1627 0.0005 0.0093 0.0031 0.0003 0.0001 0.3831 0.0933 1.9273 Molar mass g/mol 26.980 40.080 16.000 52.000 55.850 39.100 24.310 54.940 22.990 30.970 28.090 47.960

9.2.

Sample calculations

Determining the amount of off gas ( ) Feout = 104.579 g ( ) ( Thus and MCO =28.0 g/mol Thus ( ) TiO2, in = 105.530 g and Molar mass of TiO2 = 79.866 g )

Assume 100 % conversion, thus NCO,formed = 0.51.3213 = 0.6607 moles Thus mass of Co formed = 0.6607 28 = 18.4987 g ( ) Assume 100 % conversion of H2O Mass of H2O, in =0.7480 g, thus no of moles = 0.04155 mol Thus no of moles of CO formed = 0.04155 mol Thus mass of CO formed = 0.04155 28 = 1.1635 g
27 | P a g e

Hence total mass of CO formed = 52.4299 + 18.4987 + 1.1635 = 72.0921 g 2.

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