5006 28/9/06 13:53 Page 1

MOOREPARK
FOOD
RESEARCH
CENTRE

END
OF
PROJECT
REPORT
2005























 MFRC
No.60

CHEESE
TEXTURE

D.J. O’Callaghan

Cheese
 texture
 is
 important
 for
 consumer
 acceptability
 and
 for

determining
 the
 end
 use
 of
 the
 cheese.

 Cheese
 identity
 is
associated
 with
 textural
 attributes
 in
 addition
 to
 cheese
composition.

 The
 definitive
 assessment
 of
 cheese
 texture,
 i.e.
using
 a
 trained
 panel
 of
 assessors,
 can
 be
 supplemented
 by
rheological
 measurements
 and
 by
 online
 infrared
 spectroscopy
which
offer
rapid,
objective,
non-destructive
analyses
of
texture
and
composition.
5006 28/9/06 13:53 Page 2

Process Improvements in Cheese Manufacture through Rapid

Measurement of Moisture, Texture and Composition
(Cheese Texture)

RMIS No. 5006

Project Team
Moorepark Food Research Centre Teagasc:
D.J. O’Callaghan (Leader)
T.P. Guinee
V. Howard (MFRC)
G. Downey (AFRC)
In Collaboration with:
C.P. O’Donnell and C.D. Everard, Biosystems Engineering Department,
University College Dublin
C.M.Delahunty and E.M. Sheehan, Department of Nutritional Sciences,
University College Cork

Funding
was
provided
under
the
National
Development
Plan,
through
the
Food
Institutional
Research
Measure,
administered
by
the
Department
of
Agriculture
and
Food.

Moorepark
Food
Research
Centre
Moorepark,
Fermoy,
Co.
Cork

ISBN:
1
84170
421
0
MFRC
No.
60
©
Teagasc,
December
2005

Teagasc,

Oak
Park,
Carlow

2
5006 28/9/06 13:53 Page 3

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Sensory
 and
 rheological
 techniques
 were
 used
 to
 assess
 natural
 and
processed
cheese
texture.

 The
influence
of
moisture
and
pH
on
texture
characteristics
of
Cheddar
cheese
and
processed
cheese
was
investigated.
A
new
technique
was
developed
for
measuring
rheology
of
soft
cheeses.
Near
infrared
(NIR)
spectroscopy
was
investigated
for
prediction
of
cheese
texture
and
for
monitoring
moisture,
pH
and
ripening
of
Cheddar
cheese
and
composition
of
processed
cheese.


The
main
findings
were
as
follows:

* The
firmness
of
Cheddar
cheese
decreased
during
maturation,
as
one
might
expect
due
to
proteolysis.


* During
the
early
ripening
period,
Cheddar
cheese
generally
became
less
chewy
and
springy,
increased
in
the
sensory
attributes
‘crumbly’
and
‘mass-
formation’
and
decreased
in
‘moist’.

* During
 the
 later
 ripening
 period,
 cheeses
 generally
 became
 more

adhesive
 and
 decreased
 in
 fracture
 stress
 and
 strain,
 cohesiveness,
chewiness,
 firmness
 and
 springiness.

 Simultaneously,
 sensory
 testing
 of
cheeses
 showed
 increases
 in
 ‘rubbery’
 and
 ‘chewy’
 and
 decreases
 in
‘crumbly’
during
later
maturation.


* Mature
cheese
showed
less
variation
in
texture
than
young
cheese.
* NIR
spectra
could
be
used
to
estimate
the
maturation
of
cheese
with
a
high
 level
 of
 accuracy,
 provided
 a
 calibration
 is
 done
 using
 samples
spanning
the
expected
ages.


* Cheese
with
moisture
around
37
-
38%
was
the
most
firm.
* Lower
moisture
cheeses,
which
were
more
chewy
at
manufacture,
lost
much
of
their
chewiness
and
became
more
like
higher
moisture
cheeses
during
maturation,
reflecting
protein
degradation.

3
5006 28/9/06 13:53 Page 4

* NIR
 spectra
 could
 be
 used
 to
 estimate
 moisture
 in
 Cheddar
 cheese,
provided
a
calibration
is
first
done
using
samples
spanning
the
expected
moisture
range.


* NIR
spectra
could
be
used
to
estimate
moisture,
fat
and
salt
in
processed
cheese,
provided
a
calibration
is
done
using
samples
prepared
by
the
same
process.


* NIR
 spectra
 could
 be
 used
 to
 estimate
 sensory
 attributes:
 ‘crumbly’,
‘rubbery’,
 ‘chewy’,
 ‘mouth-coating’
 and
 ‘mass-forming’,
 provided
 a
calibration
is
done
with
respect
to
a
sensory
panel.


* In
general,
acidity
(lower
pH)
gave
cheeses
a
‘shorter’,
or
less
elastic
texture.


The
 study
 demonstrated
 the
 importance
 of
 control
 of
 pH
 and
 moisture
content
 for
 consistent
 cheese
 texture.

 NIR
 spectroscopy
 showed
 some
promising
results
for
determination
of
moisture
and
maturation
of
natural
cheese.

Main
Conclusions
and
Achievements

Natural
Cheese

Changes
in
sensory
and
rheological
texture
parameters
were
not
uniform
throughout
maturation,
i.e.
the
changes
during
the
first
half
of
maturation
were
different
from
changes
during
the
second
half
of
maturation.

During
the
first
half
of
maturation
the
sensory
parameters,
‘crumbly’
and
‘mass-
formation’,
 increased
 and
 ‘moist’
 decreased,
 whereas
 during
 the
 second
half
 of
 maturation
 ‘rubbery’
 and
 ‘chewy’
 increased
 and
 ‘crumbly’
decreased.

 With
 regard
 to
 rheological
 parameters,
 cheeses
 generally
became
 less
 firm,
 chewy
 and
 springy
 during
 the
 first
 half
 of
 maturation.
There
were
increases
in
adhesiveness
and
decreases
in
fracture
stress
and
strain,
cohesiveness,
chewiness,
firmness
and
springiness
during
the
second
half
of
maturation.
4
5006 28/9/06 13:53 Page 5

Most
 sensory
 texture
 parameters
 could
 be
 modelled
 by
 instrumental

measurements.

 NIR
spectroscopy
could
be
used
to
estimate
maturity
of
cheese
 and
 several
 sensory
 attributes
 (‘crumbly’,
 ‘rubbery’,
 ‘chewy’,
‘mouth-coating’
and
‘mass-forming’).

This
decreases
the
need
for
sensory
panels,
which
would
however
still
be
used
for
calibration
and
validation.

Increases
 in
 moisture
 content
 of
 Cheddar
 cheese
 resulted
 in
 changes
 in
sensory
texture,
e.g.
decreases
in
‘firmness’,
‘chewy’,
‘fragmentable’
and
‘rubbery’.

 Rheological
 texture
 parameters
 also
 showed
 changes
 with
increasing
 moisture
 content,
 e.g.
 decreases
 in
 chewiness,
 firmness
 and
springiness.


Reducing
pH
(increasing
acidity)
had
broadly
similar
effects
to
increasing
moisture,
 e.g.
 increased
 sensory
 ‘firmness’,
 ‘chewy’,
 ‘fragmentable’
 and
‘rubbery’.

Likewise,
the
effect
of
reducing
pH
on
rheological
texture
was
to
reduce
chewiness,
firmness
and
springiness.

Processed
Cheese

Decreasing
moisture
and/or
higher
pH
(towards
neutral)
increased
firmness
of
processed
cheese.

Increasing
fat
at
the
expense
of
moisture
gave
higher
firmness
 (due
 to
 increasing
 the
 protein-to-moisture
 ratio).
 pH,
 which
increased
 linearly
 with
 emulsifying
 salt,
 combined
 interactively
 with
decreasing
moisture
to
increase
firmness.

NIR
techniques
were
developed
for
predicting
moisture,
fat
and
salt
content
in
 processed
 cheese,
 with
 better
 prediction
 accuracies
 than
 previously
reported
 NIR
 methods.
 
 Sensory
 measurement
 of
 texture,
 such
 as
‘fragmentable’,
 ‘firmness’,
 ‘rubbery’,
 ‘creamy’,
 ‘chewy’,
 ‘mouth-coating’,
‘greasy/oily’,
‘melting’
and
‘mass-forming’,
were
predicted
successfully.


Texture-related
 rheological
 measurements
 (adhesiveness,
 chewiness,

cohesiveness,
 springiness,
 hardness
 and
 meltability)
 were
 accurately
predicted,
with
precision
in
the
range
0.1
-
16%.

This
study
demonstrates
that
NIR
reflectance
can
be
used
to
predict
many
sensory
and
instrumental
texture
parameters
with
a
level
of
accuracy
suitable
for
industrial
use.

5
5006 28/9/06 13:53 Page 6

RESEARCH
AND
RESULTS

Estimation
 of
 maturity
 and
 sensory
 attributes
 in
 Cheddar
 cheese

using
near
infrared
(NIR)
spectroscopy

Texture
of
Cheddar
cheese
was
evaluated
using
rheological
and
sensory
techniques
 during
 maturation
 and
 to
 determine
 relationships
 between
instrumental
 (i.e.
 rheological)
 and
 sensory
 (i.e.
 by
 human
 panel)
techniques.

 In
parallel
with
this,
NIR
spectroscopy
was
investigated
as
a
technique
 for
 assessing
 the
 maturity
 and
 sensory
 attributes
 in
 Cheddar
cheese
in
the
course
of
ripening.


Chymosin

Rhizomucor
pusillus
Rhizomucor
miehei
Std.
Calf
Cryphonectria
parasitica

Fig.
1.

 Firmness
of
Cheddar
cheese
in
the
course
of
maturation
for
five
enzyme
types.
(Std.
Calf
refers
to
standard
calf
rennet,
which
is
a
blend
of
chymosin
and
pepsin).

Cheddar
 cheeses
 were
 manufactured
 using
 five
 different
 rennets

(coagulants),
 derived
 from
 animal
 and
 microbial
 sources
 (chymosin,
chymosin/pepsin
 blend,
 and
 individual
 proteinases
 from
 R
h
i
z
o
m
u
c
o
r
miehei, Cryphonectria
parasitica and
 Rhizomucor
 pusillus).

 Descriptive
sensory
analysis
of
cheese
texture
was
carried
out
in
duplicate
on
all
24
natural
cheeses
up
to
nine
months
maturation
by
a
trained
panel
in
UCC.
6
5006 28/9/06 13:53 Page 7

The
 most
 rapid
 changes
 in
 texture
 were
 observed
 during
 the
 first
 two
months
of
ripening,
e.g.
firmness,
measured
by
compression
on
a
texture
analyser,
 decreased
 rapidly
 during
 the
 first
 2
 months
 of
 ripening
 and
decreased
 more
 slowly
 thereafter,
 the
 type
 of
 enzyme
 not
 having
 any
significant
effect
(Fig.
1).

Fracture
stress,
likewise,
fell
rapidly
during
the
first
1
-
2
months
of
ripening
and
the
enzyme
type
had
a
strong
influence
on
fracture
strain
after
two
months
of
storage,
but
this
influence
became
less
significant
as
the
cheeses
matured
 (Fig.
2).

Fracture
strain
also
decreased
during
 ripening,
 but
 with
 different
 effects
 from
 the
 enzymes
 used;
 the
microbial
enzymes
produced
cheeses
with
lower
fracture
strain
(more
brittle)
than
the
animal
enzymes
(Fig.
3).

Chymosin

R.
pusillus
R.
miehei
Std.
Calf
C.
parasitica

Fig.
2. Fracture
stress
of
Cheddar
cheese
in
the
course
of
maturation
by
enzyme
type.



After
two
months
of
ripening,
the
sensory
panel
described
the
cheeses
as
‘rubbery’,
‘fragmentable’
and
‘greasy/oily’,
while
at
nine
months
the
cheeses
were
described
as
having
‘mouth-coating’,
‘melting’
and
‘mass-formation’
attributes
(Appendix
1).

During
the
9-month
ripening
process,
the
intensity
of
the
‘rubbery’
attribute
decreased,
while
that
for
‘crumbly’
increased.


7
5006 28/9/06 13:53 Page 8

Chymosin

R.
pusillus
R.
miehei
Std.
Calf
C.
parasitica

Fig.
3. Fracture
strain
in
the
course
of
maturation
by
enzyme
type.


Fig.
4. Reflectance
spectra
of
Cheddar
cheese
samples,
represented
as
mean

 (



 )
and

standard
deviation
(






),
n
=
100.
The
reflectance
spectra
are
plotted
as
log
(1/Reflectance),
a
mathematical
pre-treatment,
commonly
used
for
linearising
reflectance
data.
The
standard
deviation
shows
the
parts
of
the
spectrum
with
most
variation
between
different
samples,
and
hence
scope
for
differentiating
between
samples.

8
5006 28/9/06 13:53 Page 9

Fig.
5.
Linear
regression
plots
of
predicted
versus
actual
age
of
Cheddar
cheese,
where
prediction
was
done
by
NIR
reflectance.

NIR
 reflectance
 spectra
 of
 Cheddar
 cheeses,
 described
 in
 Appendix
 1,

showed
 variations
 due
 to
 moisture
 and
 fat
 (Fig.
 4).

 NIR
 spectroscopy
estimated
 the
 age
 of
 cheeses,
 stored
 up
 to
 9
 months
 at
 7°C,
 with
 a
prediction
 accuracy
 of
 0.61
 months
 (Fig.
 5).

 The
 prediction
 of
 sensory
attributes
by
NIR
reflectance
is
illustrated
by
the
prediction
of
‘crumbly’
and
‘rubbery’
(Fig.
6).

Influence
of
composition
and
ripening
on
rheology
and
texture
of
cheese

An
experiment
was
undertaken
to
determine
relationships
between
sensory
and
rheological
measurements
of
texture
and
to
determine
the
influence
of
moisture
and
pH
on
texture
development
in
Cheddar
cheese
during
the
course
 of
 ripening.

 Cheddar
 cheeses
 were
 selected
 from
 commercial
production
 with
 a
 range
 of
 pH
 and
 moisture
 values,
 and
 subjected
 to
rheological
and
sensory
texture
analysis,
and
to
NIR
analysis,
in
the
course
9
5006 28/9/06 13:53 Page 10

Fig.
 6. Linear
 regression
 plots
 of
 predicted
 versus
 actual
 scores
 for
 the
 sensory
attributes
 (a)
 ‘crumbly’
 and
 (b)
 ‘rubbery’,
 where
 prediction
 was
 done
 by
 NIR
spectroscopy.

of
maturation.

 The
NIR
technique
was
evaluated
for
its
ability
to
predict
sensory
properties
of
commercial
Cheddar
cheese.

 ❇ Note: pH
varied
from
5.0
to
5.5
and
moisture
from
35.9%
to
40.7%.

The
cheeses
were
vacuum
wrapped
and
stored
at
4°C
for
one
week
and
then
at
7°C
for
the
remainder
of
the
maturing
period,
according
to
normal
commercial
procedure.

10
5006 28/9/06 13:53 Page 11

Fig.
7. Influence
of
moisture
and
age
of
Cheddar
cheese
on
a
range
of
sensory
attribute
 scores
 and
 rheological
 parameters,
 namely
 (a)
 sensory
 ‘firmness’,
 (b)
‘rubbery’,
 (c)
 ‘chewy’,
 (d)
 ‘fragmentable’,
 (e)
 rheological
 firmness,
 and
 (f)
springiness.

11
5006 28/9/06 13:53 Page 12

A
45
40 1-2
months
35 2-3
months
30 4-5
months
Chewiness

25 8-9
months
20
15
10
5
0
35 36 37 38 39 40 41
B
35

30

25

20
Chewy

15

10

0
35 36 37 38 39 40 41

Moisture

Fig.
8. Changes
in:
(a)
chewiness
by
texture
profile
analysis,
and
(b)
scores
for
the
sensory
attribute
‘chewy’
for
Cheddar
cheeses
with
respect
to
moisture
content
at
different
stages
of
maturation.

Rheological
 parameters
 firmness,
 chewiness
 and
 springiness
 decreased

during
 maturation (Figs.
 7
 and
 8).

 Similar
 trends
 were
 found
 for
rheological
and
sensory
measurements
of
texture
for
all
cheeses.



Cheese
 manufacturers
 associate
 top
 quality
 cheese
 as
 being
 within
 a

defined
 window
 of
 moisture
 content.

 The
 reasons
 for
 this,
 though
complex,
 were
 demonstrated
 in
 this
 study.

 The
 influence
 of
 increasing
moisture
 content
 on
 cheese
 texture
 is
 illustrated
 by
 the
 associated
decreasing
scores
for
sensory
attributes,
‘firmness’,
‘rubbery’,
‘chewy’
and
‘fragmentable’
 (Fig.
 7).
 
 The
 rheological
 parameters,
 firmness
 and
springiness,
 were
 more
 discriminating
 than
 sensory
 measurements
 in
separating
 the
 cheeses
 according
 to
 age
 and
 moisture
 and
 revealed
12
5006 28/9/06 13:53 Page 13

maxima
around
38%
moisture.

 Likewise,
a
comparison
of
(rheological)
chewiness
with
(sensory)
‘chewy’
shows
that
the
rheological
measurement
discriminated
 the
 effects
 of
 ageing
 much
 more
 effectively,
 as
 one
 would
expect (Fig.
8).

For
some
sensory
texture
attributes,
the
changes
during
early
maturation
reversed
during
later
maturation,
e.g.
scores
for
‘crumbly’
increased
and
‘moist’
decreased
during
the
first
four
months
of
storage
but
these
changes
were
reversed
after
8
months’
storage
(Fig.
9).

Fig.
 9.
 Effect
 of
 Cheddar
 cheese
 maturation
 on
 scores
 for
 sensory
 parameters
‘moist’
and
‘crumbly’
at
three
stages
of
maturation:
(1)
2
-
3
months
old;
(2)
4
–
5
months
old;
(3)
8
–
9
months
old.


Key
for
Cheddar
cheeses:

MMLP
=
medium
moisture,
low
pH;
LMLP
=
Low
moisture,
low
pH;
HMLP
=
high
 moisture,
 low
 pH;
 LMHP
 =
 low
 moisture,
 high
 pH;
 MMHP
 =
 medium
moisture,
high
pH.

13
5006 28/9/06 13:53 Page 14

Effect
of
measuring
temperature
on
texture
profile

The
effect
of
measuring
temperature
on
the
rheological
texture
of
Cheddar
cheese
 is
 illustrated
 by
 force-time
 and
 force-displacement
 curves
 at
refrigeration
(4°C)
and
room
(20°C)
temperature,
respectively.

 Firmness
decreased
 with
 temperature,
 as
 would
 be
 expected.
 
 Cohesiveness
increased
 with
 temperature,
 probably
 due
 to
 greater
 structural
 flexibility
(Table
1).

 The
intrinsic
relationship
between
cohesiveness,
firmness
and
chewiness
is
such
that
the
observed
increase
in
cohesiveness,
combined
with
the
decrease
in
firmness,
resulted
in
no
effect
on
chewiness.


The
 differing
 effects
 of
 temperature
 on
 different
 texture
 profile
 analysis
(TPA)
parameters
illustrates
the
importance
of
specifying
the
temperature
at
which
TPA
measurements
are
carried
out
and
the
need
to
work
at
the
same
temperature
 when
 making
 comparisons
 between
 different
 studies
 or
different
products.

A
working
temperature
of
4°C
was
used
for
rheological
measurements
throughout
this
study,
unless
stated
otherwise.

Table
 1. Effect
 of
 temperature
 on
 TPA
 parameters
 for
 mature
 Cheddar
 cheese
compressed
to
a
strain
of
0.7
without
any
rest
period
between
compression
strokes.

Temperature


Firmness

Fracture


Chewiness

Adhesiveness


Springiness

Cohesiveness


























ºC












 (N)





 stress

(N)






 (N)










 (Nmm)

4








 214




 145






 9.6








 37.6







 0.311





 0.145



Estimation
 of
 moisture
 and
 pH
 using
 near
 infrared
 (NIR)

spectroscopy

NIR
spectra
were
used
to
estimate
moisture
and
pH
in
Cheddar
cheese:

(a)
NIR
spectroscopy
predicted
moisture,
in
the
range
35
–
40
(%
w/w),
to
±
 0.75
 accuracy
 (%
 w/w,
 standard
 error
 of
 prediction),
 and
 (b)
 NIR
spectroscopy
predicted
pH,
in
the
range
5.0
-
5.6

to
±
0.15
accuracy.
14
5006 28/9/06 13:53 Page 15

Processed
Cheese
New
method
for
assessing
thickness
of
molten
cheese
The
thickness,
or
viscosity,
of
molten
cheese,
i.e.
processed
cheese
during
the
cooking
stage,
was
assessed
at
80°C
using
a
spreadability
rig
attached
to
the
texture
analyser
 (Fig.
10).
The
blend
became
more
viscous
during
cooking
until
it
reached
a
maximum.

Influence
 of
 ingredient
 formulation
 on
 texture,
 moisture
 and

meltability
of
processed
cheese

The
influence
of
the
composition
of
processed
cheese
on
its
texture
was
investigated
by
producing
a
series
of
processed
cheese
samples
with
varying
levels
of
fat,
moisture
and
emulsifying
salt
(di-sodium
phosphate,
1
-
3%)
and
sodium
chloride.


Rheological
 properties
 of
 processed
 cheese
 were
 evaluated
 using
 the

method
 of
 texture
 profile
 analysis
 (TPA)
 (Table
 2).
 Rheological
 texture

Table
2.
 Texture
Profile
Analysis
(TPA)
parameters
and
physical
definitions.

Terminology Physical definition (TPA term) Units

Fracture
stress



Stress
(or
sometimes,
force)
to
fracture
point,

H1 (Fig. 17) Pa,
kPa

Firmnessa Stress
(or
sometimes,
force)
at
a
given

deformation



 Pa
or
kPa

Springiness








 Percentage
of
deformation
which
is
recovered
 -
(or
elasticity) between
the
first
and
second
bites

Cohesiveness





 Area
of
second
bite
over
area
of
the
first
bite
 -
(A2/A1)
in Fig. 17

Chewiness
 Hardness
x
Cohesiveness
x
Springiness Pa,
kPa

Adhesiveness Work
necessary
to
pull
the
plunger

(compression
plate)
away
from
the
sample

(Area
A3 in
Fig. 17) J/m3

15
5006 28/9/06 13:53 Page 16

Fig.
 10. Spreadability
 rig
 (a),
 used
 for
 measuring
 rheology
 of
 soft
 cheeses;
schematic
illustrating
start
(b)
and
end
(c)
of
test.

properties
were
well
established
when
measured
2
weeks
after
manufacture,
and
generally
did
not
change
between
2
weeks
and
4
weeks.

Firmness
was
low
in
reduced
fat
cheese
(26%)
with
a
low
level
of
emulsifying
salt
(1%)
and
increased
when
either
fat
or
emulsifying
salt
level
was
increased
at
the
expense
of
water.

 The
low
fat
cheeses
were
softer
and
more
spreadable
with
little
tendency
to
fracture.

 When
the
water
content
was
increased
at
the
expense
of
protein
and
fat,
the
processed
cheeses
became
much
less
firm
and
yielded
more
easily.

 When
moisture
was
increased
from
42
to
48%
(protein
falling
from
21
-
18%,

fat
content
falling
from
30
to
27%,
and
emulsifying
salt
at
2%)
cheese
firmness
decreased
from
~150
N
to
<
50
N.

Sensory
 textural
 attributes,
 like
 their
 rheological
 counterparts,
 did
 not

change
between
2
and
4
weeks
storage.
Cheeses
manufactured
with
high
moisture
and
medium
to
low
fat
levels
were
described
predominantly
as
‘creamy’
and
‘melting’,
whereas
cheeses
manufactured
with
lower
moisture,
high-medium
fat
and
low
emulsifying
salt
content
were
chiefly
described
as
‘firm’
and
‘mouth-coating’.

Cheeses
manufactured
with
medium
moisture,
medium-high
fat,
medium
and
high
emulsifying
salt
content
were
described
as
‘fragmentable’
and
‘rubbery’.

16
5006 28/9/06 13:53 Page 17

Fig.
 11. Linear
 regression
 plots
 of
 predicted
 versus
 actual
 texture-related
rheological
 parameters:
 (a)
 adhesiveness,
 (b)
 chewiness,
 (c)
 cohesiveness,
 (d)
springiness,
 (e)
 hardness
 and
 (f)
 meltability,
 based
 on
 prediction
 using
 NIR
spectroscopy
in
the
waveband
1100
-
2500
nm.

17
5006 28/9/06 13:53 Page 18

Fig.
 12. Linear
 regression
 plots
 of

predicted
 versus
 actual
 sensory
parameters:
 (a)
 ‘fragmentable’,
 (b)
‘firmness’,
 (c)
 ‘rubbery’,
 (d)
 ‘creamy’,
(e)
 ‘chewy’,
 (f)
 ‘mouth-coating’,
 (g)
‘greasy-oily’,
(h)
‘melting’
and
(i)
‘mass-
forming’,
based
on
prediction
using
NIR
spectroscopy
 in
 the
 waveband
 1100
 -
2500
nm.

18
5006 28/9/06 13:53 Page 19

Use
 of
 near
 infrared
 (NIR)
 spectroscopy
 for
 assessment
 of

composition
(moisture,
fat
and
salt)
and
texture
in
processed
cheese

NIR
 spectroscopy
 was
 used
 to
 predict
 rheological
 and
 sensory
 texture.
Prediction
 models
 were
 developed
 for
 rheological
 texture
 measurement
(Fig.
11).

The
accuracy
of
NIR
in
estimating
sensory
texture
parameters
is
illustrated
by
regression
plots
(Fig.
12).

NIR
 spectroscopy
 was
 also
 used
 to
 estimate
 moisture,
 fat
 and
 salt
 in
processed
cheeses
with
low,
medium
and
high
moisture
contents
as
shown
in
 Figure
 13.

 This
 technique
 is
 based
 on
 the
 peaks
 and
 variations,

Fig.
13. Linear
regression
plots
of
predicted
versus
actual
values
for:
(a)
fat
(%
w/w),
(b)
moisture
and
(c)
salt,
based
on
prediction
using
NIR
spectroscopy
in
the
waveband
1100
-
2500
nm.

The
2nd
derivative
of
the
raw
spectral
data
was
used.
Accuracy
of
prediction,
as
standard
error
of
cross-validation
(SECV)
=
0.45,
0.50
and
 0.26
 respectively.

 Correlation
 coefficients:
 R
 =
 0.98,
 0.99
 and
 0.90,
respectively.

19
5006 28/9/06 13:53 Page 20

associated
 with
 moisture
 and
 fat
 in
 the
 plots
 of
 visible
 /
 NIR
 reflectance
spectra
 of
 processed
 cheeses
 (Fig.
 14).
 Dissolved
 salt
 does
 not
 produce
peaks
in
the
spectrum;
however,
salt
content
affects
the
location
of
moisture
peaks
and
the
location
and
shape
of
fat
peaks.
All
else
being
equal,
NIR
is
preferable
 to
 visible
 light
 because
 it
 avoids
 the
 confounding
 effects
 of
colour.


Fig.
14. NIR
reflectance
spectra
of
three
processed
cheese
samples,
differing
in
moisture
and
fat
level,
with
the
same
emulsifying
salt
level
(2%
w/w),
illustrating
the
differences
between
spectra
which
are
the
basis
of
differentiation
between
samples.
The
reflectance
spectra
are
plotted
as
log
(1/Reflectance).

20
5006 28/9/06 13:53 Page 21

Fig.
15. Schematic
of
compression
test
apparatus.

21
5006 28/9/06 13:54 Page 22

Appendix
1.

Techniques
investigated

Quantitative
descriptive
sensory
protocol


A
quantitative
descriptive
sensory
protocol
was
defined
for
cheese
texture
measurement,
according
to
international
standards
(Delahunty
and
Drake,
2004;
 ISO
 8586,
 1993).
 Descriptive
 sensory
 analysis
 was
 carried
 out
 in
University
 College
 Cork
 using
 a
 vocabulary
 of
 eleven
 texture
 terms
spanning
the
phases
of
the
chewing
cycle
 (Table
3).

Each
 assessor
 was
 provided
 with
 a
 list
 of
 the
 defined
 vocabulary.
 Each
sample
(a
5
g
cube,
labelled
with
a
random
3-digit
code)
was
equilibrated
to
 room
 temperature
 (21°C).
 Cheeses
 were
 scored
 for
 attributes
 on
unstructured
100
mm
line
scales
labelled
at
both
ends
with
extremes
of
each
attribute.
Cheese
scores
were
averaged
across
assessors
for
each
attribute.

Texture
profile
analysis
(TPA)

The
cheeses
were
cut
into
25
mm
cubes
and
stored
at
4ºC.
Each
sample
was
subjected
to
a
double-bite
compression
to
30%
of
original
height,
using
a
texture
analyser
(model
TA.
HDi Stable
Micro
Systems)
with
a
75
mm
TM

compression
plate
and
a
100
kg
load
cell
(Figs.
15
and
16).

Firmness
was
measured
as
the
force
at
maximum
compression
on
the
first
bite,
i.e.
at
a
strain
of
0.7.
Fracture
stress
was
measured
as
the
force
per
unit
area
at
the
point
of
fracture
on
the
first
bite,
i.e.
the
force
required
to
cause
complete
fracture
of
the
sample,
corresponding
to
breaking
structural
bonds
within
the
sample
(Fig.
17).

Cohesiveness
was
computed
as
the
ratio
of
the
area
of
the
second
bite
to
that
 of
 the
 first
 bite.
 Springiness
 was
 calculated
 as
 the
 fraction
 of
deformation
 that
 is
 recovered
 between
 the
 first
 and
 second
 bites,
 and
generally
depends
on
the
period
of
relaxation.
Chewiness
and
adhesiveness
were
calculated
as
in
Table
2.

22
5006 28/9/06 13:54 Page 23

Table
 3. Attributes,
 their
 definitions
 and
 phase
 of
 the
 chewing
 cycle,
 used
 to
evaluate
texture
of
the
cheese
samples
during
ripening.

Attribute Definition Phase
of
the
chewing
cycle

Firmness The
extent
of
the
initial
resistance
 Judged
on
the
first

offered
by
the
cheese.1 chew
using
the

front
teeth.

Rubbery The
extent
to
which
the
cheese Assessed
during
the


returns/springs
to
its
initial
form


















 first
2-3
chews.
after
biting.2
Gritty
/
Grainy The
amount
of
small
hard
grains
or
‘bits’
that
are
in
the
cheese.2
Moist The
perceived
moisture
content
of
the

cheese.3
Crumbly The
extent
to
which
the
cheese
structure
breaks
up
in
the
mouth.2

Chewy The
effort
needed
to
break
down
the










 Judged
in
the
middle

structure
of
the
cheese.2 phase
of
mastication.

Mouth-coating The
extent
to
which
the
cheese
clings
to
the
inside
of
the
mouth
(roof,
teeth,
tongue,
gums).2

Fragmentable Breaks
down
to
smaller
versions
















 Probably
judged
towards


of
itself.2 the
end
of
chewing.
Melting The
extent
to
which
the
cheese
melts

in
the
mouth.

Smooth
velvet
fullness

in
mouth.2
Mass
formation The
extent
to
which
the
cheese
forms
a

bolus
or
mass
in
the
mouth
after
chewing.2

Greasy/Oily The
extent
to
which
a
greasy/oily
residue




 Judged
at
the
end


is
deposited
in
the
mouth
after
the
cheese


of
the
chewing
sequence.
is
broken
down.2
1
-
Ranging
from
soft
to
firm;

2
-
Ranging
from
‘a
little‘
to
‘a
lot’;


3
-
Ranging
from
‘dry’
to
‘moist’.

23
5006 28/9/06 13:54 Page 24

Fig.
16. Compression
of
cheese
for
measurement
of
TPA
parameters,
showing,
(a)
cube
of
Cheddar
cheese
before
compression
on
TA.
HDi
 ,
and
(b)
cheese
TM

sample
after
compression
to
30%
of
original
height
(strain
=
0.7).

Infrared
spectroscopy


The
 sample
 presentation
 technique
 was
 based
 on
 reflectance
 from
 solid
cheese
 cylinders.
 Spectroscopic
 data
 were
 collected
 in
 reflectance
 mode
between
400
and
2500
nm
using
a
scanning
monochromator
(Model
6500
FOSS
NIR
Systems).
All
samples
were
equilibrated
to
room
temperature
(20
-
24°C)
prior
to
NIR
analysis.


Three
cylinders
(30
mm
height
x
38
mm
diameter)
of
cheese
were
removed
from
each
sample
with
the
aid
of
a
cork
borer.
Each
cylindrical
sample
was
24
5006 28/9/06 13:54 Page 25

Fig.
 17. Stress-time
 curve
 in
 double-bite
 compression
 test,
 which
 is
 used
 to
calculate
 TPA
 parameters
 (Table
 2).

A1 and
 A2 represent
the
areas
under
the
compression
 portions
 of
 the
 first
 and
 second
 bites,
 respectively,
 and
 the
 ratio
between
them
is
denoted
cohesiveness.
A3 represent
the
areas
under
the
suction
(or
 withdrawal)
 portion
 of
 the
 first
 bite
 and
 is
 denoted
 as
 adhesiveness.
 H1
represents
the
fracture
stress.

then
 placed
 in
 a
 standard
 circular
 reflectance
 cup
 and
 sliced
 to
 the
 cup
depth
(10
mm)
using
a
flexible
cheese
wire.
Each
of
these
three
replicate
sub-samples
 was
 scanned
 in
 triplicate
 with
 rotation
 of
 the
 sample
 cup
through
approximately
120°
between
successive
scans
of
each
sub-sample.
The
average
of
all
nine
spectra
of
each
cheese
sample
was
subsequently
used
for
calibration
development
and
evaluation.

25
5006 28/9/06 13:54 Page 26

Selected
Publications
Blazquez,
 C.,
 Downey,
 G.,
 O’Donnell,
 C.,
 O’Callaghan,
 D.
 and
 Howard,
 V.
(2004).

Prediction
of
Moisture,
Fat
and
Inorganic
Salts
in
Processed
Cheese
by
Near
Infrared
Reflectance
Spectroscopy
and
Multivariate
Data
Analysis.

Journal
of
Near
Infrared
Spectroscopy, 12:149-158.

Delahunty,
C.M.
and
Drake,
M.A.
(2004).
Sensory
character
of
cheese
and
its
evaluation.
In:
 Cheese:
Chemistry,
Physics
and
Microbiology:
General
Aspects.
3rd
Ed.
Vol.1
(Eds.
Fox,
P.F.,

 McSweeney,
P.L.H.,
Cogan,
T.M.
and
Guinee,
T.P.).
Elsevier,
London,
455-488.

O’Callaghan,
D.J.
and
Guinee,
T.P.
(2004).

Rheology
and
texture
of
cheese.

In:
Cheese:
Chemistry,
Physics
and
Microbiology, 3rd
 Ed.
 Vol.1
 (Eds.
 Fox,
 P.F.,
McSweeney,
P.L.H.,
Cogan,
T.M.
and
Guinee,
T.P.).
Elsevier,
London,
511-
540.

Downey,
 G.,
 Sheehan,
 E.,
 Delahunty,
 C.,
 O’Callaghan,
 D.,
 Guinee,
 T.
 and
Howard,
V.
(2005).
Prediction
of
maturity
and
sensory
attributes
of
Cheddar
cheese
 using
 near
 infrared
 spectroscopy.

 International
 Dairy
 Journal, 15(6-
9):701-709.

Everard,
C.D.,
O’Donnell,
C.P.,
Sheehan,
E.M.,

O’Callaghan,
D.J.,

Delahunty,
C.M.
and
Fagan,
C.C.
(2005).
Correlation
between
process
cheese
meltability
determined
by
sensory
analysis,
computer
vision
method
and
Olson
and
Price
test.

International
Journal
of
Food
Properties, 8:267-275.

Fagan,
C.C.,
Everard,
C.,
O’Donnell,
C.P.,
Downey,
G.
and
O’Callaghan,
D.J.
(2005).
Prediction
of
inorganic
salt
and
moisture
content
of
process
cheese
using
dielectric
spectroscopy.
 International
Journal
of
Food
Properties, 8:543–557.

Blazquez,
 C.,

 Downey,
 G.,

 O’Callaghan,
 D.,
 Howard,
 V.,
 Delahunty,
 C.,
Sheehan,
L.
and

O’Donnell,
C.
(2006).
Modelling
of
sensory
and
instrumental
texture
 parameters
 in
 processed
 cheese
 by
 near
 infrared
 reflectance
spectroscopy.

Journal
of
Dairy
Research, 73(1):58-69.


Everard,
 C.D.,
 O’Donnell,
 C.P.,
 O’Callaghan,
 D.J.,
 Howard,
 T.V.,
 Sheehan,

E.M.
 and
 Delahunty,
 C.M.
 (2006).
 Relationships
 between
 sensory
 and
rheological
measurements
of
texture
in
maturing
commercial
Cheddar
cheese
over
a
range
of
moisture
and
pH
at
the
point
of
manufacture.

 Journal
of
Texture
Studies (in
press).

26
5006 28/9/06 13:54 Page 27

Figures
in
this
Report
-
Source

Fig.
6: Downey,
G.,
Sheehan,
E.,
Delahunty,
C.,
O’Callaghan,
D.,
Guinee,
T.
and
Howard,
V.

Prediction
of
maturity
and
sensory
attributes
of
Cheddar
cheese
using
near
infrared
spectroscopy.

International
Dairy
Journal

(2005)
15:701–709,
Figs.
6a
and
b.

Figs.
11
and

 12: Blazquez,
C.,
Downey,
G.,
O’Callaghan,
D.,

 Howard,
V.,

Delahunty,
C.,
Sheehan,
L.
and
O’Donnell,
C.
(2006).
Modelling
of
sensory
and
instrumental
texture
parameters
in
processed
cheese
by
near
infrared
reflectance
spectroscopy.

Journal
of
Dairy
Research
(2006)
73:58–69,
Figs.
8
and
9.

Figs.
13
a,
b
and
c: Blazquez,
C.,
Downey,
G.,
O’Donnell,
C.,
O’Callaghan,
D.
and
 Howard,
 V.
 (2004).

 Prediction
 of
 Moisture,
 Fat
 and
 Inorganic
 Salts
 in
Processed
 Cheese
 by
 Near
 Infrared
 Reflectance
 Spectroscopy
 and
 Multivariate
Data
Analysis.

Journal
of
Near
Infrared
Spectroscopy
(2004)
12:149-158,
Figs.
3,
5
and
7.

For
further
information,
please
contact:
Dr.
D.J.
O´Callaghan

27
5006 28/9/06 13:54 Page 28

D.J.
O´Callaghan



MOOREPARK
FOOD
RESEARCH
CENTRE
Moorepark,
Fermoy,
Co.
Cork,
Ireland
Tel:
+353
(0)
25
42222
-
Fax:
+353
(0)
25
42340
E-Mail:
reception@moorepark.teagasc.ie