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    Juan Carlos Fernandez Lovera
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    This document provides guidelines for seismic evaluation and design of petrochemical facilities to promote safety. It addresses both new design and evaluation of existing structures. For new design, it emphasizes proper interpretation and application of building codes to petrochemical facilities. For existing facilities, it provides methodology for evaluation that relies on experience from past earthquakes along with focused analysis to identify vulnerabilities beyond building code requirements. The guidelines were developed by an ASCE task committee to address the need for consistent standards across the petrochemical industry.

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    Guidelines for Seismic Evaluation

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    This document provides guidelines for seismic evaluation and design of petrochemical facilities to promote safety. It addresses both new design and evaluation of existing structures. For new design, it emphasizes proper interpretation and application of building codes to petrochemical facilities. For existing facilities, it provides methodology for evaluation that relies on experience from past earthquakes along with focused analysis to identify vulnerabilities beyond building code requirements. The guidelines were developed by an ASCE task committee to address the need for consistent standards across the petrochemical industry.

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    Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
    Unduh sebagai PDF, TXT atau baca online dari Scribd
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    799 tayangan276 halaman

    How to Optimize Your Website for Search Engines

    Diunggah oleh

    Juan Carlos Fernandez Lovera
    This document provides guidelines for seismic evaluation and design of petrochemical facilities to promote safety. It addresses both new design and evaluation of existing structures. For new design, it emphasizes proper interpretation and application of building codes to petrochemical facilities. For existing facilities, it provides methodology for evaluation that relies on experience from past earthquakes along with focused analysis to identify vulnerabilities beyond building code requirements. The guidelines were developed by an ASCE task committee to address the need for consistent standards across the petrochemical industry.

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    Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
    Unduh sebagai PDF, TXT atau baca online dari Scribd
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    dari 276

    , GUIDELINES FOR SEISMIC EVALUATION AND

    I
    DESIGN OF PETROCHEMICAL FACILmeS'
    P"'paied by
    , Task CommJttep on Seismic Evaluation IIIUl DesIp ofPet1ochem1l!lIrl'arIUtIes
    -
    Petrochemical EDergy OcUI!! n'Uee
    These guidelines am jnnmdect to provide pmcticallL%' iiilmcndariOllS 011 several areas
    which affect the safety of a petlix:he
    m
    ica1 facility during ami fonow:ing aD
    i earthquake. . -
    ,
    This dor"",em also provides backgrouDd.ir4ot
    iiiat
    iDJ1 ami ro o"IIIIendatiDJ1S in
    several areas related to seismic sifetywIieze the civil engineer may '*.
    with other disciplines ami with plaDt operatiODS. These areas bu:bjcfe seismic
    haz8ids. c:ontingency pl !l!1J!ing. d p o s t ~ damage ess
    M
    wQ1!f ..
    ' .......
    t--'
    ,,'
    ",
    , .. .. ' __ !.
    :
    ' .. i , ..
    'I'he !!!I!Ir!rjaI prcscntrd iJi. this: pub'fii:arionbas been, p1qIBred fa with
    geue:rally recognized "'"gin .. Ililg }iliilciplm aDd practices, ami is for pueral
    iDformarioncmly; _. This inimnprion should DOt be used first se'i"hl8
    CChiqe'mit advice with r,o irs sujtabD4y for gcacral or specific appIicarion
    'I'he c. Ii deurs of this: pn
    b
    1U:at!on am DOt intrm
    dtd
    to be aDd should DOt be COJISIrUCd
    to be a sraMml of the ftf!ieriI'.!l!l.SocIety of CivD.lmgIn=zs (AS.P!) ami am DOt
    intended for asa:t#;i@wiDputd:lase sprdfirations,COlIUadS. mgnIarions,
    .'IIIes or mnQlt!mr-'-1:!.;' dO-i-iFF"" . . .... <
    lCIJPIII., '1 "
    -- ... ....... - .' " -';;r-'
    Any opinions, findings, cxmdnsiCIDS, 1OC ...... rend
    ati
    ons exja ssed in this
    publication am those of,the BilllUlIS aDd do niii ne Im'ily reflect the views of ASCE
    or the authoxs' respcetivC organj:zatjons
    No refexencc made in thii pnbHc:prion to lIllY specific publication, method, product,
    "P"'cx:ess, ....... oc 01' sen:ice ruudi""es or impJics aD cndnrscure:nt JCC4hiiliicodadon, or
    wiUlIiIty thereofby ASCE.
    - ". " .. r.: ... -t ......
    ASCE makes no iep1 !ilBIi .... orwauaaty of lIllY wbethe;r CiAp:i ssed or
    implied. mnczming the PC' "'4. camp' I "', snjrabiJity or utility of lIlY
    infmmation, apparatus. podrIct, or ptoc:ess dilll'ussort In this: publication, aDd agslll"M
    no
    UnJu'J_ +-db
    oc
    : .,' , " -, . ; ..
    w.;;,;a:ww_ - .; .. . :T;;. -r.;
    .. \;.:. ... .. ..
    , ... '.-
    ....... '. ... '_.4
    :". ,.:-! ..... . " '- -,", .....
    . .' "
    .t'I"lI!"\ .... _ .
    ... io..... - ,,=:-";! .... :" .. ';,::::
    B
    T

    .
    ASCE Petrochemical Energy CnmmlUee
    'Ibis publication is one of five state-of-the-practice engineering xeports produced,
    to date, by the ASCE Petrochemical Energy Committee. These engineering reports are
    intended to be a snmmary of caneut engineering knowledge and design practice. and
    pmsent guidelines far the design of pctroc:hemical facilities. 'Ibey mpreseIIt a
    consensus opinion of task committee 'XXIenlbers active in their development. These five
    ASCE engineering xcpaus arc:
    . " :"
    . -,'. r'
    The ASCE PctmcJu:mjeal Encrgy Olllllllin= was Olg&illn;i;by;A...K. ,Gupta in
    1991 and britiaIly c:baitcd by Curley Tumer. Un&:f tbcir '
    mmlilillces we= JiIlWrd. Moll: n:c:ently. the QIiiIi!i;U= hlIs'bi=n' bylaSeph
    A.BobjnskymdPnmkJ.Hsiu. " '
    Prank J. Hsiu
    cbajnmm
    Joseph A. BobiDsky
    W"illiam Bounds
    Clay Flint
    JolmGeigc1
    Ajaya Ie. Gupta
    Magdy H. Halma
    Steven R. Hemler
    Gayle S. Jobnson
    JamcsMap1e
    DongIas J. Nyman
    NtnmlIIJ C. R ........ Us
    Curley TOlDCI'
    .. ;'.'
    Hudson EuginW!,! Coqiorarlcm
    , ,sea:etaty
    Brown" Root, 1m:.
    :Fluor DameI. 1m:.
    Becbrel IDe. " ,
    EuoD,OtcmicalOihqwuy .. -
    North CaxoliDa State UDivexsity
    Jacobs EDgin"", ilig Group
    'Fastm!lJ! 0u:nric:aJ Co.
    EQE
    T"'fti 'imnnaJ IDe. ,
    J. A. Maple "Associates
    D. J. N,maD "hSixi8tes
    BASF Coxpoxabon
    :Fluor Thmicl, 1m:.
    ",:';, .
    ". " .. ,'." .:,.; ,
    ." . ".
    . .
    . ..
    < .... '"'.!-: ,.
    .-
    , ", ...
    ..
    . ..
    , ! ::.
    TBEAScE'l'ASK mMMluEE ONSElSMIC EVALUATION
    ... AND DESIGN OF PE'l1<OCBEMlCAL FACJLITIES
    ". .
    This document was ptepaiiiil to p:covide gujd!l!!ce in the seismic design of new
    pctrochenrical faC11itjes and the imsmic evaluation of existing facilities. Though the
    maJcenp of the. the writing of this dncument are dhected at
    petuocbel!ljCll facilities, tbese guidelines are applicable to simp. simarions in other
    industries The intended apttience for this document jncb!!tes stl'UCtIll'Il design
    "-. I -_"'1.'- for 1.1 hln .. -:
    eugmc:em, ope:raung CO"q"") pers,,,u'C 6 ... J:A' ......... esta IS g smsm
    '
    c u.wa.lgD.
    and ccmstrIlCticm snmdanfs, and local building authnziries.
    , ... .. .. ';:'-c'--'
    ..... !O.i.:1fJ"" ..... . _ .... -.. ._
    The 1aSk QiFiiliiinN_ .... , ... bJisl!ed because of a significant iDtaest in the
    peucchenrical w!lI'SbY in addr"5sjng the wide va:dation of design and CODSI:rIICtion
    pcacriees and snmdanis tbat me applied tbrOughout the coaatly with regards to the
    peancbemica1 industry. A ... i1hm primary plllpoilC was to address the need for
    consistent ew'fnat!nu mmImdo1Ogies and standards for existing fac
    t1iti
    es. Most
    govemiDg building codes &ad design snmdmis address cmly new design, and it is
    recognized tbat it would bifprobibitively expensive to umofit existing facilities to
    meet CUDCIlt snmdanls. It ,is alsoncognj zed tbat snmdards for new design do not
    address an of the condiriou
    s
    1iIat. may be fotmd in existing fa ... 1ffies.
    These guidelines are, inteI!.cJecJ to provide practical J:CCi III" "endariODS on several areas
    which affect the safety .. a peU ... ;bemjca1 facility during and following an
    eardIquab.
    .
    In the area of new design, 'guidelines empbasize intelp1c
    r
    a
    ri
    ons of the iDteDt of
    building codes as applied .. , fac
    t1i
    ties, and practical gnid!l!!ce on
    design details and considrwaliuus Which Ire Dot iDc1uded in building codes
    .....
    For existing facilities. these BM.'!=!jnes provide evaluation methodologies which rely
    heavily on clpaience from past earthquakes. coupled with focused 8DDlyses. The
    guidelines emphasize .... ds to address seismic vuhJerabi1ities which are not
    covmecl by bm1c!iDg codes, but which can be identified by experienced engineers.
    .. ,
    4" .
    ".-" '.,'r .... ,;.., ... . . - .... '-.--.-.;... .... __
    iv
    This document also provides background iDfwmation and recommendations in
    ssveml areas related to seismic safety where the cMl engineer may be imeracting with
    other disciplines and with plant operaticms. These areas include seismic hazards,
    contingency p1amring, aDd post-eanhquake damage assessment
    In helping to create a exmSfll!SUS set of guideJjnl'$, a number ofkey individuals
    dedi;I,ed significant amounts of time to formulating, writiDg, ami reviewing in detail
    specific sectiODS oftbis do"unent Those members are identified below.
    The ASCE Task Committee Oil SeIsmk
    aad Des.igD ofPetraehemical Fadlitits
    Gayle S. Johnson
    EQE Intematicmal, Inc.
    Cbahman
    Leo BragagnDlo
    Sohrab Esfimdiari
    Martin L. Eskijian
    Orban Gurbuz
    RonHaupt
    PeteHults
    Makis Manetps
    BmMcCamm
    Tom Miller
    lWdyMulia
    AbmedNisar
    Douglas J. Nyman
    Phil Richter
    MuDd Samara
    Tim Sheckler
    Paul B. Sliitili'ftI"S
    FnmkJ.Hsiu
    Chevnm llesemch &: TecImology Co.
    Va-ClIainmm
    EQE lDtematicmal, Inc.
    ENOVA EnIPDI"tl!i.ug Services
    Califomia State I .ands Cmmnjssjon
    Bec:b:tel Corporation
    P.ressmePipillg Engineering
    Cluw.ron Research &: TecIm.ology Co.
    PMB Engi!!=iug
    Amoco Worldwide Engineering aDd CoDSttUction'
    UnocalCorporaticm .
    Vecr:ra T....mmlogies
    Dames &: Moore
    D.l. Nyman &: Associates
    Fluor Daniel. Inc.
    Brown aDd Root, Inc.
    Chevron 1hZ &: Tedmology Co.
    Dames It, Moore
    Fluor Dar!ieI" Inc.
    Bechlel Corporation
    v

    Tha R"Uillillee would Dke to tbaDk the followiDg individuals for their reviews am:t
    ~ ccmtrilmtioDs.
    Bob Bact ... ,,"
    1= Bobjuslq
    MjcbeeJ.Czaig , -,-
    De1Farbes
    :Khur.ram Gaba
    : ,'-, Bevkwen ad Other Colltrilnltcm
    lecobs Fnsmeerius
    Arco E:qUoretion am:t Production Technology I
    Gas Processors Association
    Fluor Dame!, IDe.
    " BrOWD am:t Root. IDe.
    t1JIoc:al CoJporatiOD
    E's.". Research and F.ngineeriDg
    Esso Fnsineeriug, Europe
    Vemcm Gregerson
    T'1DlOthy Ie. Hasse!mpn
    Marklt I..eg ,1 :, .:-"
    E1 Peso Natmal Gas I Gas Processors Association
    ACrAIDc.
    ACrAIDc.
    .AlWussler
    ... , .........
    ";" -
    ElPaso Natural Gas I Gas Processors Association
    ...... ..
    ; .. '-
    ~ _ - ~ i' ..
    CONTENTS
    Cbapter 1: 1DtroductIon ........ ____ .... __ __ .... ____ _____ ...... _
    1.1
    1.2
    1.3
    ectiVe ._ ......... ..
    Obj
    .
    .......... ___ ............. -. ............. _ .......... I ......... ..
    Related Industry Codes, Standards, aDd SpecificarilJJlS -_ ........... ..
    Organization oftb.e Dcv:nment .. ________ _ ............ _.
    Chapter 2: Design and Evaluation PhDosopby _____ .................... .
    2.1
    2.2
    2.3
    2.4
    2.S
    2.6
    2.7
    2.8
    2.9
    lmroduction __ ..... __ ...... _______ ..... _ ... _ 10 ............ ".
    ConsideratiDDS far New Design ... _ _____ . __ .............. _ . _ ... 0 .... _
    Considerations for the Evaluation ofEmting Facllities "_"'"0P",_
    JJ'I)jlalions
    __ ........ ____ 00__ ____ ......... , .. _ ............ __ ..... __ ..
    PcIfonnlQ!!'C Objectives and Usage Categories _ .. _ .. _ ......... _ .......... .
    Design Approach for New F'cUitirs .. _ . _ .. __ ......... _ ... __ " .............. _
    Co
    -_'''';on 0 .... _ .. .:-- and '".--ron .... 0 __ _
    ........ ,.---_ -___ _ .... _ .............. __
    Quali1)r AssuIaDce ___ __________ ............ _._ 0 ..
    _ ..... ___________ ...... ,
    AliiYJ,VW Ir p,_ II _____ _ ...... _.
    Chapter 3: Sefsrnlc Razerds .... _. __ _____ ... ___ ......... _
    3.1
    3.2
    3.3
    IDtroduetion ... _____ __ , __________ .............................. ___ _
    ............. -.. --................ -.. , ... ......
    .. ___ ...... _ ...... _ ................................................. r ....
    3.4 Tsunami and Scirbe __ ___________ .. _______ 11 .......
    Appendix 3.A Ground Sbalcjng ____ .............. _ .. ___ .. _ _ .. ___ ._., ... _. __
    Appendix 3.B Earthquake RcJated Coastal Intmdarion
    ---_ ... -
    Chapter 4: Sefsrnlc A.DaI]'sIs __ ___ . _ .......... ____ .. _, .... __ __
    4.1
    4.2
    4.3
    4.4
    4.5
    IDirocluction _______ __ . _--.. ---. _ . _._ ...........
    Structural Systems in a Pe1unemica1 Pacility ..... _. __ . ___ _
    SeJr:ction of ADalysjs Methods _________ ._ ........
    Equivalent Static.ADalysis Pmc:edme
    Dynamic Analysis Methods ____ . _ .. ______ . __ ._
    4.6 Considerations for Existing FaC'1itirs __ .......... _ __ ...... _._
    Appendix 4.A Typical Period (T) Computations
    for NonbuiIc1ing Structures _ ................................. _____ ._ _
    Appenrtix 4.B Guidelines for Detennjnmjon of Base Shear
    for Combination Structbres ........ ___ ..... _ .. ___ .... __ _ ___ .. _
    Appenctix 4.C De"""";narilJJl of Base Shear for Selected SlNCtWes __
    Appendix 4.0 Stability Check Using Energy Balance Approach ... .......:. ....
    w..
    1-1
    1-1
    1-2
    1-4
    2-1
    21
    2-1
    2-2
    2-3
    2-4
    2-7
    2-8
    2-9
    2-9
    3-1
    3-1
    3-2
    3-8
    3-11
    3.A-l
    3.B-l
    4-1
    4-1
    4-3
    4-5
    4-7
    4-19
    4-24
    4.A-l
    4.B-l
    4.C-l
    4.0.1
    CONTENTS (Canto)
    Appenctix 4.E Methodology far Detemrination of Sliding DisplaClOD!ellTS
    Appendix 4.F Risk MaDagemmt and Prevention Program (RMPP)
    Guidelines for Seismic Assessment of Facilities Containing
    Acutely Bazardolts,.Mmerials ______ ........ ---......... .
    ClIapter- 5: PrJmary strDcta:ralDesiga ___ ___ .... __ ................. .
    5.1
    5.2
    5.3
    5.4
    5.5
    5.6
    T_ ........ ____ _
    ...... _. ___ ___ _____ _
    Desi

    gn U"OI8 _______ .... _ __ ___ nl ,. __ 0 __
    Desip Consjddiatiws
    -.. ---.. --.... .... --..... , ....... ................. .
    Slruclinal1)etm1
    s
    ---------.----.. ---- I ____ .. -
    Physical Jmeraction ofStruetmes and Components
    ..... , ... _-_._.
    CJeotedmicaIOmsjtlma';ans II I .. .. ......
    ...... -
    . .... ....... ... ' ..
    Cbapter 6: Walkdown i!8iIW!i ms ofExfstfng FadQffes ._ ..... _ .. _ .......... _ .. _ .. _
    6.1
    6.2
    6.3
    6.4
    60S
    6.6
    ...........
    .. .....::.i::ctj:on___ __ ' -._ ... _.-_______ ,
    ,IIIU.\AIU___ .............. __ , ____ ..
    Basis for Ped "-Ii ni;ngWaIkdowDs . 1",_,., _____ ._ __ .... ___
    _____ ., ............... ___ . __ .. __ _
    C
    - sid .-- System __ ......... ___ a ...... ___ ... __
    EvalrvrtiOD of a ".-gl", .. ___ .................. . ............ __ _
    J ind'plions ........... __ _
    ofTauks at Grade ....... _._ .... ___ _
    7.1
    7.2
    7.3
    7.4
    7.5
    7.6"
    7.7
    .. --.. --......... -................................. -............. " ... ........... .
    Past EanbJiuakc Pel fill !IIanee of Flat-bottomed Tauks
    ----_.
    Walk:I:1Jmqh lasilleClfillfcnQlil _._ , ___ ___ , _ ..... _.
    ADalyIical EvaJuadnn ___ ." ............... __ ......... _ II ..... ....... __ ... .. _ ........ 0,_._
    MitipIiaD of Seismic Effects ___ ____ .......... .. __ ....... _ ..... __
    Qmsjderarirms far FBIIite lDvestigafion ............... _______ ..... __ , .............
    Design ofNowTaDks . ____________ .. _
    Planning ..... ______ .. _ .......
    8.1
    8.2
    8.3
    8.4
    8.5 .:-
    8.6
    8.7
    8.8
    8.9
    ..............
    lJitrcRUb,c:tiClil-.. _ ............... _ , ___ ...... , ... , ........... _ ... _ ....... _ ..... - ... ....
    ..... ',
    ..... _ .................... _-_ ....... _ ............. _ .. _ ..... _-_ .. _ .................. ..
    __ ___ ....... ______ .,_
    ____ .. _, ____ ..... _ .. _ ....... __ ,_
    Jncidr:nr .... - ... _ , . _ ................... --
    C
    o
    ,nt'i8Dd &. f.?"'!n
    1
    /MobUjzatjon System ___ 1 ____
    Roles aa.dRes,ChasmDit;es ofTeamPersmmel II II "' ,101 _._
    IiiSJItiC=1ion Mr.tbrxio1ogy _._._. __ ......... __ __ _ .
    ,AnembJin.g oflusl*' 'ion Data I Rqlorting Results ...... _ ... _
    4.E-l
    4.F-1
    5-1
    5-1
    5-1

    S-6
    5-21
    5-28
    5-30
    6-1
    6-1
    6-1
    6-2
    6-6
    6-8
    6-33
    7-1
    7-1
    7-2
    7-5
    7-14
    7-23
    7-23
    7-23
    8-1
    8-1
    8-1
    8-1
    8-2
    8-3
    8-3
    8-4
    8-4
    8-5
    CONTENTS (Couto)
    Chapter 9: Post-earthquake Damage A_SOlem ..... _ . _ . _ . _..... 9-1
    9.1
    9.2
    9.3
    9.4
    9.5
    9.6
    9.7
    9.8
    lDt:rod.ncti.aD __ ._ _ ..... __ ____ ._._ ... _ .. _ ............ ., _
    ....... ., " .......... _8 .... iDYestigattaD. _______ __ _. __ __ ._0 .....
    Perfnnning Fidd lnspedions on ....
    Evaluation ofLoad-caaying SystemS
    Jdentffication of Damaged SttucImcs
    .. _ .. _._---_ ..... _--
    "--- ti
    ____ ._ _._ .... ___ .............. __ ............. __
    Team __ _ __ ._. ___ __ .... _. __ .................... .
    Recommended Equipment _______ _e ............ _._ ... .
    Chapter 10: Retrofit DesIgD .. __ ._ '"N._'N .. _ .. __ .... _._. __ ."' ... _ .. t .. ...... _'.' ........ .
    10.1
    10.2
    10.3
    10.4
    10.5
    lDtrod.uction. ____ " ....... _._._. _____ .................. .
    Upgrade Simatjnus .0 __ " or I r._. __ .-............. .
    Q:iteria for Voluntary Seismic Upgrading ._._._ _ .......... _
    GJJide
    1ines
    I PrcM::ec1\treS __________ ._ _
    Strengthening Criteria ... , __ _, _________ _._ _
    Nomeuclature . _, . .... , . _, ""' .. N' __ ._., __ _. ___ .,_,_ _,_,_" ___ ___ __
    Glossary _-_. __ _. .. ",_"._._--,-,._-,-".-.,
    Ref'ereac:es ___ .,.,_, . _,_,.,_ .... __ ___ __________ _ _.
    9-1
    9-3
    9-4
    9-5
    9-6
    9-6
    9-7
    9-8
    10-1
    10-1
    10-1
    10-2
    10-2
    10-3
    A-I
    B-1

    L1 OBJECTIVE
    Chapter I
    INTRODUCI10N
    Many diffetent codes aud standards me used in the strUCtDral aud seismic design
    aud aS5eSSiieDt ofpettochemical VIC'.1jties Many of these codes have been developed
    I" h liB! i1y for use in the design of bnjJdings, aud generally offer insufficiently detajled
    guideJjnes for compJete design ami evaJuarion of stnx:ml'eS commoDly found in
    petmcheDii=1 fa"'1ffies The engjncer is o!t= fuxceci to rely on broad subjective
    iDterpmation of the intent of these codes to develop detaned design criteria and
    proc:edures as they apply to items fotmd in petrochemical faCl1ffies Consequently.
    these fat:tTlties may be designed aud bWlt with inconsistent degxccs of conservatism
    aud design margins.
    'I'be:re me also DO widely accepted standards for the seiMi' evab!!!tiOD of existing
    fiIciIiries As the public aud regulators become more aware of env.irt-mnental and
    safety issues associated with such faCIlities, Iqulators. OWllm, aud engineers have aD
    ewr iDcreasiDg need for a consistent approach ami a t""'JuricaIly SOUDd, practical basis
    forperfcmning evaluaticms.
    Recognizing the need for design aud evalwJtioD guideJjnes in sevexal technical
    areas specifically appJicable to petrochemical faCl1jtir:s, the Am=ticaa Soc.iety of CMl
    Engineers (ASCE) Euergy DMsioD set up the Petrochemical Em=rgy C.liiihillee to
    UDdextake the effort to fj]J tbecxistiDg gap in establishing !:I ire. ia aud guidance for
    practical application. The Seismic Task: Corwiijllee of the Petrochemical EDexgy
    Committee was charged with developmeu.t oftbis doc
    11m
    mtt
    This doc:ument bas been developed to provide practical gujdance to eng;nrns
    involved in the seisnril;: design aud evabxatioD of petrochemical fac.Ttties It is
    intended to sexve sevexal objeclives:
    L to help practiciDg engineers better UDdexstami the intent behind cenain
    provisioDS of sejsmjc design codes, so that the codes ami provisions CaD be
    1-1
    ~ ploperly aDd UDifcmnly applied to structureS and systems typically
    found in petrOCbemical faC'
    1iti
    es
    .
    b. to pmvide gnidance far seismic engineering ptactice beyond tbat covered in
    the building codes.
    C. to pmvide background iDfonnation on technical PIC8S tbat are related to the
    seismic evaluation of pen:ocbemica1 facilities, but not always well undel:stood
    by civil engineers
    d. to pmvide guidance specific to the seismic evaluation of existing
    petrricmical fact1jries
    e. to provide practical analytical guidance specifically applicable to
    pelmCbcmica1 fact1jtjes
    f. to alert engin IS and opemtions pCISODDel to PIC8S other tban structural
    whI::m earthqaaka might affect the safety of petri .. bemiC:P] faC'1i
    ti
    es, such as
    . c:mnjngrmcy plpmring, post-eaJ:thquak damage inspection. PDd opetational
    ;seers
    The topics ;Deluded in this cfocnment address seismic design PDd !elated
    ccmstrucUan of DOW S1IIICtUI:I:S aDd components as well as evaluation and letxofit
    design of aisring SUiitUlies PDd systems in petmcbemi
    cal
    facilities. The scope
    generally emphasjzes work tbat. is commonly under the direction of an engineer.
    Despiti: the atte"'l to make this a COD1plebensive doi:
    mu
    en1, it is n=cognized tbat.
    tbcre wiDbe applicable topics not faJ1y covered. In all blstanCe5, it is IJltjmately the
    responsi.bDhy of engineers involved in the design or evaluation plOCC:SS to usc their
    pmfessional JIJdgment to ensure tbat. applicable safety objectives. criteria PDd other
    perfW'i """ pals are met. ...
    1.2 RETATJID INDUSIRY CODFS,STANDARDS AND SPECIFICATIONS
    A number of available indus .. ), codes, standards and specifications are nOiillRlly
    used for the design of stiUCtUIeS and components at petxocbemica1 facilities. These
    may include, bot are not liuritrd to the following:
    a. Unifoma Building Cod6 (UBC)
    b. NatitmtJI Building Code (BOCA)
    c. StnrvWd Building Cod6 (SBC)
    d. API St.anilard 650, Welded Steel Tarzb jor OD Storage
    e. AISC MtlIIIIGl of Steel Ctmnrut:tion, Allowtzble Stress Design
    f. AISC MtlIIIIGl of Steel Ctmnrut:tion, LotuI Il1Ui Ruisttmce Fm:tor Design
    g. AC131B. Building Cod6 Requirements/or Reinforced Concrete
    1-2
    h. ACl 530, Building Code Requirementsfor MtUonry StruCtUreS
    L ASCE-7, Minimum Design Loads jor Bl'jl
    d
    mgs/l1ld Other Strut:lUre$
    j. ASME Boiler /l1Id Pressure VIWel Code
    k. ASME B31.3. Code for Chemit:IzI. Plant tznd Petroleum 1l8:jinery Piping
    A matrix indicating typical use of tbese codes. standards azul specificarious for
    diffctem structun:s azul c:ompcments of petrocbr:mjcal faC"1ities is presented in Table
    1.1.
    TABLE L1: Codes aad Standards CnmmODly Used for Petrorbemical Fadllties
    !.SCE ACI ACI API ASME
    USC BOCtl SBC
    ,(1)
    AlSC 318 530 650 BPV
    Sleel Design X X X X X
    Concrete Design X X X X X
    Masomy Desip X X X X X
    TlIDks
    X{1) X(2) X{2T X(2)
    X
    Pre 5 DC Vessels
    ;x(2)
    X{2f
    x(2) X(2)
    X
    &.PipiDg
    (1) Prima. i1y used in pmdic:e for wind loads.
    (2) Pdmariiy used cmly for cfcte lIli"ing seismic loads aDd suppmt design
    W'lth .R:Spect to code provisions, tile gnideIiDes preserted throughout this
    docum:nt mer often to tbe llnifonn Building Code (UBe). This was done becanse
    most of the effort in seismic design code devclopmeDt in the last two decades bas
    been related to the UBC. Furthc:more. the UBC is the most widely used design code
    in highly seismic: regions of the United States.
    h is r=ogzrized that other codes azul stl!T!diids, such as from BOot IIIId SBC,
    may be in effect in a particular local=. Rather than attempt to thoroughly address all
    applicable provisioDS in an govemmg codes, this committee has focused discussion of
    specific: provisious and examples to those codes and standards which have been
    demoDSttatcd to be the most commoDly used in CWleut practice However, it is
    iDtcDded that sufficient hackgroUDd and fDtent be provided such that the guidelines
    are appJicable over a wide nnge of desigD staDdards, and the use of this document
    with standards other than the UBC should result in comparable designs
    h is also recognized that ongoing efforts in code development and refiZIement
    related to the UBC azul other codes may at one time or another make some of the
    specific guidance provided in this docllne .. ! obsolete, especiaDy wh=re related to
    particular lmihting code provisioDS. However, the iJIteut aDd philosophy of much of
    the guidance provided herein is expected, for the most part, to remain ditectly
    1-3
    ASME
    B31.3
    X
    app'W:a!;fe to pet",t:bcmic
    al
    appJjc:aIRras. Much of the design philosophy. analytical
    techniques, 81lIIl,ytica1 tools. aDd specific guidance provided in tbis donunem is
    appxoprlate across a wide rmge of cWign critetia.
    It should also be DOted that the gnideJines provided herein are not intended to
    take plC .......... = OWI'dID code of IeCOld wbelcver differeDces may occur. 'I1=y are,
    however. intended to provide a rational basis for var,ing 1i'om specific provisions of
    standams in estabJishfng spec jm: design rcquhcme
    nts
    for items particular to
    petroChmr
    P
    '8
    1
    facfl!des Where dffferem:es exist between the guideJines of tbis
    docLi1biiiit ami dID code of IeCOrd. the latter should always prevail, UDless a potential
    deviation from the stmtdanJ code of practice is authorized by the goveming authority.
    1.3 ORGANIZA'DON OFTBEDOCUMENT
    The liI"juder of the dotijpiieiJ' bas beeD mgalljzcd in cbapters which address
    spcnHic sejs"'ii: related aspects of pctIocbe
    n
    ';' a1 facility design, evaluatiaD, or
    opetalilllls A bJ:iaf SlIJIllillity of the ceMents of each chapter is pi scmed in the
    foDowiDg paragJlqd.s
    Ompter 2 prov.icles a cfiscnsskm of sejgmjc: design philosophy aDd the general
    :-. of desi . '"-" .1 __ eli ""cd.
    MIIIiiUt. &e!sm'C JIl pmv1SlDDS. tcqUAeii@i.tsarewauSC"
    Ompter 3 provides hack!P'Ouud data !elated to seiSlhir: bazatds such as grotmd
    sbalring, fault xuptwe, ami tSlmamis, aDd geotrdmical issues such as liquefaction.
    Emphasis is p1ac:rd OIl providiDg iufi:nnlll'ion which wDlbelp the engineer UDdcrsta1Id
    the dc:rivatioD ami sipi6c;a
    n
    ce of diffeteut de
    6u
    jli"llS of grotmd JDDtiOIl which may be
    encol111tCled OIl a project.
    C!aptcr. 4 addu N aualysis aDd load definition for petroe""micml fm1jties
    Guidance is sivm for intetpretiDg buDding provisious for application to tbe
    types of struc:lIm!S coUiiDOi1ly fcnmd in peuoc 1e
    m
    ;. al mcffltles Practical aDa1ytical
    tools are suggesred for several R""t'$sary tasks in f8ciIity stlucnual design aDd
    evabJatinns. such as calcnJatimi of structaral periods for COi1IpCIJiiIidS I1'dique to
    petrochemicml mr:i!ities, calc
    n1ari
    cm of sliding displacements, aDd stabHity clw:ks
    These can be foundin die appmelices to Claptcr4.
    C!aptcr 5 proWies guidance for the design of new c:omporilJlts in petrocbemica1
    fpt:J1ities. This cbapter attempts to offer usefiJl guidance from experienced engjneers.
    emphasiring iuretpxctadon of the iDtCDt of code provisions aDd speo ifk: items not
    found in typical design codes aDd standards, such as special design deta"s aDd
    CODfigmation contmJs.
    Chapter (; is n:1ated .. ificaUy to the evaluation of Clrisring m",1iries Detailed
    gJlidanez is provided OIl the perfonnauce of methodical "waJIalowD" SCJ'I"CTIing
    . JeViews of stntc:tm:es aDd systeIiIS. I
    1-4
    Chaptl:r 7 covezs the evablation of flat-bottomed steel storage tanks. Different
    design codes are cUscussed ami alternative nctbodologies. panicularly usefill for the
    evaluation of existing tanks, are presented
    Chaptl:r 8 addresses earthquake contingency planning for a facility. It does not
    give specific guidance on how to author contingency plans; rather it outlines some
    general points that should be addressed by in-place contingency plans.
    Cbapter 9 provides gnidance with respect to post-earthquake damage assessment
    of petluchemic:al facilities.
    Cbapter 10 provides guidance to the engineer faced with a task of retrofitting
    seismjcally deficient SU1ICtllreS in a petrochemical facility.
    1-5

    Chapter 2
    DESIGN AND EVALUATION PHILOSOPHY
    2.1 INTRODUCTION
    The pmpose of this chapter is to articaIate tile broad design philosophy which is
    iDhercmly inco!porated into the guidance plt seated in this doCIIIIClJ1 'I'he design
    philosophy is deI:ived from cumat kDow1edge of seismic hazan:Is, observed and
    recouled behavior of structures ami components dmjnl earthquakes, and
    CODSidcration of C:CIII'eqnenccs of fiWure of these structuJ:es ami compommrs.
    Avai1able doc""c"rs on recomrmmdtd "';smjc: design practices for conwmional as
    well as special faC"1jtjes (SEAQC. 1990; RMPP. 1992; DOE 1020) have been used in
    the overall develol!IIJent of design aDd cvaluatioD philosophies.
    The overall philosophy of this guiillI1!ce dcc""en! is based on the premise that
    pOpel "';smje design caD be acbieved by:
    L delcuniwnl an applicable seismic hazards for a site.
    b. defining pet!uJIi mace objectives for diffctcnl usage categories of structures
    and components.
    c. CSlabHsbing design bases that meet the prescribed seismic pe1fur
    man
    ce
    objectives for these facilities, ami -
    c1. cusming that the design and construction adhete to those bases.
    2.2 CONSIDERATIONS FOR NEW DFSlGN
    The design phD.osophy for new f'aciHties is peseated ass ... iil"I that the code of
    record is one of the major buDding codes cmrcnt1y being used in the United States
    (see Table 1.1). Use of these guidelines with other simlJar codes and standards that
    may be in effect in a particular community should:result in ClIjllJdlrable designs.
    The seismic design femes discussed in this docnment are based on the assumption
    that dnctility is provided in new design ami that the occunencc of ljrrrited inelastic
    2-1
    behavior may be acceptable in stnlClUJ'eS and compcmcntS during strong ground
    motions. As a result. m :many cases, the lateral design forces are significantly smaDer
    than those that would be requiIed if the structures aDd components were designed to
    r=ain elasdc
    For sttuctwes in the ineJastic Jegime. structural bebavior is improved if the
    inelastic detiiljilatiD1lS me well distributed throughout the ~ The seismic
    force Jr:vels called for ill this cfocument arc based on this consideration. Higher elastic
    force I1'ductioJl factors are thus provided for cases where a more UDifonn distribution
    ofine]astic defi;J(marum can be developed ill the latm'al force resisting S)'Stem (e.g a
    welJ..distrlbnt S)'Stem of """""",t-resisting frllll'JlS). Conversely. for cases where
    inelastic defotmlltjon may C01lCeJ1tlate ill a few urmhers, the reductioD factors me
    Jower (e.g.. e1evated tanks). In any case, it is the engineer's responsibility to develop
    a design that wm COliespo.:u:l to the expc:ch'Id iDdastic response capabitity of the
    lith h :"nat sysrem for die item tII1dcr c:ansidf\1'8tion.
    Fw:tlleilihllc, the grdd!!!U:e provided in this dOC'lIIent gencraJlyprovides mjnjmum
    design ei. jig! ia. It is die engin. t. 's obligation to intctpret and adopt these guidelines
    to each item usiag 6XpI2'ieDce 8IId judgDie
    JlL
    In se1cc:ted cases. it may be
    adVamapoU$ to adopt DIOle CODSeI'Y8live criteria which may have overaJlJong range
    ecollOlllic WII. Be . hse oftbe peat variabi1ity and optioDs avaflable ill the design
    process. and beranse of the comph:xity of st:l'IlCtiJreS 8IId compollCDtS, it is very
    difficult to CO\W all possible varlatioDs ill seismic response and to provide optioIIal
    defln1M c. iM ia Thus, tbe engineer bas both Jatitude 8IId responlll"bility to exercise
    jwignmt m tbe dcMllopm:m of derailed design criteria and m the execution of the
    design
    2.3 CONSIDEB4T10NS FOR THE EVALUATION OF EXISTING
    FACILlTIFS
    The reassessment of ex;s'i"g tj",Ttties may involve diffeteat Icdmiques and
    acccptaDte criteria tbatI used for DOW design, delpcndillg aD tbe intent of the
    cvab"Won, the npJat01')' requheuems, aDd the wishes of the 0WDer. Several key
    c:onsidemriODS are as follows:
    a. Evabtatiou acceptance criteria (stress amJ/or deformation limits) may be more
    or Jess e ..... u. vative tbatI those for an cquivalcDt Dew facDity depending on the
    jJItmIt of the cva
    1
    !1!i!ion.
    b. Adctitioual requhc".,nrs related to equipment functionality as well as systems
    intmac:tion may be applopliate.
    Co Loads OIl an ~ i s ' i i l g sr:ructure may have changed over time and the
    assessment should cousider the aetna] loads.
    2-2

    d. Any cbanges in the operating basis (weight. operating conditions, etc.) may
    affect the ass"'smem ami should be incmporated.
    e. Remaining design life is a factor in the evaluations and should be 1:onSidered.
    f. In evaluating elis!i .. , fjll:I1iries, actual material propexties (if AV8"
    1
    a
    h
    1e) should
    be tabD into ace' fI.nt
    g. lDformation from ava
    D
    a
    h
    lc field observatious, such as deterioration of the
    structural eJemcn
    ls
    (e.g., cmrosion), should be addressed.
    In ,.,iii iiliary, the "best estimate- of the strDCtIl1'e ami material properties should be
    used to get the most accmate of the S1:rI1CtUI:e's ur system's periOrmance.
    Anytblng that might affect system petto! "'!!!Ice should be considered, whether
    stn1C1IIral OJ' fimclionaL
    2.A LIMITATIONS
    CoDfbm.iire to this gnidllJlCC doHmenl does not guarmtee that significant
    damage w.m not occur during a major CIIl'thquake. The engineer must always caution
    both the owners and regulators to understand that seismic risk can .never be
    completely efuninated Although conservatism can be added to the design and/or
    review criteria, ami a mote detajled and euensive investigation (at greater cost) may
    yield man: accuracy and re.Uable mfotmation, some .level of seismic risk w.m always
    exist. 'Ibis is true regardless of how much time and resowccs are spent in the design
    OJ'rettDfit of a facility. Thu.s. the goal should always be to "",jnj"'i'" the risk" within
    the available ,csowces.
    In order to avoid conffir:!ing expectations between enginecrso owners, regulators,
    OJ' other affected paules, the follow:ing points should be discussed opculy, and
    possibly agreed to in writing, so as to avoid miRmderstandings at later dates:
    L An parties must recognize the Jack of complete asswance CODiimted with
    In ......;,.,.1 .... 1.. f .. &.. :t:.:_ B.....: .. -- the . .
    50'S""': eVLIhODS. ,tna ............... 3 0 CXiStiDg JJ!CJuum;, ~ 1lDCCI't8lDt1eS
    associmd with material ptopetties and sttuctural behavior (uncettainties that
    are t)'pically hqer for existing fjlC'1jtjes than for new designs), there are large
    uncettainties associated with the eatthquakc input motion in tmDS of
    amplitude, frcquenc:y content, and dmation.
    b. The engineer has an obligation to use the degxee of C8IC ami skill ordiDarily
    exetcised at the time the evaluation is perfotmed, under sjrm
    1a
    r c:ircumstances.
    by xeputable engineering professionals in the same OJ' simil..,.locaJity.
    c. An patties must recognize that geologic, seismic, envirolllD!!!!tal, st1'UCtUr8l.
    and geoteclmical conditions can Vary from those encountered when and where
    the engineer obrainM the initial data used in the evabllmon, and that the
    2-3
    liwbed uatwe of the data ,...".,sarlly aUJscs some Jeve1 of um:ertaiDty with
    lespect to its interpJ:etatioD notwithstanding the exercise of due professitmal
    CIUL
    do All parties JDDSt ncogDizc that the extent of the engineer's evaluations lW
    alwa,s 'funired by the time-framc ami fauds available for the investigation. A
    II:IIm detaDed and cxreusive investigation. at greater cost. might yield more
    accurate and reliable Dn "ation that might afi'ect some of the engineer's
    decisicm
    s
    aDdjudg,"ems
    Co When evaJnating o'Is';", fac:i!iries, an parties must agree on reasonable limits
    to d"",ip J'I!Sf" msDdJity and lia",1ity of the engin!'lC!t'!l with .... d to the
    adequacy of tile ...;g;aa
    l
    design and CODStnlCtion. Nomudly, respon","'1ity for
    . the original design and CODStrUCtion should not be a.
    m
    'l!l1f'd by the cvaJnaring
    ettgineer> OWIlOIS and engin=rs should be made aware of extensive
    '!UICet.ajnties that may mnain in the absence of sigrrifiCNlt iDvesrigariOJlS.
    Also, this c1och!!.IId is inUmctei! to reflect cw.ent CO""'''tl practice and should
    not de rmgin Ir from designs and retrofits "'''''isrear with em::rgiDg
    knowledp.
    z.s PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES AND USAGE CATEGORIES
    2.5.1 Ped'Ol
    mA
    lice ObJedliiS
    The c;iilcia in tIds docn'ie'" are based OD petfOl
    l1
    18
    n
    ce o ~ defined far
    seJected usa.ge categories. The pcrformann!! objectives are iDtemIcd to provide
    different levels of protection :Cram damage, consistent with the usage categOries. The
    main elemenlS of these ped'uc !!lAnce objectives are as foDows:
    a. stractmaJ Integrity. The design philosophy aJtien1ated in this docanent caDs
    for maintahring structural intql i'y for an structures and components in a
    ficiIity. TJds II'II'!8JIS that 5tIUCtUZes aad components should not col1apsc or
    othei wise fafl UDder tile design basis ground motion specified for the site.
    Fnnctionality may need to be mai"tainNi if speci&aDy designated by the
    owner or jorisdiclionaJ 8IJthorides or if requin:d to piotecl pnblic beaJtb and
    safety. (In general, maintaiJring stmctural integrity does DOt imply mpjntaining
    Ii
    1 ) M .. __ 1 --"
    biiCtlf1D
    8
    Jty.8jotShh"l tM.lYW.U.RII iDtegiity xeqaues atteD.tiOD to o y ~ w . .
    ducb1ity ancl defg'!!II'ian limits. Subsequent chapters provide guidance for
    Stieugth, dm:tt1ity and defo'!! iI' h In limits. .Although the gnidan= pi: s !JIed in
    this ckR,ljhM at is not intended to prevent damage, JIII.1Ch of the !njdancc is
    inte"ded to limit damage that would adversely affect the public safety.
    b. Comai""''': Stmctares. IY5ImB, and C01Dp01Klli1tS with haDnIous materials
    should be cJesigned for cont
    a
    ;" "e'" of such materials during and after a.major
    eartbqaake. Ensuring Mntai""ffl1 requires attentioD to streDgtb. du=tfli!y,
    2-4
    ami deformation limits as well as structural dctaDs of elements with respect to
    potential leak patbs. of release of significant qn8!!t
    it
    ics of
    hazardous materjals into the environm:nt is essential to avoid endangering
    facility persmmel ami to maintaiD public health aml safety in the event of a
    major eartbquake.
    c. Func:tinnality: All structures. systemS. and components that me needed after
    an such as fire prevention or other emargs.:y systems. should be
    designed to maintain functioDBlity (i.e.. continued operability during or after
    tile design earthquake), Majntajning :fnIJcrioDlllity requir=s attention to
    SbeDgtb, cJudDity aml defoImation limits as wen as to stress levels, structural
    details, seismic interaction, aml protection. of essential systems aml
    c:gr'qKlUCurs
    2.5.2 Usage Categories
    For pw:poso:s of seiSi I lie design and/or ewl"ation, stmdIIIeS aml components at a
    petmc
    h
    e
    m
    ira
    1
    facility me divided into thR:e usage catcgorles: (a) gcncral, (b)
    hazmdous, and (c) essential
    The "geuaa1" category jnr:Iudes an stmdIIIeS and compojlents that me not in the
    other two categories. This category may be farther subdivided into "nonnal" and
    "spccJal" groups. The str11CI:DrI:S aml compoDCDtS in tile "DOxmaI" catcgoxy should be
    dcsigD'"4 for the minjmuUl cartbquake fon:es as defined in tile applicable codes and in
    this document. The stxuclUXes and compoDCDtS in the "special" category may be
    If 'gn:d J.;..1._ " , , ' fo
    M! to __ semmc rcqUDt'1 eDts m un .. ;:or to mote protcct!DD r an
    owners iD\'e;s' i nent
    The "hazardous" category jnc:hyies stnu:/mes and COJl4iO
    n
    ents which coDtaiD
    hazardous materials. Structures aml COXUPOACDtS in this caregoxy should be designed
    to assure coDtaj""eD
    t
    of tile hazardous material ami need not maintain their general
    1imctioDBlity beyoud what is required for coittaj""'CDt. If these structures aud
    CUIiOqOI01itli1 fall, they should fail in a "!I""e
    r
    that will preclude release of hazardous
    material into the envixOllment
    The "essential" category incbtdes Sb:UCtUrcs aml compo.aents that me nea=ssary
    for emergency operations subsequcm to stxong grouml moticm. CoDSCqUCDtiy,
    structures aml compoDCDtS in this caregoxy should be dt:sjgned to maintaiD their
    fuDctioDBlity after the canhquake. Generally. this may be accomplished by using
    design criteria that will limit stress and/or defoxmation 1e1'els UDder seismic loads to
    values that me known to provide for coilljr"'ed function.
    2.5.3 ReJatiClnsbtps Between PerfOl1ll8Jlt:e Objeetfves ami Usage Categories
    .
    Relationships between the performance objectives and usage categories me
    shown in Table 2.1. Design for an usage categorles should proYide for struc:tura1
    2-S
    iDlegrit)'. In addjtirm, hazardous material handling fac:t1jtjes and COmpoucnts should
    be designed to 8SSIDe (!IiII6'Mmenf of such hazardous material
    Sjnnlarly. essen'ia1 fac:iljtk:s and certain structures and components in the
    bazatdous tnat,.,.w banding fac:lljtjes should be designed to maintain selected
    fimcrioDa!ity. PiuaIly. the quaIiWive seismic risk for each usage catcgoI)' should be
    CMSisteJtt with the philosophy diOM1ssed in tbis section. as shown in the last column
    ofTable:U.
    TABLE 2.1: PerfoID'BDce Objed:ives for DUterent Usage Categories
    QuaJi1ative
    Usage CaI"iVl-
    PerfOJ'!DU!CIl Objeed,es Sekmlo: Risk
    Mala.am
    Mldn'e'
    n
    ec""ai"'''eJd
    StrudaraI ofBazardous
    )fahdafn
    'litegritJ Mat.eriaJs I'mu:tioDs
    Normal Yes NJA No Low
    Gem:zal Special Yes NlA
    yes<l)
    Very Low
    Raze'1luus
    Yes Yes
    yes<2)
    Very Low
    &SS ulial Yes NlA
    yeP)
    Very Low
    (I) OJIlythareircmswladaihaCllllhavea signfficenteccmtmDc inq'act. usually an
    owm:r's chniee
    (2) Mai ... ai
    n
    ODlythosefimr:tions which are required forc:n"raitu,u: ,,'
    .(3) Mainlei'! 0Dly those fuucIioDs which ;a required for es'C'UiaI oper.stiODS.
    2.5.4 BasIs for the Remlliiiwrded Performance Objectives
    The UDde:rlyiDg basis for any seismic design I I i/erinn or procedure is the
    I'pI"CfficariOD, eitb=r e'p1ir iOy or implicitly. of IIZl acceptable level of risk. This
    docl1Ue4t was pIeparecl With the belief tbat, although not quanrifjed, the peaf01lll8
    n
    CC
    objectives spedfi"" for the fac:t
    1lties
    should be consistent with public
    "'inns of otI=r c:iW structures. In other words. the risk of not U)Cting
    the peafo
    lft
    l81!cc objcctiwu should not exceed CODUllODly accepted r:isIrs associated
    with co"'''c'claJIincb"mial fac:t
    1it
    jes whose failure may affect public health.and
    safety.
    FutJ:bellnore. seisilijl: Dsk should be consistent with the poteDtia1 consequences of
    failure of saucam:s ami components; those items tbat arc likely to pose greater
    hazard to life safety should haw a lower risk of DOt JEft'ting their petformance
    objectives. This risk is based OD.CUllent knowledgc of seismic behavior IIZld is not
    quantified.
    2-6
    2.6 DFSIGN APPROACBFOR NEW FACILITlES
    ""!inee" iilg teqDi1tJlC
    D
    ts aDd acceptam:c critcrla to be used to demonstrate
    comptiance of each usage caleJOlY with the applicable pmfoxwa
    nce
    - requirements
    should be based on approacb=s that are well established and consistent with CUItent
    pmctic:es for seisnric design 'DIe major elements of tl=se c:riterja include:
    L StreJlBth: The structural design should be such that risk of gross faiIme of the
    structural systems and elencnts UDder the design loads is mjnjmized This is
    acco" '1,
    li
    sbcd by demlfNlijlling that the strength, based on the acccptaDce
    criteria, is equal to or grater than the demand resulting from the design loads.
    In dere' miniug the design loads., the loading comhinario'lS should accomtt for
    an
    tn-. .... _... . . with
    -3 GUUYitions, r:mmstent cwxent pmctiCeS
    b. Ductility: Dacdlity may be reli=l upon in detm iiiining the capability of
    structures ami CQiiilW:4"ilS to resist seiSii.ic loads.. The dncti1ity limits and the
    accoDlpllllYiDg defu, ne'io. should not exceed the Hmjring values found
    bereiD, ccmsistent with the usage categories described above. Ductility limits
    may also be dem"'lStIiIlI!d through appxopIiate iDdependeDt testing.
    c. Seismir Analysis and Design Methods .As di!lll!!Jsse:D in detail in Chapter 4,
    the equivalent static load method of analysis is generally appropriate for
    selSiiiir: ana1ysis and design However, specific systems may require dynamic
    analysis in order to pxoYidc a better undetstandiDg of seismic structural
    msponse. incbtding a JIlIn accurate distribution of seismic forces. The
    engineer should use jmIgment in drriding whether a dynamic analysis is
    De cd:d, except for the cases wbele the codes cxpJicitly require such dynamic
    analysis (e.g.. h:reguJar structures). CoDSidcration. should be given to the fact
    that the fommJarions in die equivalent static method are gemnlly ewp.irical
    and are based i" i
    lllHn
    9' em bm1ding structares. At peuur
    h
    e
    fll
    ica1 faC'1jtjes, the
    structures in many cases are dm'eJ:eut eyen if they qualify as "regular" and
    they may involve me ... tDIJI witb piping systems of sjlni
    S
    , anI mass. In such
    cases, a dyDamic ana1ysis may be a better choice
    Both equivalent static and dynamic IIII8lyses should be perfonned using linear
    elastic methods. Seismic loads should be praperly combined with the other
    load efrects to obtain the "design forces" in accordance with the praject
    criteria
    d. Acc:eptam:e Criteria: Either allowable stras or ultimate streJJgtb design
    methods may be used in estaNislring the acccptaDCe criteria.. In addition.
    where apptoptiate, displacement Ijmjtations should be imposed to assure
    acceptable bebaviorof and components.
    e. Seisi"ir Review of Systems and CompoDents: Experience indicates that many
    systems and types of eq"ipDJeI'!I are genemlly seismically rugged, ie.. they are
    2-7
    ordmar:iI.y CODStrUCted in such a way that they have iDber=m seismic capacity
    to survive sttoDg motioDs without significant loss of fimctUm. The engineer
    should make an assusneid of the systems and compoJlCllts. especially those
    in the hazardous ami essential categories, to cIcte. w;tIC thejr JUggeduess.
    Those systems and COmpoueDts tbat are deeDed to be susceptible to strong
    groUDd slmldng should be rcsvmwed in IDOIC detail (sec SBAoc, 1990,
    Appendix IG far guidance OD equ4)j11Mt qnaljfjcarian). Such a review may
    be dewQrmratc:d by exp"'i data, aDalysis, testing, or any combination
    tbmof.
    f. Redrmdancy: Expe.tience indicates tbat retfundaDcy is a signfflram factor
    ,ff.,:ijU! the sanivabiIity of a stn1CtI1R or COllipDJlCllt dmiDg strong groUDd
    mo1ioD. Many struetures and compoueats at pettOCllftmjc:a! faC'1jtjes lack
    mi""dncy. ConsidenwOD should be given to providing retfuncfant .structmal
    SJSleDIS to die IIIl*jm"m extmtt practicable AIdIough proWfing recfnndaney
    may IeIIUlt in a small incmasc in the COliSUuctioD costs. it will also reduce the
    sekmj.: risk by providing aJtemate load patbs and acfttirimm! euexgy dissipation
    .. ..:-:... T_-=_. S .. . ..:&.-.... ,
    .. .IIIIGla.w.u.la:,o,,'iilC mtcraCbOn. as nnpact or
    displai#heu" may have adverse c1f'ects OD the petfOimancz of scmsirive
    a,stews and QIh'l1i\lJi6i1tS. Tberefore, separation of such items to pmclnde
    sci,m;., :iate:tacdcm with other ncaIby structmes and components is a basic
    d
    ...... If .. . 'oL_ . .. . should
    mil' pi mCipm SCparal10ll IS DOt practtClL. LUIaI &elSiiiiC iDtefaCt10D
    be aNlb"Dred far in design through analysis.
    The guidance provided in this doc .... ent is generally based OD the above o!eU.lIIts
    TmpJementarion oftbesc design piblcipJes is A}"c.ted to result in a design that will
    meet the. pmfo!hwnce objectives. In pallicalar. both stmIgth and dm:ti1ity
    requ:itehcIII' should be Sp"" ifWI to Deet the iDtegtity. confineDcnt or
    functionality criteria As the pet
    m
    issih1c ductility values listed in later
    sections of tbIs doc ""eDt are relatively high and apply to the petfhlhWDce crit.eriOD of
    maiDtenance of stllumral iutegrhy. Thay would necessarjly be .lower if a
    pctfc .. mance critmion of fnncrionaUty is spe iBed
    'J..1 CONSTRUcrION OBSERVATION AND INSPECTION
    Consuuct:iOD of petrochemical facilities in accordance with the explicit or implicit
    engineering intent is esscDt:ia
    l
    far acbi:ving a quality that will assure acceptable
    behavior of struetures and compoueutS cJnring ground shaking Thmefore. spo jfje:
    items for which construction observation, inspection. and/or testing is deenlllld
    ,=-_.. . . . of this doc Co .
    necessaty are .......,.. m apptopnate sccttonsliiicill DStlUCtlon
    observation (site visits) by the Engineer of Record is recol!ll'end
    rd
    to assess general
    compliance with the c!esign These site visits arc not intended to consl itntc detailed
    inspections or to supplant lIllY aspect of required testing and iDspec:don programs.
    ,
    2-8
    2.8 QUALITY ASSURANCE
    h is recommended that petrochemical far:iljties be designed using an eng;",:eling
    quality assurance plan. Such a plan should iIlchJde the definition of the earthquake
    loading to be used ill the design and a description of the lateral force resisting system.
    Any materials testing program, seismic review procedures. COJIStIUction observation
    by the engineer of record, and. other inspection programs should be clearly defined
    In evaluation and retrofit of existing fac:t
    1
    iries, the engineer who identified the
    need for modification may not necessarily be the engiDMl' who provides the
    morfificarinn design In such cases. it is recoil II llcoded that the owner jnclnde review
    provisioDs to assure that the intent of the evalnating engineer is properly
    implemented 1bese observations are also iJ!tended to assure that the subsequent
    construction is c:a:aied out properly. Furthermore. deviations made ill the Deld should
    be reviewed SO that the intent of the retrofit is not violated.
    2.9 PEEk REVIEW
    New design for .hazardous and essential fac:t1ities should inclnde an independent
    peer review. Such indcpcDdeut reviews may be peduljlw! by qUljljfjed flllginMl'S
    from the design orgahizaljon who are umeIated to the project. 1bese reviews should
    incbJde the examillation of design philosophy. design aiteda, suuctmal system,
    construction materials. and. other factors pertinent to the seismic capacity of the
    facility. The review IIttd not provide a detailed chrck, as 1IClTIIUIIly perfoDDtd in the
    design process. but as a millimum should provide an overview to help icfentiiy
    potential oversights, mors, conceptual deficiencies, and. other potential problems that
    might affect a facility's seismic pedOlm;mCt,
    For new design and. also for the evaluation of exist iug faCIlities, the guidance
    provided ill this document may be diife.renr than that in the CUI1'ent codes. In cenaiD
    inSUIDce5, less str.ingeDt criteria are recomll elided in this doctnn:nt In such cases. an
    independent peer review is also apptoprialc.
    2-9

    3.1 INTRODUCI10N
    Chapter 3
    SEISMIC HAZARDS
    An important step in the seismic design of DeW firC!l1jtjes ami the evaluation of
    cmsring faC'Trties is the definition- of seismic hazards atfhuing the site. Potential
    earthquake related hazards jpc:!ude the followiJIs:
    L Inertial related loads aDd displacements caused by ground sbaking
    b. Grou:ad fitilure caused by rupture of a fault located within or immecfiately
    adjacent to a facility.
    Co Ground failure or settlement cansed by liquefitcrion and l!D!dslides.
    d. Coastal immdatiou or loads due to large waves produced in nearby bodies
    ofwater' caused bytsunmris (tidal waves) and MirM
    Bugineers responsible for designing -eqnipment and struc:tares to resist these
    bazards are usually not responsible for ,ssessing the probability of oc:cur:rence of
    these hazards. The definition and qnallcj6caliou of these hazards is generally
    perfonned by specialists in other difcipJines However, engineers are often raDed
    upon by owne.ts and regnlatms to interpret those hazards ami assess the validity of
    the hazard analysis. In adtfirion, engineers must incorpmatc the hazant 8D8lysis
    results in a ccmsistent ami appzopziat.: II7BI!!!I!r iDto the design of DeW fioci1ffl'5 or the
    evablation of existiug firC'lities
    The intent oftbis chapter is to provide bac:kground iafwmatiou to fium1iarize civil
    engineers ped'cnmiu& design or analysis tasks with the pzotess by which these hazards
    are defined, ami to understaDd the m!!!U!jng and signific:auce of various methods for
    perfmming these evaluatiom. espcciaIly with Jespect to ground sbaking Although
    this chapter does not intend to instruct the engineer bow to perfonn analyses typiraDy
    eleCUted by specialists in other disciplines, it is intended to act as a resource to
    3-1
    promote an UDderstanding of the purposes, methodologies, temDnologies. and
    IjmjtariQ1lS of seismic hazard evaluatiODS. This UDderstanding is n!tjmately necessaty
    for an appiopriate inter:tace between seismologists, geotechnical engineers. civil
    engineers, 0WIIe1'S, and J'eSldators in the design and evaluation process.
    This cbapter is structured to present a brief overview of typical issues flIced by
    civil engineers with Jeg8lds to each of the seismic hazards listed above. More
    detailed discnssjons of several specific topics arc given in appendices to this chapter.
    3.2 GROUND SHAKING
    The most widely used seismic input parameter for the seismic design of strUCtUres
    is a IMaMe of the ground shaking, usuaDy given in terms of ground acceleration. It
    is often the cmIy pwaliieter used for the specifi.carion of seismic design
    The fM'bJafton of ground shakinS is often mj"mderstood, in its terminology,
    inteqI1e'elion, and application of its results. This section is intended to provide
    e:oqWmarion of ""iii! "OJ! JI'OID1d motion descriptions and their relevance to
    .. Ii
    I!!Ilgmte.mg app =mons
    3.2.1 Earthquake Magnitude aDd InteDsity
    Eu1fup'akes arc often described in tams of their mapinJdes and resulting
    inteDsiries The magrritnde is a measure of the overall etJeIgy released by an
    earthquake. The itJteDsity is a meslR of the e!'flot:ts cxparieaced at a particular
    Incation during the earthquake.
    SevcimI magaitlufe scales arc commcmly used to describe the eae.tgy released in an
    earthquake. These include the lUc:bter or local magnttn4e (Mz.), sud8ce wave
    magrrimde (Ms). body wave magrritnde (JIll,) and momeat magrritnd
    e
    (M ... ). More
    detailed descaiptions of each of the CQiiIi"on scales arc located in Appendix 3.A
    FJSIITe 3.1 shows a comparison of sevend magrritnde scales over a range of
    CCiill
    ii
    km1y experieaced magrritndes. Although the term "Richter magnit;ude" is
    c:ommcmly used by news reports to describe eattbquake mapufes of major evems.
    the maprde values arc typicaDy provided by ageacies such as the U.S. Geological
    Survey and arc not necessarily the true "Ricbter" magmtnde.
    TnteDsity is a measure of the effects of an earthquake at a site, and is a fimction of
    the earthquake magnitude, mstance from the eattbquake SOlliC:e,local soil
    characteristics, and other parameters. The most common 11It!!!9JTe ofiJttensity in the
    United States is the Modified MercaIJi Intensity (MMI) scale, which ranges from I to
    XII, as deJcaibed in Table 3.1. A sinn1 .... scele from the Japan Meteorological Ageru:y
    (lMA). ranging from 0 to 7, is used in Japan, while Eastern European countries often
    use theMSK scale, where intensiri'=S arc sjnn1arto the MML
    3-2


    . - - ~ - - ~ ~ ~ ~ - - - - + - - - - i - - - - ~ - - ~ ~ - - '



    I
    10
    .......M" ....
    Figure 3.1: RelatiOD betweea Momeat Magnitnde aad other magnitude
    seales. ML (local), AI. (SJU1ace wave), IIIJ. (short period body wave), DIe (lODg
    period body wave), and M.u.u. (Japan Meteorological Agmcy). See SectiOD
    3.A.3 for definitioD of difrerut magnitude scales.
    3.%.2 Measura ofGnnmd Shpking for U. in Design and Evaluation
    Earthquake DIlIgnitude -and intensity are of fnnjted sigaific:aucc in engineering
    design. A much more rmnmon paiimeter for engineering evaluation ami design is
    the level of ground motion expeaed at a given site, defined in terms of acceleration,
    velocity, and displacement
    Earthquake records can be pi ented as time histories or response spectra. Tune
    histories are measured iDsttummtally and captUre the duration, 1i'equency conteat.
    and amplitude of earthquake motion. A response spectrum is the calcn'aud lesponse
    to a given earthquake time history for a series of single.dcgree-of,.fteeciom OSC'llators
    of diife!mtt frequencies. The response is typically presented for a given damping
    ratio, usually 5%. The response specIlum is usefjiJ, in that it defines the response of
    the structure to a given time bistory.
    3-3
    r

    TABLE 3 I' Modified MereaJIi IDteDsity Seale
    ,t
    Notfeh. MmsizmlIlDllIDDg-paiod efI'a:Is ofllqe _tbqm'm
    11. em 1lJIPC=I' or1iwmab1ypla=:l
    m. Feltiadams. H"'I!IiaI objecIs swiJIg. V'iIImIiDIIDb passiIIg ofl/sll! tnII:ks. DamIicm c:sripgte!
    M'ayJlDt be I I;t 18 lilell as an earthquake.
    IV. Ha',', g objecIs swiJIg. Vibmicm like JIIIISiDB ofllarvyuucts; or eneri'lll of.jolt Db. ball
    saiki:Dg!lle walls. Standing JIIDIOrCIIIS nx:k. WIZIdowlt, d.ishcs. doaIs JIIItIc. Glasses cIiDk.
    c::mdIayc.lasbcs. In!lle IIpJIIrJllllP Df'IV WDDIIaI.....us IIDll iIaIIes c:n:ak.
    V. Felt .... I is; !ItiL " ,.
    ,.
    '1
    SI""P"'" ukI:aecL LIquids disIadJcd. __ spilkd. Small
    1'I!II!8hIe objecIs c!iJp1 .... A or lIpIeL Domsaariag, cIaR. apea. !Qnmers, piCIDIeS -. Pezrdnbw
    cIadIs ItIIp, stan, chaage-=.
    VI.
    Felt by.n. May fi IBI"
    efadftlDCl ,,'
    ,
    Pcaaas walk 1:111 '
    5ily. Wmdows, d.ishcs.
    sJassware \ njdl b, boob, etc., cdr ibelwIs.. PiI:Imes cdrwalls. FlIIIIitUN IIIDft4 or
    Oi,,1Iii4eIl Weak p1astIIr aacl masaw) D mreked Small beIlsr:illg (clI1In:h, acboo1). TDes, baIIes
    IIIIIrm (visible, or IIaIIIl
    VlL J)IfBcgIt to IIIIIIIIi. Noticed by drma of_ CIIIL Ha 8' B objt:cIs qui.wL FunriU4e bmkm.
    T);tgpJpto
    H
    'yD. Including cna:b.. WeakcbDwwysbmbDat.-na.. Fallofplasu::r.Joose
    bdI:b, stGItI:s, tiles, colid'*, (also mhpmf j 61* IS_a J he T
    4urr,m
    .... ). Same CIIII:b in
    ...., C. W_ em pIIIIIb; _1IIrIIid 1l'iShmvd. Small slides IIDll caliq in IIIcmtIIIIIIIl or
    JrIIIWIIIBats. lAtae bells JiIIB. CcmcnIe ill' 811II1D ditdIcs dII gell
    WI. S' 1'8 mIlLOlOt' CIIS am. *r!
    Darmrseto
    M
    "'Y pnial coapse
    Same clamptomasamy
    _ to Mamay A Fall of _1IDll SQIIIe masamyWllls. Twia1iaB. fiI11 of c:biu:we)'s. tac=y
    ...... m"" "'1II'RI8, a!ewatod lBDks F_haases 1IIImdem fnmuIerinns it'JIIIt bo!ted dIIwa;
    Joose JIIIIId .....us tbIvwa 01Jt, D yal piIiIIg bnWa oft Bid! 1te 'Intea iam trees. CJvtnr ill
    flcllvor ,
    I
    H'We or spriDp IIDll wells, Caleb in _ paaad IIDll GIl stoep aPopa,
    JX. GcIIaII1paiG. Mil nyB ... i"uIyd
    B
    I (GeaaaP clamp to
    liN l'i .) r-1'Il_ .... , fee" Flllzal:sDCked. Sainas
    daaaplO.CWvcJas. !h1 saouad pipes bmkaL C 'I' '1S c:amkI in JIIIiiIId. In aIhwiaI.cd
    _1IIIIIl1lDllma4 artliquake filiin. ' 1,IIIiIIIlI:IIIIaS.
    X. MastA65ULi) aclialeSUiLUiies 1 .,cd with tbcir fiRmdetims S-wen.:baih w c1cm
    auuawesllDll bsidps d .. yed, SaiRs damIIp to clams, dibs, embmpngrpts Lsrp hrrMIs
    lides
    Water tbIvwa GIl hIIits to CIIIIIils. mas. !ab:s, ell:. SIIDllIlDllIIiiId IIIda.t 1 .. I 'aDy em beocPIes
    ad fIal Jad, RIi!s bcmt a!igbtly.
    XL Wsbcmtpeatly, 11DdctjjiOUlllipijl I' Hcwap!r!e!yaotof ....
    XII. 1AzBe11lCk_ctisp
    1
    ered Liaa of sisbtad Ptm:I dIstaIlcd. 0bjecIs
    tImlIJl iaID !lie air.
    Toawaid "8' '0J.1bo IpIIIiIy of-r.1ri:k. ........ 1IIIUriaI ....... Ioylbo ftrII ius Io:a,.;q.,......
    (l1!/I..... . wilblbo_ ' .......... Jl.ad C ')
    M ) A. Gaad .. ' \_ .... tIooiso;. ' ,
    ___ -.;dooIpodto.-.....".1ima,
    M .,B. Gaad- ' "L .... _ r a4 ... ""'delipdto_-' ....
    T' .,c CladiaI1!iy_ '" .... _ ... __ ' IiUflllillato .... _ ... 1IOisbor
    ' r __ dooipaIto_Iu' IIima,
    M ,D. .. IIIIcrIoo; ...... _1aw ' .. ". . "; .-k
    h
    By.
    3-4
    Most building codes use a response spedlllm as design iDput. For design and
    evahlation purposes, that response specb um can be defined either from standard
    shapes or:from site-specific 8DIIlyses. Standard shapes are typically used for a given
    soil type, scaled to a value of peak ground acceleration (pGA). The PGA is the
    rnaximum response which a rigid structure would be expected to experience. moving
    the same as the ground itsel
    Bw1d"mg codes generally present standard design response spectrum shapes.
    JlOl'I1Ia
    f
    ..,.n to a PGA of 1.0. A PGA value appropriate for the seismic zone in which
    the site is located is used to scale such standard spectral shapes. Those standard
    shapes represent a smoothed average ofnorma6zed response speet1a of actual ground
    motion records grouped by subsur&ce soil conditjODS at the location of the recording
    iII.fnme", S
    It may be appropriate to consid. a damping level of other than SOlO. For
    ew8"'I.le, a wood framed cooliDg tower would ex:perience highar damping tban liquid
    sloshing in an iDSulated taDk.
    The use of standard shapes may be inappropriate under certain conditions, such as
    very near a fiwIt, and when soils are very soft. UDder those conditiODS a site-specific
    8DIIysis would be rmnnmended, using one of the procedures described in the
    following secUous.
    3.2.2.1 DetermiDistic Seismic 'Hazards ADalyses
    In d
    approach, __ of' ed by consid .
    a etermiDISUc eo ........ mottODS at a SIte are est""., enng
    a siDgle event of a specified magnitude and distance :from the site. To perform a
    detenniDistic analysis, the following infbtmation is needed'
    a. Definition of an earthquake source (e.g. a known &uIt) and its location
    relative to the site
    b. Definition of a design earthquake magnitude that the soun:e is capable of
    producing
    c. A re1ationsbip which describes the attenuation, or decay with distance, of
    grouad motion
    A
    . have ___ I known ........... A .
    SIte may ""'v.,.... acttve ........... m itS pIOXIIIIity. mBX"'"J1D
    magnitude is defined for each fiwlt, :from published sources or agencies such as the
    U.S. Geological S\D'Vef. The maw"nm magnitude is a timction of the fault length
    and knowledge of past earthquakes on that particular source. The
    attenuation relationships are developed based on statistical analyses of ground motion
    records from earthquakes occuning in simt1ar geologic and tectonic conditions.
    3-5
    rl.T that detel: . und . -1..0_" with spec.ifi
    ",ote".'i.,stir: gro mot1OD esnmares are DOt a s s o ~ a ~
    =tUm period. such as 250 years or SOO years. although the particlllar earthquake
    event used may have a return period associated with it. The retum period for the
    """jWIIIII event 011 a given fault may vary from several bImdred to several thousand
    yeus., depending on the activity rate of the fault.
    3 2 2 2 Probabflfstir Seismic Bazards ADalyses (PSBA)
    In a probabj1jstic: approach. ground motions at a site arc c#jw"ed by considering
    the probability of dieats of difl'meut sizes 011 all sources that affect a given site.
    Ccnnbjna
    ti
    h!'5 of individual prolJabDiries from difi'cxeut fIODlce5 provide total annual
    proba
    bo
    1jties of ex"",,,!!JICf' for a given level ofPGA or specual response The curve
    of probability of exceedance versus ground motion is often .efencd to as a "bazard
    curve." A DDifu,m hazard specllum provides a poand motion amplitude for different
    frequency vahJes for a coustant probability of exreec\ance The probability of
    exceed!!!!!? is tben related to the xetum pedod for that ground motion by using the
    equation for a PoiSSOIrian disttibution:
    T= -t
    l1l(1-p)
    where p is the probability of exceedam:e in t yeaxs and T is the etum period.
    (3.1)
    A common value used in building codes is the 10% probability of CD'ceeclance in
    SO years. Using equation 3.1, this is a 47S-year etum period. 'Ibis is also commonly
    .c:feued to as a SOD-year return period for simpucity.
    Since a PSHA is a probability based approach. it is hupwtant that uncertainty be
    accounted for in the definitjon of input parallr:ters. such as the magnitude m:uuence.
    the attemmrion. or geographical boundaries or location of a sonrce zone. 'I'hese
    \IIIcertainties arc modeled in the PSHA. Figure 3.2 sImws the diffeJ:eut eJemeDts of a
    PSHA grapbically. These analyses arc typically daDe with special computer programs
    spedfically developed for this purpose. T)'pical input pR1iI1DIIters include the
    following:
    a.. Definition of earthquake sources, either as faults or as ;a:ea sources of
    diffused seismicity not dimctly anxibutable to a known fault
    b. A probability distribution of earthquake magnitudes for each source
    c. A definition of eaxthquake ground motion attenuari'JD. including uncertainty
    DefIne EaItI\qIIIdIe 8oUI'IIII
    8lllamlcIty_ 01 ameay
    ..
    De1Ine ADenuatiOn CUrves fOr SpeaInd
    AmpCUndes.Per\DCIs T.I - TN
    , SI'IIImW.
    , -
    8
    0
    CT,I a
    o
    ".1
    Deve\op Selnilc HIIanI em-fOr Spectral Amplitudes. Eech PeriacI
    and Oblaln CoIl \sid
    -
    --
    -
    -
    Figure 3.%: Seismic: Hazard ADalysis Procedure
    Note also that beca"se the ground motion values are c:aJ"dat'!:d probahilistic:ally
    by combining the probabilities of ground motion from many SCIUI'CCS, the value
    derived is not associated with a speci:lic fault or event. In fi.ct, while it may sound
    ccmservative to use the ground motion from the JaIsest possible earthquake
    occurringat the closest location on the nearest fiwlt, those values may be significantly
    3-7
    ." ,
    . . ,"
    ;
    smaller than ground motion caI"dated probahiJistically. This is particularly true if the
    largest eattbtp,b on the nearest fault is associated with a shorter return period than
    beiDg considerecl probabiJisticaJ. or if the site is affi:cted by several fimlts, which
    each ('.! Ii U. B'lIce to the ovezall probability of ex. II&' rfamwt
    More dgtai!ed cfiscnssions ofvarious aspectS ofprobWnstic seismic hazards lIDIlyses
    are presented in Appendix 3.A.
    3.2.2.3 SIte RespODSe ADaIysis
    Other JI1DIIaicaJ methods aach as site respcmse BDBlysis using linear or non-linear
    models ofuaderiyiDg soil are also available to esrjmate site-specitic response spec:I1a.
    Codes such as SHAXE {Sclmabe1 et aJ. 1972)amI2D aDd 3D FLAC (lf8sca. 1995)
    are ..".,1abJe Numerical site response aualysis is Ri!iIiiI .... ded where very poor
    subsu:d8ce ('.! ",dicinns (such -as NE1IRP soil type E' aDd UBC soil type 84) are
    CIIlCOUIlteral.
    32 2 4 EartIaquake Time Bistories
    S
    . of _t L!_--'_ for
    om
    eUm
    ... it JS applopuate to use a '* ._erauon time IWOWIlI:i
    structum1 aualyses, especiaJly for ncWmear auaI.ysis or for IID8Iysis of structures of
    special hapcilI:aIh':e. Whenever used, it is reo .... Iii .... rfed tbat multiple time histories be
    used to reduce the possVN\1y of a structaraI period mjm;idjng with a ftequency of
    low CDeIIY """eal for the particular time histoJy recold cfmsen Additional.
    considendicms for the use of time bistozy mcon!s. such as scaling ami the use of
    artificial1ime histories, are discussed in AppendiY 3.A.
    3 2 2 5 Db E>!lionaJity CoDSideratioDS
    Earthqnake response spectra are typically developed for application in orthogonal
    hoiizonraJ directions Discnssions of how to combine design input fi"om diifetent
    directions are pi t ,,!!led in Chapter 4. While wrticaJ reBJIOlISe spec:I1a can be
    developed in a sinnlar mumer to horimntaJ spectta, in practice, vertical spectra are
    usually oblaiued by sraUng the horizmuaI spectra. TypicaDy. a 18cIor of 213 is used.
    This value may be inapplopliate for sites near 1iults. See also Section 3.A. 7.
    3.3 GROUND FAILURE
    Grouad fiiIures can be cansed by Iiql'efirc:riOJl, fault rupmres within a fiIcility. or
    slope fii1ures QandsJjdes). Earthquake induced settlement also fiiIls iDto this
    categoJy. Grouad fiilures are an imponant concern for pettoc:he:mical faCilities.
    When dasigning for sround sbaking accelerations, COIIsiderations for the possibility of
    higher tban BlQIf">eted accelerations are incmponIted into the design pl0ce5S by
    inrJudiDg details to provide ductile behavior when loaded beyond the elastic range.
    Howew.r. '!DeCllfA:ted groUDd failure often proves to be catastrophic in tenDs of
    dsnnage and consequcmces. not 0DIy to the strUCtUre or equipment itseJt: but also to
    secondmy systems, SIlCh as attached piping, tbat can not withstand the Wge
    moveiilents associated with ground fiIiluns.
    3.3.1 Liquefaction
    Liquef8ction is a phenomenon COJDDIODIy associated with the repeated shaking or
    c:yc:lic loading of saturated loose cohesiouless soils mad quick clays. The potential. for
    liquefaction djmjnisbes as soil deasity increases. Ccmsolidated soils are not typically
    w1nerable to liquefilction. while poorly sraded sands are more susceptible to
    Jiqnefiction
    The process of Jiqnefic:rion is assoc.iated with the tendeucy of loose soils to
    densitY UDder shear loadiug Tbia process is replaced in sa1:UrII%ed sands by a build-up
    of pore water pressures tbat reduces its shear strength. EvcmtnaUy the strength may
    be reduced to the exte:nt tbat soDS may flow or produce water spoutS and sand boils.
    These are the evems typically usocjatecI with Iiquefir.tion.. Structures may
    experieuce fo'tmdation fiWures at levels ofloanmg or sbaking below those tbat would
    produce Jiquefic:rion in be-fie1d conrfitions beC'nse the SU'CDgth of the soil may
    degrade to a level jnsnfficiem to support the foundation loads imposed by a structure.
    EElU (1994) bas noted tbat liqvefiction bas most often been observed in areas
    where the ground water table is within 30 feet (10 m) of the ground sur.fiu:e. while
    there are few observations of liquefiction where the ground water is deeper than 60
    feet (2Om).
    The evaluation ofliquefiction potential most often involves an auphical or semi-
    empirical procedure. Seed et aI (1991) S!!!T!!7!IUjze a few of those procedures. The
    evaluation of lique&crion at a panicuJar site involves a number of physical
    determinations that carry with them conside:rabIe' variations and UDCeltainties.
    Among the most importaDt are:
    L physical soB cbarac:teristics (u . de:asity, grain size distribution, and filbric)
    b. !!!IM:banical c:hatacteristic (u . deCoxmation piopeuies and shear stnmgth)
    c. in situ stress conditions
    d. site concfttions (Le depth of son strata, locations ofwater table, and ground
    slope)
    e. c:baracteristic of ground shaking (Le., duration, fi'equcncy content, mad
    magnitude of accelerations)
    3-9

    Ledbetter (1985) has pJeseuted a "'""lIa,y of methods to mitigate damage
    associated with liquefiable soils. MaDy of the methods are valid for Iimiring
    settlemant-induced damage for city soils. The methods for improviug perfonnance
    include:
    a.. iDcreased "hliRiSolilem
    b. densfficatinn
    c. foundation drainage improvement
    do soD .eiafi:uument
    Excavation of sails with poor cbaracteristics IIllIi rep!aceullmt with select fill is a
    simple altemative wheu ecoDiilliicaUy jnSlified. J)ensificarion of shallow sands may be
    aC"" iinpfisbrd with v.ibratoJy ""'"1)'actOl5 at the SUIfiu:e IlMIl. Deeper layers may be
    densffied by explosMIs, driving displacement piles or chopping weights fimn cranes
    on the grouDd ""Tfiuz
    A fimdamcatal sohttion to poteIltiaI liqnefilction or sett!ement hazards is to extend
    the fmmdaVtm system to a deeper soD stJata having a lesser tendancy to or
    ccmij'act Other eJemenlS offmmdatitm desigu, such u the use ofmat fbundations,
    strap tboting, IIllIi pile cap ties to reduce diffbeatia1 foundation movements IIllIi
    settleroe
    iils
    are effective in reducing damage to strucmres or equipment
    As the resistance to liquefilction increases with collfiujllg suess. it may be
    beneficial to add a SlUc:batge pressure to the origiDal sraund surliu:e by depositing
    select material..
    3.3.1 Fault Ruptw e
    Fault rupture results in destructive shaking fi'om a massive release of crustal
    euergy at a fi'adu.re in the eaJth's crust along wbich scpalated sections have moved or
    displaced re1ative to each other. The displacement can VIII)' fi'om a purely hOlwmta
    J
    to a purely vertical direction IIllIi C8Il be u large u seve:ral:meters. A ground rupture
    involving more than a few inches of movemeut can cause major cfamage to structures
    sited on or i"'Iii .. fia'eJy adjacent to the f8ult. In gene:.:al, the precise locations of
    fimlts are not known because they are typicaUy covered with alluvium. Fault
    displacements produce forces aud mOVeliiejlls so sreat that the best method for
    limiting d3mage to structures is to avoid building in IJeIIS close to ground traces of
    active fimlt zones
    3-10
    3.3.3 Landslides
    Individuallmdslides induced by seismic evems may enoompa
    ss
    mass voJumes and
    areas much larger than those due to other causes (Seed et al, 1991; Krinitzsky et al,
    1993). The largest :fiWures have iDvolved many square miles of material In addition,
    landslides may occur in lID area much larger than that usually associated with
    structural damage for a particular event. someJimes occurring more than 100 miles
    from the epicenter.
    Few Jpnds1jdes seem to be 1riggerec1 by seismic IM:ZItS ofless than magnitude S.
    T .andslides may be associated with liquefaction of soillayers.1idIure ofweak or brittle
    soils, or s!jcfmg along seams of weak soils. 'Because of the spatial extem of the
    fiIilures involved and the variety of fiIilure modes that may trigger them, detailed
    geoteo Jl!lical site iDvesrigatir.ms are neces' 'Y to evaluate these hazards.
    Numerical methods of evahJatiUg Ipndslide potential im:)ude limit equilibrium and
    finite e!em,, teclmiques. These methods are applicable to dJy, satwated. cohesive
    or IlOJloCOhesive soils. FiDite cI ment tedmiques are ptefeued when evaluating
    camp_ puneliies of combiDations of soil types, and also when calQJ)ations of
    displaceml!!1tS are required. Limit equilibrium tec!miques have been extended to
    dyDamic IIII81ysis, IIIld load duration ell'edS can be incorporated to calculate
    disrIacemI!!1tS These dynamic calculations consider rigid body motions.
    3A 'I'SDNAMIAND SEICHE
    Tsrmamis IIIld seiches occur regularly throughout the world, but are usually only
    considered in the design pnd evaluation offiC'1jtjes when maldng iuitial dec:isions on
    the locatioD of the ficiIity. This section briefly describes these pbenomeaa,
    a,....,....,eat methods, 8IIIl mitigation mesena. Additional dimmion is pnmded in
    Appendix 3.B.
    Tsrmmris, or tidal waves, are typicaJIy seueaated by large and sometimes di,stant
    earthquakes and UDdersea fiuIt movemI!!1tS. TmveJiDg through the deep ocean. a
    tSlm;mri is a broad ami sbaI1ow, but fist D1D\'iDg, wave that poses little danger to most
    vessels. When it reaches the coastline, the wave form pushes upward from the ocean
    bottom to make a swell ofwater that sometimes (but DOt always) breaks and washes
    iDIand with great force.
    A seiche occurs when resonant wave OSCt'Uatir.ms form in lID eaclosed or semi-
    eaclosed body of water such as a Jake, bay, or fjord. Seiches may be 1riggerec1 by
    moderate or larger local submarine earthquakes, and sometimes by large, distant
    earthquakes.
    A tSlm;mri or seiche may result in flooding of low-lying coastal areas. The
    greatest hazard results from the inflow and outflow of water, where strong currents
    3-11
    mI forces can emde foundations and sweep away structures and equipment.
    Petrocbemi<3 fj!!:.1iries are especially vulnerable to the ro.pture of storage tanks fi'om
    debris impact aDd fmmdation erosion. possibly remJlting in explosion and fire. lbe
    tsnnami at Seward. Alaska following the 1964 Alaska earthquake led to such
    desuuction of the port fiu:.1jtjes. lbe succ:essim of waves spread the 1ire fi'om
    ruptured oil tanks across and throughout the part area.
    A third ]'IOtIiiiItial cause of coasta1 immdation is coastal subsidence caused by
    tectoJIic: (figdting) or non-tectoDic (e.g. IntllDd'm.e landslide) effects. Permanent
    MIIsta! subsidence ami Inbmb, gence may 0CCDr. It is difficnlt. if DOt impossible, to
    predict when or if such tectonic snbgjdence wiJ1 occur in a sMa area, dJtbmtgb
    historical earthquaIa data provide evidence of such occurrem:es.
    3.4.1 Asnmneut arvuJaerabDity
    -
    Coastal sites m active tectoDic areas whem dip-sBp fjmffiag is common are most
    susceptible to eardJquaJce-iaduced iDJmdarimJ E'H"Mj',,'iDD of the J'e!Pmml fault
    dIaracterisdcs aDd earthqr.Iake histoty. with empbasjs on suJnDadne earthquakes and
    passib1ehistorlcaJ '51
    Jf
    .",;s, prov.idesthe best me""'6 afaitew1DerabDity. J;stjmates
    of ma,i",," tS"IW
    n
    .
    i
    lUIHIp may be based au either historical ocaweaces or
    theoretical mode1iag. lbe Federal lDsuram:e AdmiDistraticm developed ;",mdatifJJ1
    maps to assist in selliilS rates for the Nationat Plood 1Dswaac:e ProgL614 (FJood
    lDsunmce Rate Maps - FIRM). Immdation levels on these maps geaerally consist of
    the higher of eitherrlverine flood. masta! storm sarge, or tsunami jmmdation levels.
    3.4.2 Mltigatfon M.suns
    Throughout.JBpIIII, whem t:amami attack is ccmmum. sr:w:ral mi,igjilion measures
    have been implem"ltoi. such as sea walls aDd barxiels to RSist tqmmnj immdation.
    These structures are sometimes .msnccessfi!l. as large tsunamis may overtop the
    barriers and flood the protected area, generatiDg stroDg wuents which erode the
    barriers and other structures. lbe structures could ead up 8CIiDg as powerfi1l
    battering rams apinst the very structures they were designed to protect. Coastal
    pxotective stnicaues must be carefbIly designed to wjIJlS'Hhd exbtllD'e events.
    In practic:e in the UDited States, tSlmamj ami seiche eRi->1;ts are nn:ly considered
    in tisciIity desip, mdess considered in the origiDal siting of the fBciHty. For existing
    fircilities. other ,nes9Ues are more like1yto be effective in mitiga,j,'g risk fiom coastal
    inundation. Some afthese measures would inc:lude:
    a. TS!mami W8i nih! and alert systems
    b. EmClgtiiq or msaster response plans which consider the wInerabiIity of the
    fiacility IIDIl possible effects oftmmamj attack
    3-12
    c. Identifiration of the most vulnerable components and development of
    possible mitigation strategies
    d. Public and personnel awareness oftbe possible effects and impact of
    ts!mamis.
    3-13
    APPENDIX loA
    GROUND SHAKING
    , ~ .
    3.A-l
    3.A.l INTRODUCTION
    APPENDIX 3.A
    GROUND SHAKING
    'I'll: most widely used seismic input paxallteter in the seismic design of struclUrcs
    is a measure of the groumi shaking, usually given in temIS of ground accelermion. It
    is often the ouly parameter used for spetificazion of seismic _gn.
    Section 3.2 provides background infuMatjou on CODD1lU4 temlinDlogy aud
    fimdamemta
    ls
    rcIldcd to the eva
    bul1io
    ll of groumi shaking ba2:ards. This Appendix
    provides addjtjonal distm
    ssio
    ll on &pO iiie: areas that me often mjsnnderstood.,
    jncbl!ljng temrinology, interpretation aDd the app1icadon of its results. This section is
    jntcmded to provide explanation of COWII"U groUDd motion descriptions aDd their
    ~ to engin=iilg applicati9JIS.
    3.A.2 EARTHQUAKE BASICS
    Earthquakes are genc.1Illy caused by the sndd .... Rlease ofbuilt-up elastic strain in
    the earth's crust aud originate as slip along geologic fauIrs. The total energy of an
    earthquake is measect along the entire IeDgth of the mptured zone, propagating from
    the source and traveling tbmugh the earth in the foml of seismic waves. The point in
    the earth's crust where the xuptute is jnjtjaud is kaown as the focus or the
    hypocenter of the earthquake. The point on the smfiIce of earth diIectly above the
    h)Ipocenter is known as the epicenter of the ean:i1q1Jab.
    The build up of elastic strain in the earth's crust can be exp!ajned by the theoxy of
    plate tectonics. According to wbich, the outer 70-150 km of the earth's crust is made
    up of approximately 12 major plates which are slowly XDIn'iDg reJadve to each other.
    Most of the seismically active areas are located along the plate boundaries. The
    relative motion between the plates results in eitber plates grinding past each other, or
    a plate subducting beneath 3DOthcr or several plates c:onveq:iDg aud cmslring smaDer
    plates. There are also divetgent plate boundaries. Monntajns and deep sea trenches
    me fom= where plates converge aud mfxIlJa beneath one another. Mid-ocean
    ridges are foxmed at divergent plate boundaries. :Earthquakes are usually jnjtjated at
    sbaIlow depths at plate boUlldaries where plates sIidc past each other. Deep focus
    earthquakes usually occur aloug subduction plates. :Earthquakes within a plate can
    also result due to other reasons such as mcxeased couapxessioual stzess. Other" causes
    of eanhquakes can be due to mre.lear explosions or due to large anfficial reservoixs
    which change the local state ofsttess witbin the earth's crust. Also, volcanic activity
    can cause earthquakes at both subducting and diverging plate boundaries.
    3.A-2
    3.A.3 MAGNlTUDEAND INTENSITY
    The amount of energy released in an eartbquak.c. and its size, is cbaracterizcd as
    the magnitude of the earthquake. Some of the most commonly used magnitude scales
    are Richter or local magnitude (ML). surface wave magnitude (Ms). body wave
    magnitude (JIIb) and moment magnimde (Mw).
    Gutenberg and Richter (1956) showed that the amount of energy released in an
    earthquake can be related to the magn;u1de by the following rela1ioDSbip:
    Log E = lo5Ms + 11.8
    (3.A.l)
    where E is the e=gy in ergs. A magnitude increase by one unit releases 31.6 times
    more energy.
    Richter (1958) defiDcd the magnitude of a local earthquake (M0 as the
    "logarithm to base ten of the ma ';IT!I!m seismic-wave ampJitude (in thouAD!hb of a
    mt'1Jimeter) recorded on a standard seiqmgraph at a dis'8I!
    c
    :e of 100 kilometezs from
    the earthquake epicenter. (Bolt. 1988). Seismograms from deep focus earthquakes
    are significantly diffraent from those for shallow focus eattbquakes. even though the
    total amount of energy rdeased may be the same. This results in differrmt magnitude
    estimates for earthquakes whicb release the same amoWlt of cm::rgy. 'Ibis is a
    limjlation ofMs-.
    The magnitude of an earthquake is also den .. iiiined by the ampJitude of the
    cOlllplessional or P-wave. 'I'I: P-wave's ampJitude is not aff=tecl by the focal depth
    of an earthquake. The magnknde estill!8
    t
    ed by measuring the P-wave ampJituiie is
    c:a11ed the P-wave or body wave magnjmde (JIIb).
    Magnirude caIcuJated by urasnring the amplitude of long period smfacc waves
    (periods near 20 seconds) is c:aJled the surface-wave magnitude CMs>. Surface wave
    magnimde is calculated only for.shaDow focus earthquakes which give rise to surface
    waves.
    For sman or moderate size earthquala:s. the ampJitude of seiBII;C: waves measured
    by typical or standard seisrmgrapbs increases as the size of the earthquake incn:ases.
    This trend. however. does not continue for large or wry large earthquakes for which
    the ampIimde of seismic waves, whose wave leIlgths are much smaDer than the
    earthquake source. do not inczcase proportionaDy to the size of the earthquake. Tbe
    magnimde estimated by the ampJitude of seismic waves. tbiitefore. does not continue
    to increase at the same rate as the size of the earthquake. Beyond a certain limit the
    magnitudes calculated in this way tend to remain constant for di1feteut size
    earthquakes. In other words. the magnitude scale saturates. reslliting in no fUrther
    increase in estimated magnirude with the increasing size of an earthquake. .
    3.A-3
    Due to the JjmjtatjollS jn the above defined magnitude scales, a magnitude scale
    based upon the amount of energy released was introduced by Hanks am:\ Kanamori
    (1979) and was tel lied as tI= 1DJlIIIUlt mapitude scale (Mw). Moment magnitude is
    defu"d by the follow.ing m'Jatjonsbjy.
    2
    M. =-logM. -10.7
    3
    where:
    M.=p.AD
    (3.A.2)
    (3.A.3)
    The sei$lldc 1DJlIIIUlt Mo is defined as a product of modulus of rigidity of the rock
    (1), area of IUPtwe (A) ami avmage fault displacement (D) in a seismic event.
    Mw. theiefo:t", is dcpemIent upcm the size of IUptJJre UDtike other magnimde
    scales which am dependemt DpOD the ampJitnde of tile seismic waves. Larger
    eanbquakes. him la!gcr sei$lllic DIODaIt (product ofiUptwe area am:\ IlVCIIIF fault
    disrlacenMat). The """, ... d mapritnde scale. tbeJ:efole. does not saturate with tI=
    size of the earthquake. and also has the ability of di...rtngnjsbjng between a la!ge and a
    great I:IIIthquake; For ex", q.m, the snrfioce wave magnitude far both 1906 San
    Francisco earthquake am:\ 1960 Chile euthquakes was estimated as 8.3. although the
    wptwc 8ICIIS of tile 1960 ~ was about 3S times greater than tbc 1906
    eartIIquake. The Ii"nelll_magnitude for the two earthquakes has been c:omputed to
    be appwximately 8.0 am:\ 9.5.ltspccdvely (Reiter. 1990).
    AD approxjmate ICIatioD between the wrlous magnitude scaJes is shown jn Figure
    3.1 jn Chapter 3. According to tbis figure. except for Ms. an other magnitude scaJes
    lie sjmjlar to Mw up to the point they SIBIl to satmatc.
    Another des 'iptor about tile size of an earthquake is the bttensity at a given site.
    The intensity at any Jocation is desnjfxyl by a quafttarive scale that uses eyewitDess
    ICCOWItS of fau1t motion 8Dd d!i1!!8p assessn....".s to describe: the amount of
    DJDVeIXIeJIl felt at that IocatimL ODe coDiLllDilly used scale is the Modifi:d Mercalli
    Intensity (MMI). As shown jn Table 3.1 jn CJapte:r 3. the MMI scale CODSists of 12
    different intensity levels. Whereas i
    Ul
    Nl5ilY I 1D"8"' tile earthquake is practically not
    felt. intensity XII bldicates aJmost total destruction. InteIISity XII is rarely achieved
    except for very large fIIIItbquabs. IIItfIIISity X can be achieved jn morJente to la!ge
    earthquakes, especially in areas close to tI= IUptJJre ZOIIe. Engiremd structures can
    be damapi in 8ICIIS expericmciDg imensbies in about tbc vm to X range.
    3.A-4
    3.A.4 MEASURES OF GROUND SHAKING FOR USE IN DESIGN AND
    EVALUATION
    Earthquake magniT!1de is of limjted significance in engineering design A much
    more important pamnercr for engin ... riDg evaluation and desjgn is the level of strong
    motion expected at a given site. StrOng ground motion can be measured in tenDs of
    ground accekration, velocity and cfispJacement GeneIally, ground acceleration is
    n.cotdcc! for the duration ofdle eartbquake by instruments known as accelerometers.
    Traces of acceleration versas time are known as accelerograms or acceleration time
    idstories. Two orthogcmal hoIimntBJ and one vertical componem of ground
    accek::ration are usuaD.y lecmdcc! in an earthquake. 'Ibe three components of
    recotded motion provide a complete cbamct.....m.tion of translational ground shaking
    to wbich any SUI1CtIJre is su'bjecled and provide usemI infon:nation. in temIS of levels
    of ground acceleration, frequency conteDt and dwation of sn:ong shaking which can
    be tltI1ized for engineering design pmposes.
    St:ructatcs respoud cljfFetCi!!ly to dHrctent ac=mgrams. This is due to
    diffenmces in :Ii'equcDcy colltilWt. 8!TIJ'
    Htn
    de and duration of each acceleration record.
    No two recorded ac=lerograms from an earthquake are exactly the SBJIIe. This is
    because the seismic waves gencmted from the ea:rthq1lakc SCl1JR:e are reflected,
    refracted and absorbed as tbr:y traverse dHrctent IaycIs of rock and soil before they
    are recorded by the rec:cmiDg station arrelerometem. Some of the important
    parBlieters defirring an acccIc:rogmm are the peak value of the acceleration or peale
    ground acc:eJcratioD (pGA), the frequency content. represented rougbiy by the
    mwbe:r of zero crossjngs pe!l'second in the arremgram, and the duration of strong
    motion. defined as the length of time between the first and the last peaks exceeding a
    given threshold level. Other definitions for duration of strong shaking, based on
    cneIBY content of motions am also used.
    A more usefi:al measure of the intensity of a given motion can be obtained by
    computing its response specIIUm. Response specitum of a particular ground motion
    is defined as a plot of ma' hUliill response versus period of vibration of a single degree
    offreedom damped oSCtl1atnrof a fixed damping zatio.
    Peak ground acceleratitm, an important parameter describing the strength of
    shaking, may not be the most representative of engineeting This is
    because there may be isoJded peaks of high frequezzcy ground motion haYing little
    significance for most enginc:oed structures. In ATe 3-06 (ATe. 1978), the concept
    of e.ffec:tive peak arreJenum (EPA) and effi:ctive peak vcloc:ity (EPV) was
    introduced as a means to define a parameter with the units of accelcIation that was
    more descriptive of the potential damaging intensity of the ground motion. As
    defined in ATe 3-06, "EPA and EPV are considered as nomudizing factors for
    C01UtTIlClion of smoothed elasric TeSpmue spectrll for ground motions of normal
    dImuion. The EPA is propDl'tionlll to spectnJl ordinatesfor periods in the range of
    0.1 to 0.5 seconds, whereas the EPV is prtJpOrtiImal to spectrlll ordinates at tl period
    3.A-S

    t1/ about 1 set:tmd (McGuiTe, 1975). The constImt of proportiontllity (for a 5 percent
    damping spectrum) is set III a 8IIIndDrd value t1/ 2.5 in both cases. It EPA is also
    used in the USC as a basis far defuring the "Z' factor for different seismic.umes.
    3.A.5 FACfORS AFFECrING GROUND MOTION
    The size of the earthquake by the magnjtude is related to the amount
    of eneJgy roJeased Larp:r magnitude earthquakes usually produce higher levels of
    ground shaking at a pven Jnc:atiop However tbis trend is not always true. Levels of
    ground motion at a parlicuJar site depend on several other faclors such as distance
    from the source. type of fauJring, local soil conditions and other secondaJy effix:ts
    which are not totally npderstood. Typically. ground. shaking intensity attenuates. or
    decays, with diuanrc from die sowce. The source distance can gcJIClIlly be defined
    as the closest djstanrc from the site to the sels""genic %ODe (or the %ODe of e=tgy
    release). High JcveJs of acceleration. displacemellt and velocity pulses are usually
    recorded in close ploximily to acIive sources. Such erects are termed as near-field
    effects. Consid=ation to sm:h efDorts should be giwn for locations close to an active
    seisnric soun:e.
    The level of ground sbaking js also significantly afi'ected by local soD conditions at the
    location where the gxwad motioDs are be.iag n:corded. Soft soD sites amplify ground
    motion, esp"" ially in the loDg pmd rauge. Par eTampte. considerable amr1ification
    of ground DlDtions due to Jocal soD conditions occuned during the 1985 Mexico City
    and the 1989 lAma PrletaEarthquake.
    3.A.6 DFSIGN RESPONSE SPECTRA
    A response spect1um used far design and analysis of structures is known as a
    design response spectNW. and can be classified in two main categories. The first
    u,t1jZl'$ pIedetemziDed fixed specual shapes that can be scaled to appIopIiate levels
    based on specified design criteria The second employs the use of site-spet:ffic
    iDfoml81ian about the sejsmic:ity.of the region, local and regional geology. and soD
    conditions.
    3.A.6.1 Standard Respcmse Spednwa Shapes
    Fixed response specuum sb"lCS are sometimes used in lieu of site specific
    estimates of response specnum. Fixed response spectrum shapes are avaHable in
    various pubJjshed soma:s. Some of these sources are the USC. A.TC-14 (ATe.
    1987), NRC Regulatory GlIi.de 1.60 (U.s. Nuclear Regulatory Comiiiission, 1973).
    and the EERI monograph (Newmark and Hall, 1982).
    The response specuum shapes in the EERI DlDnograph were developed by
    statkrical analysis of zecontcd ground motions. Since there js a large variation in
    I
    3.A-6
    response specbum shapes from rCcorded ground motion, both median (50th
    pczcentile) and one standard deviation (84th percentile) shapes me presented.
    .
    Normalized spectnil sbapcs are obtained by COD4lLiting effective values of
    maximnm acccleration, velocity and displacement by scaHng the corresponding peak
    ground acceleration, velocity and displacem:nts by specaal amplification factors.
    Values of peak ground acccle:ration (a), velocity (v), qI displacements (d) can be
    e.stbmtt"'" from established ratios between aJv and aDrr. These ratios tend to be
    constaDt for sinn
    1
    u son c:oncflrions Response specbUDl for 84th perceP
    h1
    e value can
    be obtained by either using median eslj ... ares of peak ground acceleration to scale the
    84th percrmt11e spedXUm shape or by scaling median spectzal shape with 84th
    percen1 De esrimates ofpeak giuuud accelcmtion. Use of 84th perce"tile estimates of
    PGA to scale 84th perceutUe spectLal shape js not l'COiI!i"Cndcd as it leads to
    excessive amount of COUSeJ wtisw. Median values of 1espoDSC spectxam from the
    EERI monograph fomr. a basis for the spearum shap'$ provided inATC-14.
    The response spectrum shape givmI. in the UBC was obtained as a smoothed
    average of 11OT1!!!!ljy:d 5-PCXcem.d
    alh
    led response spectLa of actual ground motion
    teCOIds grouped by snbwn rue son c:onditions at the location of the recording
    instruments (SEAoc. 1990 and Seed and Idriss, 1982),
    AD apploptiately selected response Spectxwn shape corresponding to the local son
    c:muiitions can be scaled on the basis of PGA or EPA oMaiued through procedures
    defined in this s=tiOD. Par sites in close proximity to an active fault., considerations
    to possible JICIIr' field cff"'dS sJumld be giv&m.
    Two ctisrinc:t approacbes are gene:rally used for si1e-specl1jc estjwares for
    A_I __ .... fo cd . the d . --"-
    ,..... .. tdWlt'Aol5 wmnc nestgn ex liN. r CDgme:crr prDjCCtS:etcmttntSUC
    and the prubaw1istic plbCC"".... Des liJ:ltiveli. the two procedures would at first
    appear to be quite diff'e1eut with a detC!jjjhdslic approach ofl'eriDg the advantage of
    appe:axing easiest to Plupedy applied. either p.rucedure can lead to
    '-" .>
    SattSJlctmy smsmtc gmgn
    In areas oflow seismic hazard. the ar'lditiona
    l
    design 8IId. material costS that CDSUC
    when unsure but consenative decisions are made may not be excessive. When the
    seismic exposwe is high, the cost associated with aMitionai coDSCt'V81ism can
    incJcase significantly. This increase needs to be balanced with the Ijkelilwod that the
    damaging event may or may not occur. during the life of the stntctare. Large
    damaging. earthquakes are iufiequent events that may simnhanenusly affect a large
    number of structures. The cxrent of damage during an earthquake can be related to
    the level of motions gem::ratold by the earthquake. The level of earthquake motion
    against which design Or evaluation cdtei:ia should be developed requires subjective
    judgment based on c1! .... j,.",,= and observatiolL P.robabt'Jistic methods were
    3.A-7
    developed as a result of a desiJ:e to quamify some of this judgment understanding and
    to allow use in a n:pc!!!ab!e way by otherpmctitioners.
    In the foD.owiDg 51!! rimlS. both the deterministic and probabilistic Seismic hazard
    approaches ate djsf!1"sed
    In a dele" uju\stic apptoacb" gRI1IDd motious at a site me eslima
    ted
    by c:onsideriDg
    a smp eWIIlt of a ape' iIjrri magnimde SlId distance from die site. In order to
    peIfmm a ME' mhdsri.: aaal)'sis. thefollowiDg data me xequited.:
    L J)e6ujljon of aD ea""'J"an somce (e.g .. a known geologic fault) and its
    location relatiw to the site
    b. DefinitiOD of a design earthquake that the source is capable of pmdtteing
    c. A mJatiODship wIIich des ,DQ the attcmnmion of die ,pouml motion
    paahllctel of iDtmcst, e.g., peak ,po1Uid acce1cratioD or re8pODSe specual
    onfinares for a SJi6 ifie IIIdmIl period or fl'equcnc:y of vibmticm.
    All earthquake sowce ill III)St cases is a known active or potrmrially active
    geologic fault. A site may havI: sevwal faults in close proximity to it. All of these
    sources JDDSt be id ..... j6td. Based on the length and c:barac'eJislic!!i of die fault, a
    madllll1m magnitude potcmial of each source is spcc:ified B.c!;'II8tjnD of maximum
    magnmuf" potrmriaJ of geologic sowces can be obtajned from publisbed sources or
    qualified pmfessiODllls The PM' jlliliM magJritnde potentW of a source is determined
    from Chlj';I;':'" m1arionsbips bc:tw ...... magmtude and ruptwe leagth or through
    hl.ctorica1 knowledge of past eartIIquakes on the particular source. GeDeraUy, the
    earthquake conesponding to the maaihlhw magmtude is xefenec1 to as die MIu jmum
    Cxec1ible :Earthquake (MCB). wIdch repi S hiS the ma';hllUn eartbqnake poteDtial of
    a source. MCE is es1jhiatM 'by geologists based on die c:haractw:istic of the source
    SlId Dctoxs such as blstnl leal activity aDd source din ,,"Sious. Sewml mIatioDships
    exist dJat relate source CJj,,'lIIsjhDS to its rna ';lIillrn magJritnde patrmria1 This
    iIIfoxmaliOD is thc1I used as iDput to aD aummation relationship. which mares die
    ground motion paaametw ofiatuest to magirlmde and distance.
    AUenn!l!im! of pound motion is kDown to vary significantly during 'auy
    earthquake. While die 'ValialjMl is widely kDown, the qWMffication of the R!ISOUS for
    the wrlation me not filIly m!lfeurood. Eumples of possible causes may be difi'eJCDt
    rupture mechanismsjn the q,i#jihal an:&, dizcctionality of the mdiatjon pattern of the
    motion and regional geological \i81 jatious. Research usiDg statistical aualysis of large
    ground motioD data seiS have shown that the scatter of ground motion values about a
    mean arumuatiOD relationsbip can be ieptescm-d by a log-normal distribution.
    Attenuation re1atirmsbips me Mildl ica1 relationships deYeJ.oped by using regressjnn
    3.A-8
    amdysis tec!miques on ground ID3tion data recorded during earthquakes. Several
    different attenuation relationships are available in pubHSbed sources, ami are a
    function of earthquake magnitude, its distaricc. local geology a.nd tectonic
    cnviroDlD:Dt (subduction zones of Pacific Northwest. Eastcm U.s. and Western
    U.s.). Joyner and Boorc (198B) $Iliiillladza some of these rclatioDSbips. Some of
    the other well known relaticmsbips are Boore et aL (1993), CampbeD and Bozorgnia
    (1994), aud Crouse am1 McGuize (1994) (for Western U.s.), AtIdnson and Boore
    (1995) and Boore and Joyner (1991) (for EaSTf!T'!1 U.s.), and Crouse (1991) (for
    subduction zones). .
    Siace attm.atjon relatioDsbips are cmpiIk:al relationships derived using statistical
    IIDalysis tec!miques on rec:ozded data, they do not fit each &lid every data point
    exactly. The actaal ICCOIikd data spreads around the median attem.won
    relaticms!rip , This spread js de6""d by the standard deviation. The atreDuation
    equation with no staDdaId deviation means that 50% of the recorded values are above
    and 50% are below the ptedicled value. An pttemJatiml IC!ationship with one
    standard deviation means that 84% of the recorded values are below the predicted
    values, siIm1"Tly attrmnarion relaIioDShip with two standard deviatioDs imply that 98%
    of the recmded data are below the predicted value.
    The definition of CIIItbquab magnitude and source-to-site distan.,. sometimes
    VBIy from ODe attrmnariou rel!!!ionship to aDOther. It js important that the magnitude
    scale and sour=-to-site rJjsI,,@ used in til: 8IllII,sis should be ccm.nstcmt with the
    ptoper definjtiou for the panicuJar attenuation relationship usccl. If the site has
    seveml sources in close ptCl8il!!iry, an envelope of values of response spcctIa
    developed for each sourc:e can be used.
    ProbahDlstlc SeJsmic HazanlA.aaIysIs
    Pmbabilistic seiSmic: hazard analyses (PSHA) require additional seismic criteria
    beyond the selected magnimt!e, mjnjmum distance and the attenuation equations used
    for til: dctcnninistic place .. !"". defined in til: previons sectioD. The prlmaty
    additional requirements are til: cHmc:n.nons of each source region and the means to
    interpret the probability of occuaence within each source.
    Pmbabilistic seismic hazard analysis proccdurcs were fiIst developed and used by
    Comell (1968) and <:omcD and V8IIiIIlII\':kc (1969) and tinthcI extended by Mcr.z and
    CorneD (1973) and Der lOuregbian aud ADg (1977). This =thad involves care1W
    consideration and iDtm:POlation of the geology, history, aud tectonics of the site
    region into a seismotcc:tonic source model A probabilistic seismic hazard study
    requires the acceptan= of sevaaI. assumptions regarding caIthquakes..
    The fixst step in PSHA ~ that the seismic history and geology are
    snfficiently well known to ptlwP. an cs.iuwte of the seismic activity of the region.
    This js defined as til: seismicity of the region. This infO! matiml js then used to
    3.A-9
    develop a seimric: source model Potential sources can be defined as either point
    sources. li= sources., or mea sources (Ocr Kiuregbian and Aug, 1977).
    ConsidcratioDs may be DtecW1 to account for the raudom occmrence .of smaI1 or
    moderale sized eartbquakes (backgnJlmd seismicity).
    The probabffity distribution of earthquakes to obtain the relative OCCUllencc
    bquency dJstribution between lmge and smaI1 eartbquakc:s is then obtained.
    EsOili.'i"ll of lCCUUeuce rate is a key para''''ler in PSHA procedures. Two
    app1'OIICb=s for est iiIW'iug the r=uneuce rate are geutrally used. ODe is based on the
    historical seismicity rcconis, ami the other is a geologic slip rate model. The former
    is based on the rec:cmL:d seismic: history of the region, whereas the latter uses
    10
    " . ".4:-.' 1" 1_",", .,,",-, data
    po gJC 'hU,'i.ia"M to strammte 8CC'lI"ILptiml usmg
    for a fault.
    Recaweuce nteS can be expxesse.i in the form of the fmmljar Richter's Jaw of
    maguitndes (Richter, 1958), expxessed as
    logN=a-bM
    (3.A.4)
    wI=re N is the number of cvenrs of magnitude M or greater for the time period under
    ccmsicl=:aticm, and aamlb are con!Sl!!ntS tbat depend on the seismicity of the region.
    Other lecaneuce models. such as the characIerisdc earthquake model (YoUDgS
    ami Coppcxsndtb, 1985). may also be used.
    For PSBA, the lIIi"jrlllnn value of S.O is usually CODSidcred for M, siacc
    earthquakes of sD:es less tban s.o are gcmerally not dllD!!!ging to cnginwed
    structun:s: Due to the buegzativt: DlItIIm of PSHA, iucludiug earthquakes of
    magnitude Jess tban S.O would lead to im:rease the ground molion hazard for the
    peak ground accelera1ionl!Dd. short periods of the response spedlmn for small return
    periods becanse of the reletiveiy high 1requency of occuaeuce of smaI1 earthquakes.
    which azc DOt Me' 5 BP' ill' d8'1"8ging to the sttuc:tmes.
    The PSHA procedures co.mbine the probability of OCCUlleuce of an earthquake,
    the probability of it being a sp=c ific:: size, and the attcnnation of its motion to the site,
    to obtain the probability of e' dm:e of a specitiro:! ground motion level.
    Combinariou of these .iDdividual probabt1iries for the ctifibtent source zones at each
    motion level of bttezat then proWdes the total annual probm1iries of exceedm:e.
    Ground motions com:spoDding to a particular probability level can tben be obtaiDed
    by interpolation. Figure 3.2 shows the ctifibtent elementS of a PSHA graphically.
    There are several computer plogtllDS available for PSHA.
    The choice of probability levels for ground motion usually depends upon the
    design criteria for each iDdividual project. and is esrabushed based on seven}
    . pl!f3iic:1m1 SIIC'h as level of risk and imporIm:e of the facility. Various probability
    3.A-I0
    . ~ , ....
    levels commonly used are 50% probability of e,xceedanoo in 50 years. 10% probability
    in 50 yeatS and 10% probability of eveerlanoo in 100 years. Assuming a Poissonian
    cIistribution, these prohahility levels correspond to aD cquivaIeDt return period of 72.
    475 and 950 year reblm periods, JCSpeCtively. or aDDua
    l
    excecriancc probahiliri
    es
    of
    0.014. 0.002 and 0.001. Tl= relation between retum period, T and prohahility of
    exceedance for a Poissonian distn"bution is given as:
    T= -t
    In(l-p)
    (3.A.5)
    where P is the probability of cxceedanoo in t years. In this equation. the
    probability of exceedanoo. P. is expressed as a dtrima
    l
    (e.g., 0.10 stands for 10%).
    A response specnwn developed from a PSHA is .efel1ed to as a UDifoJ:m hazard
    spectrum. since each ordinate bas the same associated probability of exc:eedanoo (a
    constant level of risk). Since the response specnwn from a PSHA analysis is
    calculated by a S111D of individual probabilities of OC:C:OIi enoo of sevezal earthquakes of
    cliffe:tCDt magnitudes and cfistances within the entire amL of stndy. it CaDDOt be related
    to an earthquake of spec iAed magnitude and distance from til: source.
    Tl= level of ground motion corresponding to a 109'D probability of excecdance in
    50 yeatS is the basis of design for the UBC and is also "Ifcued to as the maximum
    probable ground motion in the T'1tle 24. Pait 2. of the CaJifomia BujJding Code
    (1991).
    Uncertainty associared with the selection of input parameterS JDIlSt be incblded in
    a PSHA. UDCCItainty could be in the defiuition of magmtnde-itiCUllCDce relationship.
    or in the definitiou of slip rates, or the maximum magnitude poteutia
    l
    , or geographical
    location of a source. Furthennore. there is also unceuamy in defining the ground
    motions. The uncertaioty distribution on the attenuation model indicates that no
    matter how accurately we know the magn;mde and dista
    n
    ..,.. of a postUlated
    earthquake, there wDl still be some uucenainty in predicting wbat the ground motion
    wDl be (Reiter. 1990). The uncertainty associated with an attenDation rclationship
    (standard deviation) is incOIporated in the seis ... ;': hazard during the integration
    process for the calt:nJation of the probability of occuuence of a specified ground
    motion level.
    Sometimes there is a tendc:ncy to make conservatiw eS'illi8TM of input
    p8l'lllDetCiS to be used as an input to a PSBA. This is not consistent with the
    philosophy ofPSBA. Input pammeters should be selected on "best estimate" values.
    3.A-ll
    3.A.7 VERTICAL MOTIONS
    Few auemtatiOD relatioDSbips are available for vertical groUDd motions whicb can
    be used to c1eve1oped vatical gromu:l response spewa. In practice. vertical groUDd
    motioDS are usually obtaim:d by 8ppIOptiately scaling the horizontal groUDd response
    specuum. T)'ph:aDy. a factor of 213 is used as the ratio between vertical and
    horizontal groUJld motions. Gmmu:l motiDDS recorded during earthquakes show that
    for sites in the uear-1idd, this ratio may be DIIlCh higher than 213 in the high frequency
    range and lower than 213 in the loDg period (low frequency) range (Egan et. al.. 1994,
    Nisar and OoJesorkbj, 1994).
    3.A.8 EARTHQUAKE TIME BISTORIFS
    If Dr rded, it may SOli e
    l
    jmes by better to use a set of acceleration time histori=s
    whose aw:msc elastic response speena is sjrnijar to the design spectrum. T'JJ:De
    histories are usually used for mm-lim:ar analysis or for ;malysis of stmc:tures of spcc:ia1
    impottaw:e. WheaeYeru.sed, the use of a single time bistmy is not reco
    l
    llil lenderL
    ,.
    Acceb atioD time his1oria; to iepx nat site-spet Ific design ground motioDS are
    usually deveJopecl by taJdng ItiC01ded aa:cJeratioD time histories during past
    em:thquakes and 8pploptiate1y s .... t;ng to represent the design ground motions. In the
    seledioD of time bWtmies for use in design. c:onsideration should be given to the
    dmaticm, scnm:e-to-site djsran=. loc:al soil c:cmcfttious, and type of faulting
    Sewral methods of seating the acceJention time histmies are used, such as
    sca!ing on the basis of PGA or by obtaining a scale factor by a comparison of the
    iCSpOnse time.bisloJywith the design iCSpODSC spectiwuin the period
    range of interest. Site-spc.!fir: acceJeration time histories can be developed by sming
    the time bisior)' in the 1i:I:quency cJomajn, whereby the Folllier a:mplitlJdes are s .... !M
    such that the iespoDSC spec:tNii1 of the scaled,. time history JT!lI!cbes the design
    icsponse spec:ttwn.
    Artificial time histories usiDS involwd matbCTTllltica) models are SOJl'I!"fimes also
    developed. It is generally rec:t'mmended to use recorded ground motioDS when
    available The use of artificial tim: histories may sometiws become necessary when
    DO data on recorded motions is avaDable If used, it is hupottaDt to ensw:e that these
    time histories bave realistic ampljtude and phase rela!:icmsbips and that their response
    speclXa is similar to the design response spec:rzum.
    3.A-12
    APPENDIX 3.B
    EARTBQUAKERELATED COASTAL INUNDATION
    3.B-I
    APPENDIX 3.B
    EARTHQUAKE RELATED COASTAL INUNDATION
    3.B.l INTRODUCTION
    Section 3.4 descrlhes briefly the phenomena associated with tstmamis and seiches.
    This appendix cfu;cusses in more detail several issues associated with earthquake
    induced coastal jmmdarion.
    3.B.2 EARTHQUAKE INDUCED COASTAL INUNDATION HAZARDS
    A given site in a coastal area may be affected by one or more of the foD.owing
    earthquake mlated jnundation hazards:
    a. CotISIIJ1 Subsfdmce c:an
    sed
    by tectonic (faulting) or non-tectonic (e.g.,
    subcllarinc landslide) effects..
    b. T.wmarnis from either .Iazge (Mw>6.5) local earthquakes or distant great
    CMv/>7.7) earthquakes.
    Co Seiches in semi-enclosed ~ estuaries, lakes or reservoirs canp:d by
    mudeJate (Mw>S.O) local (submarine) earthquakes or regional large
    earthquakes.
    Each of these hazaIds is cJescr'bed in detail below.
    3.B.2.1 CoastA] SnhsIdeace
    In areas of dlp-sJip fanlting (nomml, tID:ust, or oblique-slip faulting) which involve a
    vertical component of mo'Ve
    ii
    eur. co-se.ismic subsidence along coastal faults could
    result in p::tiil8"C
    D
    ' submergence of the coastal area. Based on worldwide
    experiences such as the 1964 Alaska (Mw=8.4) and the 1992 Cape Mendocino,
    California (Mw=:7.2) eartl!quabs. r=oDic subsidence of more than 6 feet (2 ueters)
    could occur. FQrtt.eWHIJ:e, earthquaIrcs on blind faults. such as the 1994 Northridge
    Califomia (Mw=6.7) earthquake, may create significant surface uplift or subsidence
    without attendant smface fault ruplwe.
    Permanent coastal subsidence may also occur as a result of earthquake-induced
    seafloor slumping or landslides DmiDg the 1964 Alaska earthquake. the Seward pen
    area, which included petrochcmiM'l factliries . progressively slid under the bay as
    shaking continm:d This snhsjdenre was foD.owed by withdrawal. of the sea and
    subsequent jrnmdaUon of the coast by a wa'Ye 30 feet high. In adcfitioll to this slide
    induced wave, tsmmmi waves some 30-40 feet high. generated by the tectonic
    defonnation. arrived 1ater and compounded the destruction of Seward. Similar
    cffi:cts on a lesser scale were cxperimu:ed at Moss I anding on Monterey Bay during
    3.B-2
    the 1989 Loma Prieta, California (Mw=7.1) earthquake even though the epicenter
    was located onshore in the SaDta Cmz Mountains, At Moss T anding, subsidence and
    related liquefaction created large :fissures, generated a small tsunami in Monterey
    Bay, and caused substantial damage to the Moss T aneting Marine FSCl
    1iri
    es, Thus,
    sites located where landslides or ,mstab!e slopes are COl I" I wm. both on land and
    oftSbme, should assume that SIJ1!!11lJI illc sIumpiDg and coastal jmmdation could occur
    during large eanhquakes in the region.
    For cfisaster planning and emergCJlC)' response purposes. signffiQlnt coastal
    suhsjdeuce followed by tSlmamj nm-up should be considered likely to exceed run-up
    predicted based on ptHUbsideuce topography aIoDe. Combined su},sideucc and
    "II! Ill"'; effects _ cOllSidered the likely cause of the destruction to the city of Port
    Royal on the Island of J!!J!l!!ma in 1692. and may occur in many seismically active
    axaas 'of the world. TJms. maps of potential jmmdatjon should consider these
    combined effects where coasml subsidcmce may be expected.
    3.B.2.2 Tsgnami (Seismic Sea Wave)
    Tsgnamjs _ long pmiocl (T from S to 60 minutes) surface gravity waves, with
    wavelengths that may exceed 60 miles (IOO km). TSlmamjs _ typically gcueratecl by
    large SIlIlIiIWI ille earthquakes that displace the seafloor owr large areas. The
    cIestnlctNe efh:ts of tgunamj waves may be loc:aHzeod, occzm:ing along the coasts
    sitnatcd close to the tsunami origin, or the waves may travel with little attenuation
    across entire oceans and affect coasts tht>uS!Uuk of miles away.
    Earthquake induced seafloor displaC1'''''''' may occur with or without seafloor fault
    xuptuxt (as on a blind fault). and could geuet<W a porentiaDy desttuctivc tsunami
    Bven stxike-sJip faults, although less Jikely to geDCiilltl: significant vertical seafloor
    displaCemml than dip-slip faults, may cause S1dmamiaJ seafloor uplift or subsidence
    in pJa=s where these fauhs bend and curve. Fuxtbermore. Jaxge earthquakes centered
    on faults near tbe coast but on land (e.g., tbi 1992 Cape Mendocino, Califomia
    eaxthquake), may also cause local tarnamjs because of the broad regional tectonic
    uplift (or subsideuce) they c:rcatc.
    In addiriM to plhlllIly tectoDic clefonnation associated with the eaxthquake. large-
    scale $hmqdug or Jandsljdes UDder the ocean or other laxge water bodies may
    generate signffiQlnt local tsumunjs A laxge rock slide in lltuya Bay, Alaska,
    txiggeled by an earthquake in 1957 geJiClated a tmnamj that surged 1700 meters up
    the side of the fjord. VolcaDic cxplosiollS, such as that of Krakatoa in 1883, may also
    gcuctate destructive tS1mamjs that jnnmtatc suxroUllding coasts Coastal areas in
    activc tectoDic regions are more likely to be susc:eptible to tS1mamj attack. Howewr,
    laxge tsunamis may travel across entiIe ocean basins and affect axaas with Jittle or no
    loc:al tectoDic: activity.
    3.B-3

    AroUlld the Pacific Ocean basiD, often tefmcd to as the "Ring-of-Fite", most of the
    world's gmat eartbqwtkes. volcaDic eraptions, ami destructive tsunamis occur.
    Eanbquakes in this reJion bave large dip-slip (vertical) movenenrs whic.h dJsplace the
    seafloor mpidly, inillal iug tile sea smface disturbance that becomes a tSUl!8Dlj Places
    such as JapaD, AJaska, Hawaii, and wCSUlIn South America me particuIar1y wluerable
    to these tsunamis, both became they have many large earthquakes (ami volcanoes)
    locally sjn'ataI, ami because the.ir geographic position ami coastal COlIiiguration
    expose them to distantly generated tSlllla"'is In the contiguous U.s., recent evidence
    unc:over=cl aloag tile coasts of Washington, Oregon, ami notthcm Califomia show
    that large local tSIII!8iujs have been geuerated by great earthquakes .in tile Cascadia
    snbdnctioD ZOIIC. The AtJantfe coast bas also suffeacd destructive tslJDamis such as
    tile one gwe.cated by the great I isbon eatthquake in 1755, but such eveJItS me rare
    and geue:mJly Jess sevme on tile U.s. side of the Atlantic Ocean. Wheleas the Gulf of
    Mexico bas heeD relatively ti:= of desauctive Is""allli&, in the Caribbean, active
    tmonics aloag the Puerto Rico bench and Antilles an:: have generated notable
    tSl1!18!!!js Acdve totmrism with la:rge eartbquakes. volcanoes, ami tsunamis, also
    occm:s around the Imijan Ocean.
    Propagatima oflS"Mmis oftauesults in dispetsiOD. of the hdtia1 tsunami wave fomlSo
    that several sia"lIt aiU WavtlS nay strike the coast. The first wave to anive may be
    smaRt" than SldJsettueat waves, and pe.rsuDS in affected areas must realize that a
    drawdown foDowiDg ODe wave may be soon followed by larger, mote destructive.
    wave mivaJs. The run-up speed of such waves (10-20 miser or 20-40 miles per
    hour), would outrnn even the futrst lllliiil'" nmners. In bays or other panially
    enclosed basins, ISll!Ia"'!s may also set up a seiche (sec below) which can amplify
    wave bI:ighl ami prolcmg the tstlild"'i duration. For example. following the 1964
    Alaska (Ms=8.4) earthquake. tile tsunami recorded at SaDta MoDica, Califomia,
    JD'8SDrII:d up to 2 meters (6.5 feet) Idgh and oscjl1arions ofbalfthis amoU11t were still
    0 ...... ;"1 17-19 hours after tile aaiva1 of tile first wave. Consequently, cIesbuctive
    waves from ,Sli"am! nay p::zsisl for a Jong time. and vulnerable areas should remain
    evacuaIed mun an "All Clear" """S8F bas been broadcast by autbmiries.
    3B%3 Sefche
    A seiche OCt ina when resonant WIl1I: osciDatilJDS fimn in an enclosed or semi-
    enclosed body of water such as a Jab. hay, or fjord. Seiches may be triggered by
    JDDdcrate or larger local snJn"8';Ue C8ltbIptakes, and sometbra by large, distlnc,
    earthquakes. TectoDic deformatiml of Hebp Lake daring the 1959 earthquake
    iJririatcri seiche ".".,1Iatjous of up to 8 feet ovm- the new lake level (which chaDged as
    a zesuJt of the defonuation). Such oscmarions have also been triggered by
    JD'rteorOlogical distmhavces For C*8
    ii1
    I'Je, the passage of a storm front across Lake
    Mic:bjgau tends to pjIe water on tile eastern shOIe as tile 1i:oDt advances AfJ.er the
    fi:oDt passes, tile water flows back wescward, setting up tile seiche. The inidal storm
    wave seII1p is sinP1ar to storm surges observed aloag coasts affected by hu:rlcanes
    and other tropical stcmns, but tile seiche results :from the monant OSC'l1!1t;n';" of the
    3.B-4
    wave due to the enclosed character of the water bocly. Seiche oscmations may persist
    for several hams.
    3JL3 ASSFSSJNG SITE VULNERABlLITY
    Coastal sites in active tectoDic areas \\"hm dip-slip faulting is COADWn are most
    susceptible to earthquake-jnduced iDiliii1arion Examination of tbe regioDal fault
    cbaracterisrics and earthquake lIistory. wJrh emphasis OD submarine earthquakes and
    possible bistorical tsunamis, provides the best mcaSJve of site wlnerability. Estimates
    of Tnaljiil"m tsunami nm-up may be based OD either historical occummces or
    theoretical modeling The Federal Imutance AdministraiioD developed ftmndatioD
    maps to assist in setting rates for the National Flood Insurance Program (Flood
    Insw:auce Rate Maps-PIRM). TmmdatjrmlewJs OD these maps gcmezally consist of
    tbe higher of eitber xivedxw tlood, coastal stDmI. surge. or tsunami jmmdation levels.
    The FIRM maps show coastal nm-up eIevatiODs for 100 and 500 year events based
    UPOD theoretical tsunami modeling for the Pacific Coast of the U.s. (HoustOD and
    Garc3a. 1974). Some cities, pattic
    n
    1arly in Hawaii where tSJmam;s are zelatively
    icqueDt. have prepared local tsunami jmmdati0D maps. Th=se should be available
    from gOVCliiliGd ageucies Eastem U.s. cities (AtJantic and Gulf coasts) are II10le
    likely affected by hut:ricam: stDmI. surge jmmdarinu whereas Pacific Coast cities are
    affected by tsunmni Inland cities wouJd be afl'ccted by riverine tJooding. ahhough
    cities ad"J8CCDl to mgor Jakes. such as Oicago. would also be susceptible to seiche
    If a site lies below the ftmndatiOD eleya1i"DS, then it may be vuIaerabJ= to tJooding and
    related effects Lower elevations are also more vuJncrahle because dccpcr water
    lewis cauy pater hydrodynamic forces for impact and erosion of structID'eS and
    foundations. Table 3.B.l ontUnes tbe steps involved in 2'SC'Sing the potential for
    coastal innndation.
    3.B.4 mECl'S OF COASTAL lNDNDA110N
    A1ly of the three C!lDSCS ofcoasta! i"""jIa'ilill (coastal subsidence, tS'mjrnj, or seiche)
    results in essentially the sa:m: effect: low-lying coastal areas wm be covered with
    water. The greatest bazatd from coastal jmmdatioD results from the inflow and
    outflow of the sea during the jmmdatiou event. The strong cuneuts from this flow
    may erode folmdations of SU1lCtlm:s and sweep away sma11er ~ or
    equipment. Debris caz:ried by the warer will act as batte:riDg rams to pound other
    DIOlC solidly anchotcd structDres. People unsafeJy located in the low-lying areas may
    be swept out-to-sea and drow.ned, or koocked unconscious by the debris and
    drowned. Normal wave acticm wiD also be su}c!li"1:HJSCd OD the IS'''I8'";. adding
    dynamic forces capable of poundiog and destroying m:il strong structUlCS.
    Petrochemical fac:t'Jities would be espeda11y valnerable to rapbllC of storage tanks
    from debris impact and foundation erosion. possibly lCSUIting in Cltplosion and 1itc.
    The tsunami at Seward. Alaska foD.owiDg the 1964 catthquakc led to such destructiOD
    of the port fac:t1ities The succession ofwavcs sptcad the fitc fromraptDIcd oD tanks
    across and throughout the port area.
    3.B-S

    - .... ............
    .
    Outline for ADalysis of Coasra1 Innnrlafton Potamial
    1) Bvaluale tSllllami ami earthquake history
    2) Immcfatiml maps ptcpwedby SOW'iiliiMt agencies (e.g.. ARM maps. Houston ami
    Garcia)
    3) SeiSIIEld84 "I.dc smdy.C:11111 lei offaulting, location offaillringw.r.t. si1e

    4) Site tIJjXIgUiphy ami adjacr:Dt ."., ..... 1 bathymetry. harbor or embaymeDt COJIfigIIIation
    (leallill :es)
    (S) HyckadyDamicllllllyses,lODgpmiDd wave respcmse, tidallJ81Blllelels
    TSllIIlllllISeic}te THliii"Mfftft Bva,ll'lAticm Procedure
    A. Is 'SimE,ujlseicJJelimmdatjnn ponib1e (histoxy, seisl'K'tec'c"'ic smdy)
    1) J bf'dhite Review
    2) mlU .lieBl Res-.I:h
    3) Sdsa
    eim
    & h'hi'; AaalysIs
    4) Otnms ttphtdPala eissu;c S1udy
    S)
    CkIIUi. Imit:aJ S1Udy (I .JII..m.HMs. Slumps, Possible Grm ... al iug M-lIaui'''IlI)
    B.
    What is ".Ji"""" c:zedible am-up c1:vad.an for rezicm
    1) Tsnnanii itnmtfation maps 8VJI'ab1e'1'
    2)
    flood Tn""."", Rare Maps
    3)
    Historical ADalysIs
    4) TheoJelic"ll AIIIIlysis
    C. Is site II- lied witbin 1ow-1yiag cnastal mea (below maKiIlUU" possible nm-up elevation)
    D.
    Rn' a.ua1JSis eel evaluate ilseiche mot; IeIItial
    glDecllll, teqIbI- to lall1I8m:. UlUII_OD per--
    I!. Bngim t eiug 8D8Iysis iLiijUhed to idmdfy wIDeJable facility ce,nrt_.nC*i.'S
    P. Engine", in, BDllysinequhed to idtwtifylr=CIhi!id,d specJfic: mirigarions for'l'lJb=able
    faci1i1r coq* en"
    s
    1) SeawaJls or Barriers
    2) Facility Layout to Locare VIIiII=mb1e Cc.mpODUItS Above Il11III
    elati
    on Zone
    3) CicwN I'llical Studies to Id=D1ify Pmemial T'
    . .
    Hazards
    that might place facility at risk (Seward, Alaska ptQb1ems)
    4) FaciBty CoDsIJuc:IiOD with Rebd'wctd PouDdations 8IId WaDs Below ImmdatilJJl
    t.eIs to Resist Tail"".; Dan WI'
    S)
    Response PIcms-Tsnnanri WamiDg System; BvacuaDon to High Grtnmd; Safe
    Shurdown; Antm ill';': fite.PighriDg Bqai)'mrJlt? Life Saving (Flotation) Devices
    G. GovemIll='1t smr.Iies IvaiJablelJleeded for =sion?
    3.B-6
    Tmmami combjnM with seiche could result in an oSt:tllating water level causing
    several cycles of coastal jrnmiIatimL Periods of tmmdation could last for several
    hours. Wlth tectoDic subsidence of the coast (or from. a large submArine landslide),
    the jmmdarion may be pea "!!!'ent Major subsidence, ground defonoation, or seve:e
    erosion could "Me, ",ine bridge piers and fo1mdatjous, disrupting Jffi:Hnes such as
    highways, railroads, pipelines, and clectrical power ami CO .... !iiI'"i lines. Sucb
    damage could jsolate the an:a from. emergcm:y equipmeJ:It, supplies, and rescue.
    3.B.5 MlTIGATlON
    3.B.5.1 Shoreline Stnactares
    Throughout Japan, along tile coast wbc:re tJl
    mamj
    attack is common, sea waDs and
    otbe.r bauicls bave been CODStrUcted to Iesist tsunamj immih!!jou. These structures
    are somed"cs lJIISD("cessfhl, as large tsunamis often overtop the baniers and flood the
    pIOtccted area. geumatiug strong CWleuts which erode the baniers and other
    stmc:n:aes. In SOl1C iDsrpees, large wave dissipation structures bave been cauied
    lnmdrcds of metas inland by maJor ts
    n
    "a mis These structures could act as powerful
    battering rams against the very structures they were designed to pIOteCt. Even large
    stmm smf foN,-j,," thi:ows large boulders and rlp-rap inland C8"!sing damage to
    stmc:n:aes. Thmef01e, coastal pIOtective stmctllreS must be c:azefully cfesigncd to
    witbstand exlI ....... events.
    3.B.5.2 Tsmunni WandDg
    Tsunamis t1aVd&ClOSS the oceans at bighsp::ds ofmare than 60 miles per hour (100
    kmIhr), but generally requite several haars bet'ore reaciring dietent coasts. 'I'he1efore,
    tS11Jlami Warnings are possible and bavc been established tbiough the Pacific tS'mamj
    . ork. It' . . ."-' . .*'-* .t....__ . . .. elu-f'allo.-
    wannng netw JS liDpClatlYC UIAIo e"'2erS IAAG &..UI:2IiC warnmgs senOWiU,r-MU&W4W
    to heed the wamings by goibg to the beach to watch the jnc:cunjng waves may result
    in needless Joss..of-Jife. In southcm Califomia, -th:ie seems to be a serious lack of
    appleciatiIJn for the gxeat hazanI tbat tsnllamis pose. This pc,baps results from the
    absence of sign;"r:aD' tsjlji, .. "is striking the south=m CaJifomia coast in the recent
    past (ODe or two gemaathms). Southern Califonda beacbes, such as Santa Monica,
    are most wlDexable to distant tS'mamis atriviDg from the south or north. Such
    tsunamis would be gener.u= by large or great earthquakes along the South American
    or .Alaska and AJemUm coasts Other coastal areas would be wInerable to tsnnam;s
    flom sources located along direct patbs &ClOSS the ocean. For large, appromnarely
    linear, tsunami sources sucb as oceanic treacb. areas, direc:tional cff=s teDd to focus
    the tS'mamj energy along aD axis perpendicular to the linear source region. Sites in
    Hawaii are vuIn:rable to attack f10m tS11Jlamjs in many directions because of its
    centrallocatiOD in the Pacific Ocean.
    A
    .. f abo ""30' .. _.:-.I' .,
    Dilliiihurn 0 at mmnt
    cs
    tI:IDe IS to 1SSUC a tsunamI wammg
    tbiough the Pacific tsunami warning network. Locally generated tS'ma
    mis
    would
    3.B-7
    arrive too quicIdy. m less than 10-1S minutes. for adequate warning by officials.
    AIlhongh th= trdmolngy eDts to develop more rapid. regional tg
    manri
    wamiug
    networks, th= Ie1advely 1'III'e occ:utre1ICC of damaging local tgmamis ~ economic
    CODStraiDts have pm:lnded instaDerinD of such a system in most areas (such as the
    soutMm Ca1!tin "ia ana). In tbe absence of ofiicW waming systemS, persODS m low-
    lyiDg coastal mas wJnerable to tgilla",; immdarioD should seek shelter OD higber
    grouud imiiwfiately upon e'leciencing a strong earthquake m their Ina. Such
    jaunNijate re5pODSe bas been conditioned into the minds of 1apanese people wbetc
    tsll!!anl; OCCWlcwces arc relatively frequent. If DO tgnunnj wc= generated in the fiM
    hour foDowiDg the ew:at, 8IId no tswa
    m
    ; waming were jssucd based upon otber
    earthquake data, it sbonJd be safe to retam to the low-lyiDg area. If. however. a
    tsnnamj is geueliited. the fimt waw may mive 8IId withdraw cansjng little or DO
    datmp. 0DJy to be followed by Jarpr. posmty destructive waves. For areas tba1
    tend to have 1_ osc:iDaljm IS, significant wave activ.ity may petSist for several
    hours, or eveJllIIDSt of a day. People m these areas should wait for an an clear signal
    fromofficia111'1iF CsbefOrerehiii';ng
    3.B 53 Laall-Use PIaz .. dug ami IlIJIJ!datiOD Map
    Tbeoretical and Jahoratmy models have been used to es'irna'e likely jmmdatfnn lcveJs
    for 100 8Dd sao year :retDm periods along U.s. coasts affected by tSl
    mmri
    (FIRM
    Maps). The 100 aml sao year time iDtervals lep1eseut an es'iwatc:d average
    recuncnce :iuret tal; DB DIIJSt n:aJim that so-c:alled 100 year eVCDts may occur in
    shoItez time spaIIS. For c,.u'P'c both the 1960 Cbile IIIIIi 1964 Alaska eartbquab:s
    gcnerlltl:c1 tsuMmi waves equivaJ=t to a 100 year event along the soutbem Ca1ifomia
    coast. Til: nmup beight CS'!U@Ied in tbesc maps rcfezs to the land elcvadon (or
    ccmtour) tbat the iDaJid'ag tS'iUa'''; will n:acb. This tDDDp height includes the effects
    of the nDmIaI tidal zanp. but exclndes the possible sinmJtaneolJS oc:c::uuence of the
    tgmami with JUgb smf ADd stoIm wave setup. Amplification of nm-up by coastal
    topOgraphy may also occur, e5}'C' ially in D8DOW. V.sbaped, canyons.
    Sites located m wJacrable mas should plepa1'e for the possjbt1ity of tqmarnj
    jmmdatima, aml iwpoxtant stm:lIIreS should be designed to resist possible inundation
    cfi'eets. :Fac>1ities sfKmld be evalnated to identify wJDcrable components, and poSSIble
    mitigation stIII!efP=s ide
    ll
    'ifie4 Emergency or disaster Rspcmse plans should be
    plcpanid cohsjde' illg the vubrcrabiIity of the facility IIIIIi the possible efleets of
    tsunami attart Also, an lIttempt should be made to anticipate otherwise u .... xpected
    conscqucmces that may arise from the complex interaction between direct earthquake
    effects and subsequeDt fSUDami innndatjOD.
    3.B-8
    3.B.5.4 Public Awareness
    McCulloch (l98S) lists the fol1ow.iIJg individual actions which can help to save lives in
    the evem of a lSlrnamj
    L If you are OD low ground near the coast and a large earthquake occurs in
    your sea. move to bigh ground. There may be no time to either issue or
    receive an official waming.
    b. If you recopize a drawdown of the sea, move to high ground.
    Co The first tsuDami wave may not be the highest In major tsunamis, later
    waves c:ommonly have the highest rwmp heights.
    d. Periods between successive major waves may be shmlar, Thus.. yoU may
    have time betwecn waves to move to higher groUDd or to assist in rescue
    efforts.
    eo Do not assume that becanse the incoming tsunami wave is not breaking it
    will DOt be destructive. Till: foIccs ct'Majnr:d in this high-vclocity, often
    debrls-laden tormDt are extremely destructive during rwmp and runoff.
    f. Do not assn"," that areas behind beaches gencrally shielded from storm
    waves will be i"""'lIie from high I11DUp. Tsunami nmup heights have
    historically been higher in some such 8IC8.S along the Califomia coast.
    g. Do not go to the beach to watch a tS!rna
    mi
    comiDg in. Not ouly might
    you hamper rescue efforts, but you may also have taken your last
    sightseeing trip.
    3.B-9
    4.1 IN'I'KODUcnON
    Cbapter4
    SEISMIC ANALYSIS
    This c:haptcr desThes the overall methodology for petti,"";'" seismic analysis of
    peJrDChemj.:a] faci!ities in order to obtain seismiraDy induced loads. This is applicable
    to stnu:tmal systems or subsystems to be used either m DeW design or m evahlation of
    existing :lBr:jJitjes This chapter is organimJ m a i!ifili!jer such that the main contents
    are WIitten pliwarily for desjg" of new :fBct1ffi:s CcmsidctatioDs for the evahlation of
    . :lBW ed S . 46-
    exlSttDgCJJtiesares'"'U'i'Ii'Zm ecaon .
    The ovmall approach ontlined m this chapter is coDSiste1lt with cc.1JDWll practice
    in the petrocbemica1 jndl1stry at the time ofwritiDg of this doCIlJI!!"'t The committee
    surveyed the design sranc!ards of seven operators and an:bitect-enginecring firms and
    found that an of those standards speriflcaBy reference the 1994 UBC. As such, many
    spo jfic: equatioDS and nletenccs m this chapter are from the version of the UBC
    CWient at the time of wri1ing of this documcmt.
    The intent of this chapter is not to blstruct an enpeer on how to use the UBC or
    any other c:mnmoJlIy used buDding code. Rather,. it is to give guidance as to
    apploprlate application of typical b1
    IDdin
    g code provisioDS to the types of structures
    anc! equipment COJWWiIly found m petrochevri
    caJ
    :lBc:r1jtjes The reader should be
    aware that b
    m1
    djng code provisioDS are consrantly being revised and that major
    clnrages are cmrent1y being mcorporated mto many codes, such as changing from
    working stress to strength-based design sad changing the formulatjon of the basic
    base shear equations.
    Users of codes other tInm the UBC are encouraged to still read those sections of
    this Chapter that plimadly use UBC equations as a reference. such as the discussion
    on the base shear equation in Section 4.4.2. Much of the intent behind the guidance
    for application to petrochemical structures. such as iDtcrpretatioDS of appropriate
    response modification factors (R., in the UBC) will stiD be applicable to other codes.
    4-1
    Also. it should be noted that Spr&i1ic gtddance given in many cases differs
    signifit:antly from the CWieut UBC provisions. such as in the following areas:
    a. Response Mocfjficaticm FactoIS (R..) (Sections 4.4.2 and 4.6)
    b. Millh .... ", CJR.. zeqaheiileDtS (Secticm 4.4.2)
    c. Use of a site 5pC',j
    fi
    c value of the Seismic Zone Factor, Z. and response
    specna (Section 4.4.2)
    d. Accid .... tal tomion for mmbuilding stt'UCDln:S (Section 4.4.6)
    e. Rajuirene
    iliS
    for seating of resWts when pctfom:dug a dyuamic 8D8lysis
    (Section 4.5.6)
    AIlseimlc Jmilding codes CC>WIIH.nly used today emphasize building structures.
    and were developed with a PlbiWIY focus on methods ami earthquake expcrimIce
    from ImRer"" pctfoih."ce TlUs cbapter empbasizes applicatiOD to nt'nlmiWng-like
    stnlCtIlics, ami gives guid!!J!ce as to djstinc:riODS that are appxopdare when ushJg
    codes developed pxiwadly for bm
    1
    dings. Tbe appendices also give eDtrq:lJes of
    appIicatiOD to typical petroclml I ';"al instaJlatirrns. suc:b as vessels, elevated equipment,
    process c:oInmm;, p;pewa,s. etc. Mw:b of the gtridance in the appendkes. such as
    calculation of structural periods in Appendix 4.A is dm:c:tly applicable to users of any
    lwrilding code.
    In addiriOD, in Section 4.6 and several appcndkes. tbis cbapter discusses
    coDSidcratians for a.csessing ea JSI iug structures. (All bm1djng codes are pxhuatily
    focused OD design of DeW facw'JitiN). Appendices 4.0 ami 4.E provide allemate
    methods foi the evahwioD of the O\imtwaing poteDtial ami the potentia! for sliding
    commensurate with the ovmall pbRosophy for ~ evaluaticm of exisriDg structures.
    Appendix 4.F pxcseuts a gtridaDce doi:''''ent prepared by otbms, being used in many
    Ioca caHfi '. in It ., no i1" for' f
    noDS morma .0 assiSt ew latmg eDs"ngMJ!!es requne" elitS 0 a
    state-TlI!!T!dated regulatory progiam. TlUs dMumnt is j4tsented in its emhety in
    Appendix 4.F bec!!J!se it is in use 1mt is not published ami is not readily avaflab)e to
    immesttd engineem.
    Some of the material ptts-
    illM
    in tbis chapter. includjng appendices. was takeD
    from various companies (an:hilect-engineer. CODSUltant ami owner) cwxemly active in
    the penuche"'i. aI b .. IuSby. Apptopliale refexeDCCS are provided to guide the reader
    to the backgrouDd of the presented materiaL
    4-2
    4.2 STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS IN A PEtROCHEMICAL FACILITY
    4.2.1 General
    structures foumi in petiocimmjc:al. fac:t1ities fall into two main categories: buDding
    st:nlCtUres (Section 4.2.2) and nonbnUding structures (Section 4.2..3). Within
    nonbnjlding structures, two ate defined depending on strUctural
    cbaracteristics These arc building-like structures (SectioD 4.2..3.1) and nonbnUding-
    like structures (Sccdon 4.2.3.2). Combitmion structures arc also addressed in
    Section 4.2..3.2. In addition, certain equi}1I.en
    t
    and anchorage design requirements in
    a petrochemical facility faDs under the category of ftsubsystemft rather than structures.
    Subsystems ate discussed in Section 4.2.4. A brief d"'" 'iption of various strUctures
    typically foumi in petroche ... jc:al faclJities can be foUDd in Esfandjari and S" ...... e"
    (1994).
    4.2.2 BuDding Stnl.ctwes
    BuUrfmg structures typically found in peaoeh
    e
    "'i1:81 fac;ljties include
    admini.stradcm ImUdings, CODtiol 1:miJdings, substmous, warehouses. firehouses,
    maintenance bnt'Jdings. and compressor sbelten or buildings. They arc typically
    single story 1:mi1
    d
    ings, but may bave as many as two or thIee stories. Lateral force
    xcsisting systems (LFRSs) used include shear walls. bzaced .fnums. rigid frames, and
    mmbinmrms. The provisioDs of the code of record would apply in their entirety to
    design of these buDdings Certain buUdings in petrocbemical faCJ1jtjes may also be
    requhed to be designed for blast loading, which often couaols the design.
    4.2.3 NODbuDdiug Structures
    Otbcr than actnallmt1dings in a pelTOChemical facility, an structures arc typically
    classified as nonbnDding stmctnres. However, their strnctnral systems may resemble
    those of buildings, for example traDsverse momcm iiam:s for pipeways. Therefore.
    these structures arc classified as building-like strneturcs. Other structures, whose
    structural systems do not :resemble those of bnUdings. arc classified as nonbuilding-
    like structures. An e."ample is a taDk or a vessel Each of these sub-catcgories is
    defined in dclail below.
    4.2.:U BuDding-LIke Structures
    These arc structures such as pipcways. equipmeDt support frames and box-type
    heaters which bave LPRSs sinn
    1
    ar to those of building systems. such as braced
    frames, moment resisting frames or shear wan systemS. A flexible structure is
    typically defined as baving a natUral period of vibration (T) of 0.06 seconds or more,
    which is equivalent to a frequency of about 17 Hz or less. E"amp\es ofbnUding-like
    sttnctures found in petmcbemical facilities include:
    4-3
    a. Moment resisting frames (steel or concrete) or bnIced fr:amc:s (cross-braced or
    chevron-braced) supponing exchangers and horizontal vessels. Such
    stnlCt1I1'es can be up to fcmr or five levels high.
    b. Pipeways with LFRSs that are moment resisting frames (usually in the
    traDSVerSe direction to povide access beneath the pipcway) or braced frames
    (usually in the longitnrtina
    J
    din:ction).
    c. Rectangular furnaces
    4.2.3.2 NOIIIndIdbag-LIke Stnu:twes
    This category covers mBDJ structures and self supporting equipment items found
    in a typical petrochemicAl facility, such as vertical vessels. horizontal vessels and
    exchangers. stacks and towms. NODbuilding-Jike struetures t)'pically found in a
    petmc:hemical facili1y typically &ll into one offour categoIies desmlxd below:
    a. Rigid structures, i.e.. those whose f1mda
    n
    g
    lll
    al stmctmal period is Jess tban
    . 0.06 sec:cmds, such as a luil;4 >ntal vessel or exchanger, supported on short,
    stiff pic:Is.
    b. FJat-bottom taDks suppurte4 at or below grade. Such structures respond very
    diffeumtly (CC"'II,BRd til mplar structures) during an earthquake. Special
    issues for unanchored IDDks, such as the effects of fluid slosbing and tank:
    uplift must also be coDSideted. TaDks are desCI:ibcd in more detail in Chapter
    7.
    c. Other nonbuijding_Jike IIrUClUJ'eS. EnmpJes of this category of structures
    inclnde skirt-supponed iCltical vessels, sphcn:s on braced legs. horizontal
    vessels or exchangm on long piers. guye4 struc:tun:s., and cooling towers.
    d. Combination str'IlCtDrI:s. In petloc:bewical mr:t1iries, such structures generally
    support flrw"le JIOlJI;hjrr Imill eJements whose comhihilld weight exceeds
    allow: 25tH, of the weight of the structure. A typical example is a tall vertical
    vesse', fw:Dacc or tank supported above grade on a braced or moment
    resisting frame. The 8II8lysis method depends on whether the DODSttUctura1
    element is flexible or Dgid. and whether its weight exre-t1s or is Jess tban
    allow: 25tH, of the weight of the SUppoIting stracture. Refer to Appendix 4.B
    for a descdprion of rheseBDalysis methodologies.
    4.2.4 Subsysl .. ms
    In addition to various stlLu:biics described in the pit ceding sections. various
    equipment and components that are supported wirbiu a sttuctUre can be considered
    subsystems. The weight of subsystemS should only be a sman portion of the total
    weight of the supporting strueture (ie less than about 25%). Example of
    subsystems typically found in a petrocbemical facility include:
    a. Horizontal vessels and exchangers supported on a strueture. weighing less
    than about 25% of the weight of the supporting structure
    b. ElecIr:ical and mechanical equipment supported within a structure
    Co Cable tray. conduit, ductwork. and/or piping supported on a pipeway or within
    abuilding
    4.3 SEI.ECTlON OF ANALYSIS METHODS
    4.3.1 General
    When performing seismic ama1ysis of structures in petrocJwnical faC"1jties. two
    options me COl "monly used:
    a. Equivalent Static Analysis
    b. Dynamic Analysis
    For the great majority of cases, the equivaleIIt static analysis method is
    apptopxiate to lateral forces and their cfisttibution. However. unusual
    structures which haw signific:ant im:gaJarities in shape, mass or stiffness or me
    affected by interaction with other strI1Cblr'es may leqDi:te dynamic analysis. Further
    descriptions on types of i1:regnlarjrjt:s me given in Section 4.3.2 below, various
    buDding codes, and SEAOC (1990). If a dynamic aualysis is perfomd. but
    1d
    ing
    codes typically require that earthquake forces should also be calmtJatNl, or checked,
    by the equivalent static method. Section 4.s.6 provides pme discussion on the
    background and the ueed to perfonn static analysis in additiouto dynamic aualysis,
    when one chooses the dynamic ama1ysis option. Other options avaDable inch.de a
    . nonlinear static (pushover) analysis. This method is described inATC-33.03.
    4.3.2 EquivaleDt Static ADalysis
    This amIlysis option allows the 8D8lyst to deteuiline the seismic loads using static
    methods. BnjIding codes typically contain MStrictioDs on the use of equivaIcnt static
    8D8lyses for bt
    n1
    ding-JiIce SImCtU1eS, in particular when the structure bas a highly
    i1:regular shape, non-UDifonn mass, abmpt changes in Jatc:aI Fffihess, or exceeds
    c:ettain heights, Dynamic ama1ysis is usually required for dete .... iiling the distribution
    of lateral force for these situations. Ideally. mass distribution is uniform over the
    eDtire beigbt of a Sb'11Ctme. and the ceutloQs of mass and rigidity coincide at every
    level. This ideal condjriou rmely OCCDIS in petrochemical structures, but the
    distributions ue in general close enough so that the simpJffied code dismbtttion of
    4-S
    forces is justified 'IlIe engineer should investigate the issue carefully before
    CODclmiing that the equivalem Slatic method is apptopxiate.
    Tables 4.1 and 4.2 define structural irregularities t)'pica1 of petrochemical faC11itje!l
    along the structural height and in plan view, respectively.
    4.3.3 Dyuamic AaaIysis
    This analysis proccdDre may be used for an petrochemical facility structmes;
    however, it should be used spmffic:ally for irregular structures and for structures,
    regular or irregular, Jocatc:d on soft soil profiles, such as type 54 in the UBC, which
    have a period. greater thaD about 0.7 seconds. Various analysis optiOXlS, such as the
    xespouse specnlJm method, 1D'tb0d using modal supetposition or direct
    integration teehniques.. either lincBr or nonJinear, are avauable to the analyst. Section
    4.s describes the dynamic analysis option in D10IC derail.
    TABLE 4.1: Vertical Struc:tura1lrreguJarities
    (fmm UBCTable 16-L)
    A. Stiffiless lneguIarity - Soft Segment

    lass than about 70 pelwat m that m the segment il!!! II...tiare1y above.
    B. Wcigbt (mass) JneguJamy
    Mass iDegalaJity should be mnsjdered to exist where effective mass of any
    "'Fen' mtbD StlUCtUlti is _ than about 150 perceDl t:fft:ctive mass m
    acljacmtt SOS"E"ts.
    C. VenicaJ GeaIDllfl:fc 1mIgaJazily
    Venical !\I'",p1elric im:saJariry should be considen:d to exist where h ... i ... lltal
    cfuaeasian IaIeml fon:e resisting systtiIIl in any one seg ent m :.1liidWe is
    more than about 130 pen=pt mthat in an adja,....,t segmcmt
    D. lD-PlaDcDfscn.uju .. ;ry in Vea:icaJ I atem1 Fmce Resisting FJemc:nt
    An iD-p1aDe ofi'setmtbelatmalload lesisrjugeleaeh's glC:aterthan tbD k:agth mthose
    ele 'c"'S
    E. DiS! mnjlQrity in Capacity - Walt Segn .. m
    A weak segmtmt is one in wfrich strength of one segmeat SIr\1CtIIre is lass
    thaD abom 80 peIwat mthatoftbD segmeaJ above. The segmeat:.1leDgth is total
    mall seismic resisting elmnenrs sharing the segment shear direclian
    IIJIder ccmsidezation.
    TABLE 4.2: Plan Strac:tural Irregularities
    (from UBCTable 16-M)
    Irregularity 'I)pe and Defiullfon
    A. TorsioDa1 J n e ~
    TOJSicma1 iuegularity should be CODSiden!d to exist when the maximnm segment drift.
    at one mtd of the stntctun: aansverse to an axis is more than about 1.2 times the
    average of the segment dtifts of the two ends of the suucmrc.
    B. Rtenuant Comm
    Plan c:cmfigmations of a stIUI:IDre and its lateral force resisting system contain
    leentlant c:omers. wlulre both pxojCdions of the SIrUCt11m beyond a n:entlant comer
    a= gx== than about fifteen JICICCIlt of the plan cfimension of the stnlCtIDe in the
    given di=:tioD.
    C. Diapbxagm Discomiuaity
    ~ with abrupt dill> II "iQlriries or variaIions in :oriffi!"5S. including those
    bavmg catam or opeD amas parer than about fifty peiCCllt of tile glOSS enclosed a=a
    of tile diapbragm, or clxangcs in effective diaphragm 5
    1
    ;
    ml
    ess of more than about fifty
    percent from one segment 10 tile next.
    D. OUt-of-PIane Offsets
    Discontinuities in a lateral fDICe padi. such as out.of-plaJle otfsets of tile verdcal
    e]emCJlIS
    E. NonpnaDeI Sysrans
    The veni.cal lateral load resisting eleu !CIIIS a= IIOt pm1Ie1 to nor S.1iwllCtdc about the
    major onhogonaIaxcs of the Iatcxal force MSisting system.
    4.4 EQllIV ALENT SI'A'11C ANALYSIS PROCEDURE
    4A.l GeIleraJ
    The concept of the cquivalcnt static aualysis proc:edure is to calculate the effec:tive
    earthquake loads in tetms of a base sbI::ar which is depcDdcnt on the mass of the
    structure, the imposed ground acceIeratioD, the dynawh: c:baracterlstic of the
    structure. the iDherem dUCtIlity of the structure, and the importance of the struc:ture.
    The base .shear is then applied to the structure as an equivalcDt lateral load. This
    chapter also discusses how this lateral load should be disl I BJUted in plan and vertically
    along the height of the strucll1re. Om:e this load is determined and distributed at
    various clevatioDs of the structures. conventional static analysis techniques may be
    used to determine the seismic load in each sttuctura1 member and at CODjlcetions.
    4-7
    4A.2 Determination of Base Shear
    The toW horizontal base shear (V) for a regular flexible blinding-like structure in
    any of the two orthogcmal JmjmntaJ di:rcctinDS can be determined from a fornntlation
    similar to Equation 4.1 bdow. which is Equation (28-1) in the UBC.
    where:
    v = 7J.CWI&"
    v = Base shear
    Z = Seismic zone f8clor gMu in UBCTable 16-1
    1 =-lmpoImn.:e factor given in Table 4.3
    (4.1)
    R.. = Resp .. nsc: factor given in UBC Table 16-N for lmildings
    ami Table 4..4 of this dOc11U="t for petmchenrical facility nonbuiJding
    stluttwes
    W =Totalseismicweight
    C = N111I1Mjc:al cneffieient detemrinrA from tbc followiDg fnmmla
    C =1.2SSfr2'll
    (4.2)
    s = Site caefiicicnt for soil characrer.istics given in UBCTable 16-J
    T = Fuudan*"hII period of vibmtion. in seconds, of the strUCtUre for the
    direction um1e:r cousideration
    The value of C JIeed not eyc=d 2..7S ami this value may be used for lIllY structure
    without rcgmd for soB tne or stnJCtUre period. The minimum value of the ratio
    CIRw should be O.07S.
    In Equatjon (4.1). each pam""'er lepiesents a cenain aspect of tbc earthquake
    loading as d"SCt'Ded beJow:
    Z leprescats the lew:I of seismic groUDd motinn "rt= at the site ami is
    thetefote sire dependent For cases where site sper:ific data exist. it is appxopxiate to
    use the site-specifir: Z vaJae or site-sper:ific specttUUl in lieu of those given by the
    code oflCCOXd. subject to tile appxoval oftbe local bUndiDg oflieia
    l
    .-
    1 is a measure of the aeIevaat importance of the stmctwe. For mme important
    stxuetu:res. bigher seismic: fim:es In Ph! ribed The importaDCc factor. 1. provides a
    meaDS of increasing the design force levels for far:t1jties which may Jme aD mmsaal
    hazard, have a potential for Jdcasing hazardous materials. or which are important for
    eumgem:y response. 'IlIB I value for individual petroch .. "nical faC11itjM should be
    reviewed with the owner BDtJIor the building official for those cases whc:ze items do
    not fan UDder the code defi .. jrjoQ,S. Suggested values of 1 for pctroebcmica1 fa ... 1.
    are given in Table 4.3. Note that an entire facility need not use the same value of I.
    See Chapter 2 for further discussion on this topic.
    TABLE 4.3: Importance Factor (I) for Different Usage Categories
    SeJsm1c: f!eknric:
    Importance Factor Importance Factor
    ForStuu:mn:s, for Subsystems
    Usage Categories
    (IFac:tor) (Ip Factor)
    Gem:ral Normal 1.0 1.0
    Spec:ial 2:1 (Sec Note 1) 2:1 (Sec Note 1)
    Hazan:lous 1.25 1.50
    1:551'1 "iill 1.25 1.50
    Note 1: QnHI"ifi"atjnn of JWpOIlIliil:e Fac:tars for "Spec:ialw usage c:aregory is
    an uwm:r drr:jsjun, sim:e iUactUitS in this c:ategwy are Iila:ly to be
    cIesjgn' for higher seimric fcm:es to plO1CiS an OWIIds invaiIMt
    C reprcscmts poteDlial amplification of seismic fcm:es allowing for reJatiw
    frequcm:y conteDt of the ground motion and amsidcr.ing the uatura1 period of
    SUI1CtU1'e under consideration.
    TB pmdm:t ZC lep1esents the spedlal acrderllion com:sponding to the period
    of the stNCtute. For cases where a sitHper;jftc spectxWD exists, the spectzal ordizutte
    concspom:ling to the period of the SI:J:UCtIJre may be used in lieu of the ZC value,
    subject to approval of lmiIding officials Caze should be taken to allow for higher
    mode: effeCts if the fun
    d
    !!D1!'!!!t
    aJ
    II8tUra1 period of the stzuct.uzc is larger than the
    period com:sponding to the spedlal peak. One way to allow for this is to increase
    the ZC factor by a factor of 1.s to allow for bigher mode: effects.
    Appendix 4.A plesents COW1ie c:almt!arions of the fundaUCldal period of
    vibration. T. for several typical st:tuctures c:o, 1 ji 1 mlly found in petrocbemical faco"liries
    If using the UBC. it is J'CCO""lenried that tb= period be cietcmlj"M from UBC
    Equation (28-5). Section 1628..2.2. couesponding to Metbod "Bw only. This fommla
    is based on Rayleigh's metbDci and uses the sttuctmal pt0p5ties and dc:fozmatiunal
    characteristics of the stzuct.uzc as de:leumued by a static IIIIIIlysis. For buDding-like
    sttuctUltS only. Method a A W of the UBC may also be used in c!etepmjn;ng structUral
    period. AltelIiatively. the fiwdanjlli"lal period of the stzIJCtDre may be es' ;"*''''4i by a
    frequcucy (modal) analysis. TB engineer sbould use judgmeut as to wbicb mctbod is
    znost desirable for applicalion at band.
    Seismic weight.. W. inclncles the weight of the structIlre, attached equipment,
    I;qUipnent aDd vessel coDlClltS (operating loads) and code-speclfiecI portions of live
    and snow load.
    R.. is a measure of emqy absorbing capability or ductility iDberent in a panieular
    type of structural system or structmc. It represents an cquiwlent reduction in seismic
    forces by allowing energy diSSipation once the structure begins to respond in the
    jnelastic xange. For a mme detailed definition of this tenD, refer to SEAOC
    When earthquake forces are calr:nJated using Equation (4.1), it is recommended
    that R. factors be applied as shown in Table 4.4. That table compares suggested
    values with those that. W01Ild Jikely be 1lSCd if applying descriptions provided in
    typical lmiJding codes. which geucra11y are intended to descdbe bniJding systems
    Note that the R. valDes 1i:tr 1lODhuilding structures in pr:troc:bemical fjac:tTIties, as
    JeCOIiii!eodcd in Table 4.4, are generaDy smaller than those for b1Jfldings 'Ibis is
    ""='IJse lnn
    1
    dings tr:IId. to lam structural redundancy due to multiple bays aDd frame
    lines.. Also, bm1ctinp "i'a'ai
    n
    DDDStrIlCtIIr8l elenae,.,s wbich effectively give the
    bqilding gJeatr::r damping &lid streDgth riming strong ground DXJUon ltSpouse. The
    should. evaluate die Ii' Filic _pouse cbarac:terildics of the spo ifO: structure
    to detr:iwine if a more COJl5eI vative or liberal R. value than given in Table 4.4 is
    apJiloprlate for cfesIp Note also tbat using higher R.. values in design tend to result
    in a flcxih1e sl:nJCbJIe which will tend to increase calcn
    1
    atr:d displace! Ofi"'S.
    For buflctinp and bm1tfiq-Jike st:ructures, codes typically specify a '!lilli!)I"I"
    CIL value Farmnbm'cting-like structures, this ".ieej ".") mtio is specified
    as 0.4 in the UBC. For peZmdemica! type structures which ran in the 1IDJllH,.,1cfjng-
    Jib c:atr:gozy. it is suggesred by this committee that a lower "';ni"'u", CIRw value of
    0.25 is apptoprlarc.
    The lec:o"'i;endrd IC';"i"""" CIL value of 0.25 is based on a COqjl.j9)D by the
    co!liilii!lee of theoretical base s'Jears cak:gJatM with DO limits on CJR... wrstIS the
    COlfe..!jmjrcd base sIzears caJmIatr:d apply.ing the "'iuillllm
    i
    CIL values wbme
    appIopxiate. 'I'JIe propouiuual im:rease of code-1jmitcd base shear aver tbewetical
    base shear is Jmger for ntm
    bm
    1dirJg-Jilre sttactun:s than for \miIdings ami bm
    1
    cting-Jib
    SUuctwes, evea with the "'ilth."",. CIL wlue of D.2S rather thaD 0.4. Funbm 8SM "e,
    that increase in base shear also 0" ' 'lIS over a grearr::r period J'8DP for urmbm
    1
    ding-
    Jib strIlCtIlJriS (typically 0.7S SOl MiS or greau:r for DDlIbm1tfiq stn1CImeS wrstIS 3.0
    seconds or greater for lnl'1dings). 'I'JIe reason for tbis is because the R.,. values for
    !lOI1bui1ding-Jib StIl1CtUies as suggesred in Table 4.4 me Jjmi'ed to S. aDd are usually
    less than 6. as couapated to those for hnflctings, wbiclJ can nmge as lDgh as 12.
    4-10
    TABLE 4A: ll" Factors for NonbuiJding Struc:tures for
    DesigD of New Petrochemical Fac:Uities
    A. BUILDING-LIXE STRUcrtJRES SUPPORTING
    Rw
    EQUlPMENT (see DOte (a) at tmd of table)
    This covezs SIrIICIUreS whose primaIy pmpo5e is to suppa"
    equipme:m:, such as air coolels, hoxizontal vessels. cu:bmgm, Suggested
    heaters. venical vessels and JI!8Ct()tS, etc.
    L Steel struc:tures
    Special momea:1I msisting frame 8
    0rdiDaIy moment msisting frame 6
    Braced frame
    L Ec:cemrically braced flame
    8 ~
    b. Concentrically braced frame 6
    Invmted pcndgJum type SIlUCtIlrC (camilcver column) 3
    2. Ccmcrete stnrdm'es
    Special JJ!QDICII! resisting frame 8
    lDteti1erfwe 1'IlDII1MT nesisring frame 6 (c)
    0rdiDaIy mrnnen:t frame Sed) ,
    SlIearwaD
    6"
    Inverted pen
    dnh
    ..... type SlrW:UiIC (camilcverpierlcolunm)
    3'
    B. EQUIPMENTBEHA VING AS STRllC'X'ORES Ru,
    WllH INTEGRAL SUPPORTS Suggested
    1. Vertic:al vesselslheatets, 1aDks, or spheres suppoi lEd by:
    /
    SteelskizU 4 (e)
    Steel braced legs /4(1)
    Steel or concrete unbmced legs - 3/
    2. BoDen
    Light sr=J framed waD with shear pazzels
    6
    Steel braced frame where Imu:ing cmries gmvity load
    6
    Steel cnclinaty tJ:ItlmN'l frame
    6
    3. CIIhn'*15 or 5CBCks
    Steel guyed
    4'
    Steel CIDlIilevcr
    4
    CmlCleu: 4,
    4-1l
    Code
    VaIue(b)
    12 -
    6
    10 -
    8-
    3
    12
    8 (c)
    Sed)
    6/
    3 '
    Code
    Value(b)
    .-
    4 (e)
    3/
    3 ,
    6
    6
    6
    4
    4,
    4
    TABLE 4.4: RwFac:tors for NonbuUding Structures for
    Design of New Petrochemical Fac:iIlties (ConL)
    C. PIPEWAYS Rw
    St.ggCSflXl CocIe
    Value(b)
    L bu.ll
    SpeciallDOJIlellt resisting frame 8 (g)
    Ozdinaly .. !nuDe
    nlc,mem resmng 6 (g)
    Braced frame 6 (g)
    CantIlever column 4 (g)
    2- Cmn:rete
    Speciallilom"lll msisring frame 8 (g)
    Lila" 'Mmte mO!1'!m! zesjsrjng !nuDe 6 (c) (g)
    Ordinary mnmeD" resi
    5l
    j"gframe
    5 (d) (g)
    Cml' j
    1
    ever col'" ""
    4 (g)
    Do COOLING TOWERS
    Rw
    Snges''''
    Code
    Value(b)
    L WoacIframe 8
    (h)
    2- Ccmcrete S 5
    Eo ANCHOR BOLl'S
    Rw
    L
    2-
    Suggested
    Code
    .
    Value(b)
    AIIchorbolt)'ield or cdIIerchq:dJefallutemftl'pnk"M
    Allor Allor
    GiDtluJ SIlUCQde SUIiGtLlte
    Concrete failure or IIIlChor bolt slippage wntrols, or (i) NlA
    there is a llOJMlIIc:IiIe fanoe traasfer m ...... anism bet"tal
    stn .. ." n: ami fOJDldatiuD
    FOOTNOTES:
    (a) for stnIdIJnIS suppcatiug equip""" whose WBight exc=fs about 2S .. of die
    supponiug strw:ta:res, die IOWIlr R. COllesp mrling to die eqaipu&:Dt or
    SIrUCtUle shoukl be used lor design of die entire stnzemre, IIIIiess jnsrifierl on a
    c:ase-by-casc basis.
    4-U
    FOOT.NO'IES (Cont.):
    (b) These vaIue:s are iDtetpm
    18
    ,jnns of UBC Table 16-N as applied to
    pettoebemical facilities
    (c) Use Rw = 4 for modaate and high seismic zones for SII\lCtorCS less than SO ft
    (15 m) in height. If SIn1CUlre is taller than SO ft (15 m) in height. C01iCtert
    IMRF is typically not pcunitred by codes.
    (d) Typically not peunitlcd by codes except in low seismje %OJJeS,.
    (e) Usc Rw :: 3 whea DIt of tile skirt is gn:ateI'than 0.441 *ElFy. where E and Fy
    are tile Y cnmg's Duxiuhw ami yield SInISS of tile skirt.lespe:ctivc1y
    (f) The RJggI""'CId Rw is higher than tile wlue fOUDd in bnUdiDg codes. Although
    codes typk:ally do not recogui7.e tile difference between biaced and unbraccd
    suppan S1:iUCtURIS, this C) iiliiiljnee believes there is gIeaII:f emcrgy absorbing
    capabiJity for biaced strUClUICS.
    (g) Codes typic:aIly do not sr'" jfj Dy Jlll!ll!ion Rw for pipeways.
    (h) The typical cocfe.spa:ified Rw factor for timber mdiuary braa:d fiamed
    st:ruc:tmes is 8. However. cooPg tDWtI'S are also Jefeued to in Table 16-P of
    tile UBC for Jlonbujlding SDUL.1IilCS with 8D Rw "" S.
    (i) Shaald 0Dly oc:c:ar with sprcial jI's'i
    li
    :ptiau provided by mgin=r on a case-by-
    ease basis .
    Codes t)'picaD.y provide straightforward equations to calculate lateral forces for
    non
    bn
    j1ding structllJ'CS which are rigid (T < 0.06 sec.), such as a short, stiff support
    pier for a horizontal vesse1. For example. see UBC Section 1632.3. Equation (32-1).
    Appcndircs 4.B and 4.C provide c""'l,les of detell!linarion of base shear for
    typical petlu::bcnJica1 strJlCtUreS.
    4.4.3 CnniblDation Stnu:twts
    Combinations of stn1CbJral systemS are often lncozporated into the same
    suuc:ture. Structures which inclnde IDCIle _ om: suw:tural system IeqUire special
    attention.
    NODbuiIding-like SI:rUCtDreS which support flcxUl1e nonsttuetural elermnts whose
    combined weight ext ' ~ about 25'11 of the weight of the stntc:ture. should be
    designed consjdering tbe dynamic: interaction effects between the structme ami the
    mpported eh:rnrmrs If the weight of tbe nonstruc:tural eWleld is Jess than about
    25'11 of the weight of the structure. or if the noDStr\JCtUral eleru .... t is rigid, inleIaction
    e1fects m:ed not be considered. For structu:res suppmting equipmeDt whose weight
    exceeds 25% of the supporting structures. the ST!'!l!u .... R., value, conesponding to the
    either equipment or st:nlCtJJR:, should be used for design of the eDtire stmctuIe.
    Appendix 4.B contains guideljnes for detel!llhJing base shear for noDblv1ding
    structures which are a combination of more than one structural system (e.g., finfims
    supported on pipeways). Specific guidance is provided for combinations of rigid ami
    4-13

    IlOJl-.rigid suuctUrCS., and Supported equipment weighing greater than and less than
    25% of the weigbt of the SbiiCtIitC. Appendix 4.C also comams examples showing
    calculatious ofbase shearforc:ombjnarilJll structllreS (e.g. c'lIamples 1.2 and 3.2b).
    4AA Vertfcal DfstributioD of Forces
    Lateral force distributioD in the vertical direction is a method for resolving the
    base shear into static force equivaJcDts applied laterally to the SUUCtUl'e. When the
    mass of the st:J:1JCtIUe is unif'umIly distIibutcd over the height of the structure (such as
    bw
    1d
    ings), tbis fon:e distrihiilD'" is amnno.d to be JiDcar ("mverted triImguIar). For
    multilevel bnihtings.aDd snuctures. the base shear, V, is distributed to diffmeut levels
    ass"ming a tJ:iaDguJar ctistrlJmrinn offorces. This is a close repm:eDrarion of the first
    mode shape of the strUCtI1t'eS. It also is iepxesentativc of the average of the shear
    defl=tion and DKJmeat "eON I jna CIIiW for the {rmd!lD!!'!!\ta1 Jl'des An C
    18m
    l'1e of a
    methodology to dis"Q'Dle JatmaI forces in such a way is found in the USc, Section
    1628.4.
    When the st:J:1JCtIUe 1D1Ckr mnsfdeJation is bfgbly im:guJar in sbape amlIor has
    nan-unifmm mass disnibution vatically, the concept of lalemlload distiibDtion as
    defined above is no longer valid. In such cases a pl0pe:r IIDIIlysis should be
    c:ondncred to detePh,j"o 181m] load distn.1mticm.
    4.4.5 &rizuJdal DJstributimi of'Forces
    Om:e hc .. w!I!I1I1 forces for each elevation are de1e""i"M these forces are

    distributed to each of the Ii ... jmmaJ load CII1't)'iDg elen'liIfs in the mtio of their
    horizontal S!lIhsses Such 811 approach asS!!!P" that diaphragms are rigid. For
    struc:tures with flexible diaphragms. the horizontal Sliffi; 'ss of the diaphragm should
    be incoIporated wbea djShihlllj,'I horizontal forces into various load canyiDg
    ele".,m
    s
    Attmmively. the Jateml forces should be psrigred based on tributaty
    spans. In petrochemical fimr1jties lIqe .aDd rigid horizontal vessels suppottcd on a
    st:J:1JCtIUe may be eonsjdcred to act as a diapbragm. An C?9"'t'le netbndology for
    hwiwnraJ disnibntion offoD:as cau be fotmd in UBC Section 1628.5.
    4A.6 TorshmpJ Eft'ects
    -
    Ben i.nnlal tOlsioldll "''''Mts occur in struc:tme:s with rigid diapbragms as a
    resuh of ecccnllicides betWieii the ceute:r of mass ami a:ater of riPiitY at each
    elevation. Other faClOiS also ldll ft.1Ite to horizomal to!sion. These an::
    spatial
    ., 1 _11M ion
    L yananaa gstrDCDm:s
    b. the efiects of nan-straclUr.Il elements
    c. 'IiUCiCl!ajntjes in c!efining the stJ1Jc:b:n'S sriffness cbaIaclffl isrics
    4-14
    Where torsioJlal irregularities exist, the effect of horizontal torsion can be
    computed at each floor level and inch'ded in the at!alysis in accordance with
    requhements ofbuildiDg codes, suclI as Sections 1628.5 and 1628.6 of the UBC.
    Where the mass ]ocation for most petrt'cbenric:aJ facility structures can be
    determined with reasonable accuracy, no consideration of accidental torsion is
    necessary. Additionally, to a large extent structures in petrochemical fa ... 1jries
    typically do not have rigid diaphragms. Therefore, for these types of struc:turcs, the
    tmsional effects are mini!!lal However, if the mass distribution in a horizontal plane
    cannot be deletminec:l with accuracy and the structure has a rigid diaphragm. an
    allowance should be made for accidental torsion. .
    Accidental torsion is typically accounted for by assnming the center of mass is
    shifted in each horizoJttal direction from its calr.nlated value by a distance equal to 5%
    of the structure dimenSion perpemiicuJar to the direction being considered. An
    example of such methodology is provided in Sections 1628.5 and 1628.6 of the UBC.
    4.4.7 0vertIlrniDg Potential
    Bvmy structure should be designed and eva
    h
    '8led against potenrlal overcwniDg
    effects ""'!Sed by cartbquale forces. The o ... ettwning moment to be ttSsted at each
    level should be deteJ;mi"M using the seismic fo:n::es which act on levels above the
    level UDder coDSideratioD. on evwy elc!TlP.Jll should be canied
    down to the foundations.
    Cbaptex 5 discusses safety factors to be used to check for potentjaJ against
    foundation overturning for DeW fa ... 1ities In addition, Section 4.6 presents special
    provisions that may be used to evaluate for foundation stabWty agaiDst OVett", "iag
    for existing facilities
    4.4.8 Sliding potentia.
    Building codes typically do not requite any checks for stahiHty against sUeUng,
    beca!lse bnj!cfjng-like strud1IrI:S are reqlJhed to be PIOperly secwed at the foundation.
    Likewise for the design of DeW petrocltem;' '8] fa ... 'jties, almost an structures (with the
    possible exception of large diametet' fiat bottom storage taDIrs) should be anchored to
    their fOlllldatious.
    Chapter 5 discusses safety factors to be used to check for potential against sfiding. if
    needed, for new fa ... 1iries Section 4.6 Ql1!
    lin
    es require
    ll
    ft1t
    s
    for clwiking stam'ity
    against sliding for stI1JCtUR!S in existing fa",1ities which are not anchon:d to their
    foundations.
    4-15
    4.4.9 DIrectIODS ofEarthqaake Forces
    For btn'ding-Jike 1>1lUCtWes. various bt,j1ding codes generally imply that
    independent design for each of the principal horizontal axes will provide adequate
    rcsist;lDce for forces apptir:d in any cIirccticm, and therefore. the design seismic forces
    may be wum:d to act .uom:om:uneutly with certain cxcepticms; such as cohmms that
    arc part of the lateral force resist i hg systemS in both horizontal directions.
    For nonbuildiDg SI:rDCtDnIS in petrochemical fac:t1fties, the ICqUilem:ut that
    earthquake forces are to be COJISidm:d to c:om= from any dh:1ICtion should be
    carc1Wly ewh'pted 'I1Ie rcquiIem:ut that orthogonal efiPccs be cousidered may be
    satisfied by designing such eJemenrs using one of the following methods:
    a. Consjder lClO'J& of tbC nember forces due to loads applied in one horizontal
    dittdion and 301J6 of the meill}..... forces due to loads applied in the
    orthogonal horizontal dittdion. This is mostly done in hand coalcn
    1a
    tjons. and
    it bas the advantage of majtring signs when perfotmiug various ('4IT!bjnarions
    of earthquake loads.
    b. Akematfvely. the elfts . of the two orthogonal dim:tious may be com.bined
    on a square tOOl of the sum of the squares (SRSS) basis. This is usually
    imp1""e
    i1
    ted in computer analyses. B..".nse the SRSS method loses the sips
    of the tcmIS. use of the nsults require great care since knowledge about
    member equilibrium bas been suppressed.
    4A.lO VerticalMatiODS
    Response ef'F:ts due to vertical CODipODCDlS of gromul motion are DOl usually
    calcnlarec! They are cftDsjd. J i I ~ d to be allowed for by the followmg special provisions:
    a. Combined vertical gmvity loads ana borizontal seisillic forces must be
    cousidered In deSigHting \mjJdjng compouems. Uplift effects due to seiSi'Iir;
    forces must also be considered. For materials designed usiIIg weilling stress
    pzocedwes. dead loads are mukiplied by 0.85 wbr:n used to c:heck agamsr
    uplift.
    b. The following apply in high seismic zones:
    - Ho.i7OI'1al CIID!iIIM:r compouents should be designed for a net upward
    force of o.szw" wl!e:n: W, is the weight of the c:owponeDt.
    - HoIiZM.aJ pl51lessed components should be designed usiDg DOl more
    than 509& of the dead load for the gravity load, alone or in combimWon
    with the Jatmal fcm:c effects
    4-16
    It should be noted that for fat:.Utjes which are located in areas of known
    high seismicity and close to active faults, close attention must be given to
    near field effects. Near field terminology is used when the epicenter of the
    earthquake is close to a site of interest (see Chapter 3). Since
    compxession waves attemtate much faster than horizontal shear waves, the
    vertical component of the earthquake tends to be dominant only in the
    near field. For these special cases, the designerlanalyst should give
    apptopriate consideration to the effects of vertical accclenltions on design.
    c. If vertical earthquake forces IIft\ to be considered explicitly in design or
    analysis. they caD be obtained by scating correspondiag grolUld horizontal
    acc:eleratioDS by a factor of 2J3 (higher factors may be required in the near-
    field; see Section 3.A. 7). Ahcrnate factors may be used if substantiated by
    site specific data. Once the vertical ground motion is defined. appropriate
    CODSideration should be given to the d}'1WDic response of the structure in the
    vertical direction. Member forces and m ",,,nrs cine to the vertical
    component of the earthquake should be obtainrri and combined with the
    forces and IDOments res
    n
    1ting from the horlzontal compoQeDt of the
    earthquake in accordance with the procedure of Section 4A.9. RefI:r to
    Chapter 3 for JDOJ:C guidance on the definition of vertical earthquake motion.
    4.4.11 Subsystems
    Subsystems refer to any nan-structaral elemmts. equipment and components
    which IIft\ supponed by the structure IIJldcr consideration. Examples IIft\ horizontal
    vessels supponed on a structure. It should be noted that tbe procedutes described
    here for subsystems IIft\ SOD:ljli"'S confosed and mjsnsed with those for actual
    structures. As a general guide, a subsystem is am: which is attached to a pxiwary
    stxucture and weighing less than about 25% of the total weight of the suppoxtiDg
    stxucture. Any component or stI1lCtUJ'e follJlded dixectly on soil/grolUld is not
    considered a subsystem.
    An equation sjnp1ar to UBC equation (30-1) caD be used to dete1liiili# the lateral
    load for subsystems. In that equation, a texm C, is iDt:roduced as a JDeIISlJIe of
    Bmplfficariou of groIIJld n:spo.DSe through the structure into the subsystem. based 011
    the ass!I!"ltion that the subsystem is categorized as rigid. AzJy subsystem whose
    period is less than 0.06 seconds is considered rigid. Subsystem periods greater than
    0.06 seconds IIft\ c:onsidexed flexible. Refer to Table 4.5 for r=onmmd
    ed
    C,
    coefficients.
    4-17
    TABLE 4.5: Horizontal Force Factor, <;,
    Value
    'R.1.ow.euts ofStruclures ami NODStrIJctI:InI Components ami EquipmeDt orc
    p
    L Equipment 0.75
    1. Taaks ami vessels (meJm!e C07!I!!ms). including suppon sysrmns and
    lIIChomge 0.75
    2. EIecIric:a1. """JumjraJ ami pbunbing. distributed systems including
    conduit, ductwork aDd pjpjDg 0.75
    3. Marhinery ami c:qaiJ",cIII such as boilers, c:billm, heat excbangms,
    JIIIIIIPS, air-bamfUng 1IDits, COIIInIl panels, motats. switch gear.
    InmSfi IIII II!IS ami lJfe-safety eqWpllll'at
    D. NcmstructaraI Camp'"''''
    1. Chimneys, sw:ts. tl'l....,.t towers. rdadvely light elflated air cooims aDd 2.00
    taDks on legs:
    a. Sappolled on or JI1"QItCIiug as 8111111braced. cantIIever above me roOf 2.00
    1DOIe tbaa ODe half 1bcirtllllll height
    b. All others. iru:hufing thDse suppotttd below the roof with unbmcecf
    pzujeclion above the roofless tbaa one balfits beigbt, or ImIced or 0.7S
    to the suuc:tand frame at or above their ceutcrs of mass 2.00
    2. l!xtmior and ime:rior oma
    m
    w
    ua1
    i01lS and appendages 0.7S
    3. Signs ami bIIlboaPU 0.7S
    4. &orap racks (mc:Jude amPMI'S)
    S. Aach01age for peiil@n.,nt fIaor-Siippo.ted cabiaets aad book Slacks JDOJe 0.75
    tbaa5 feet in height (mcl",t'C;clIIlMrs) 0.7S
    6. Ancborage forSllSpmcltd czffings ami light fi:Clwes
    7. Acc-n tloorSYS! 115
    As aD alteili';VC to die DYfhDd pro\ided in the usc. other Olga'+jza'ioDS are
    wod::iag on rules sad ploYiiio1lS for d ..... SDd evaluation of subsystems. Ouce such
    akemative can be found in NEHRP (1994). 'Ibo NEHRP proviskms 0.
    hapio.eilcnts over the USC pzucedwes in the sease that tbay allow for tile
    foIlowiDg:
    a. Subsystem mass ctistribmion, jncbuling dynamic pxopea'des.
    b. Seismic response wbichiDcludes site cffcc:t5
    Co Location of the subsysIma witbin the sttIlCtIIm.
    d. Subsystl:m ancbarage cfncttlity and liCigy ahsoxption capability.
    For tlcxible subsystems. the lateral force on the subsystem must be detezwjned
    giving consideration to the dyDamic characteristics of both the primary structure and
    the ~ These caIcn1atinns aze performed usiDg period calculatjons for both
    4-18
    the prinwy suuc:nue ami the subsystem to determine the extent of structuml
    amplification. The resulting C
    p
    factor should not be less than those specified in Table
    4.5. In the absence of such calculations. the value of C
    p
    should be taken as twice that
    given in Table 4.5. but need nOl exceed 2.0.
    If a subsystem is located at or below ground elevatiou. So may be taken as 213 of
    that in Table 4.5.
    The total base shear determi!led using the above procedure should be distributed
    in pxopoxtiou to tile mass disttibution of the subsystem.
    4.5 DYNAMIC ANALYSIS MEtHODS
    4.5.1 General
    Dyuamic auaJyses of structures are typicaD.y conducted using strnctura1 computer
    programs. DyDamic 8D8lysis can be pedinm:d for lID)' type of str1JCtI1'm at the
    engineer's discretion. However. it DDlSl be petfunned for cases where strnctnral
    iDcgnIarides exist.
    In m:ent yca:rs with the advances of the computer mUSIl' resnJting in availabllity
    of high petfOJTDllnce computers at low prices. as well as availability of various
    strnctnral BDalysis software packages. the option of dyDamic analysis seems more and
    more attractive to engineers and is thus encouraged. In general, dy.aamic analyses are
    believed to result in more accurate detenninario'l of the dynamic PXopelUes of a
    structure and. hmu:e its response to a seismjc eveDt. They better capture local effects
    in addition to global response. often leading to a more economical design of a new
    facility. and avoiding 'll!!!etT:S!!ary conservatism in the evaluation of lID existing
    facility.
    In choosing the dyuamic atJalysis option. the analyst should have a good
    UlIderstanding of the expected global behavior ami should review the dynamic
    analysis results cazefillly. to enswe RiSpODse is as expected This is 0_ achieved by
    COillparing the base shear with that obtained using the equivaleDt static approach.
    4.5.% GI'OIIIId MotIon
    The ground motion to be used in a dynamic analysis is defined in ter.ms of either a
    ground response spectiwu (most COiiUim) or a time bistory. Gc:m:raJly. the grouud
    response spec:ttwn is first definecL Cbapter 3 deS! 'j1 es the logic of the choice of the
    ground motion and its development. The response specnwn shape is either a
    standard shape scaled to an appxop:date peak ground acr+ration, or is a site-sper if'ic
    shape. The spectnd shape for new design t)'pically COlTeSJlOuds to a ~ probability
    of exceedance in SO yeatS and is generally defined for a number of damping ratios.
    For petrochemical type structures, analysis is usually performed using the S% damped
    4-19
    specnal shape; therefore as a min
    Unnm
    , the ground respoDSC speena should be
    defined for S% damping.
    If a time history aaalysis methodology is chosen. tile ground motion ID1lSt be
    defined in terms of time history of response (usually acceleration. sometimes velocity
    or displacenxmt). Either actUal earthquake time histories or time histoIi=s generated
    artificially to represent a specttal shape are suitable for use. However. in both cases.
    the response spectLwn associated with the chosen time history s h o ~ matt:b tile site
    specific response specttwn at the frequencies of interest. Cbapter 3 discusses the
    devcIopmcnt of the ground (free..field) time-history for use in dynamic aualysis.
    4.5.3 Mathematical Model
    A finite eJemcut or Jumped mass model of the SU\JCtDIC is a mathematical
    lepxesentation of the st:l'UCtIlre which ploperly aDows for the distribution of mass and
    sljRj !l'SS of the sttucture to aD extent which is adequate for tb,e calcn1ation of the
    significant featwes of its dyDamic 1CSpJDSC
    A three dili ifi"sional snuc:tural model should be used for die dyuamic aaalysis of
    structures with bigbly il1egular plan configuration such as those baviag a plan
    iDcgu]arity defined in Table 4.2 ami having a rigid diapbragm. For mgular StLuctwes.
    use of a two dimeusicmal model is 1lSWIIly adequate. GeDeIally. two 2-D mocfeIs,
    each lepies",lfing aD ortbogcmal pI iiicipal axis of the sttuctwe. are dcveIoped and
    used in the aaalysis.
    Structures whose dyDamic response CaD be cbarar:rft'ize:d by eida' a shear type
    response or bending type response. CaD be reascmably DKJdeled usiDg beam ';le
    a
    rn
    rs

    Three dirnensiODal finite eJement models nrir'7ing pJateIsbdl or 3-D solid eJements
    may be used for more complex StlUCWies. .
    4.5.4 RespoDse Sped! am AIIalysis
    A response spectluw aaalysis is aD elastic dyDamic IIIIIIlysIs of a struc:tme ntifmng
    the peak dynamic respouse of '!gniID ant modes wJ:dcb tUn" jhUltl to total SI:lIICtDral
    respoDSe. Peak. modal lespouses are calm1ate:d using the Ofllln"es of the input
    spect1um which COl1espond to modal periods. Msci"'''''' modal respanscs are then
    combined to obtain tile peak. S1NCWiallespoase.
    The foDowing coDsideIaticms should be giYCD wilen petihliili .. g a response
    SpedlWD IIJUIlysis:
    a. Number of Modes. AD signifi.:aat modes wbich capture at least 90% of the
    panicipating mass of the stnJCture in each diRw:lion sbonld be incI!!ded in
    d I e ~ ~
    4-20
    b. Camhi"i"g Modes. In a response spectzum aualysis option. the maxUmID!
    response of the structure dming each mode is first computed. These modal
    respoDSCS must be COjlihined in order to obtain the peak response of the
    structure. Modal responses arc generally combined by the SRSS method.
    However. the SRSS method may be UJlCOJISCrV8tiv for struc:tures with
    closely spaced modes. Other more accurate methods of modal combjnation
    arc also avaDable in ce.ttain structural programs. An example is the
    complete quadratic combination (CQC) metbnd
    Co DirectionalEffec:rs. The IeSpODSC of the sttuautc subject to two or tbrcc (if
    requin:d) dircctioDlll componentS of the input motion should also be
    combined in order to an Oill'l for dhectional effects when designing comer
    clements Dim:tioml ef!'f$ arc usually accounted for by either an SRSS
    or a l00%-309D-3O'JJ mcdmd of combiDadon.
    4.5.5 Time History AaaIysfs
    A tim= histozy aaalysis is gewally a .1DDIe complex and eqcnsive method of
    pczfozmiug a dyuawie IDalysis. bat is c:cmsidercd to giYc a IIIDIC reaftStie estimate of
    structural xespcmse to a gMa CIilthquakc than a respt'''''' SpecttWD aua1ysis. In a
    tim= histoJy approach, the input is defined in tenDs of a time history of ground
    motioD. Modal and direc:rioDlll ~ .... d';l!8tjons arc pcrti .... ed in the time or
    domains, accounting for dnnni
    nn
    , ficqueucy CODteDt ami plils;ng for a particular
    eanb.quab time histmy.
    GeneraJly, two options me available for pcrfOlmiag time history aualyses: the
    modal supeiJl"'WnU and tile diR:ct integratioA vJlenrs A JD"dat supctpusition
    appzoach is sjnrlar in cone. to tile teSpODSC SpecnWD approach, with tile exception
    tbat individual modal respnnRS arc obtained as a time history, and, as such, can be
    combined with other VKJdal lespclDSCS in an algebraic 5eDSC ill the time domain..
    Hcncc, the phasing betweca mndes is Iet';nmi. 1'11= diRct integration scheiD:
    detr!lmiitf$ tile total IeSpODSfI of till: SUuctwe at each timcIstep by soMDg till:
    equations of motion using dimcl iDregradun.
    The above djsrnssion Phi! ems linear dyoamic time history BD8lysis. In raIe
    occ:asious. one might IIH6d to pczfonn nonfincar dyDawii:: malysis. AIlbough, tIds
    option is rarely used in pxacsice far petuwemical faCJ
    T
    1!fes. special chi .'IIiS'"mes
    might wmaut a DonJincar aDIIlysis. Ouly tile direct iuJeg&atiDD """"'- can be used in
    nc:mrmear cI.yDamk: aDIIlysis. In peti
    n
    liijn, UODJinear IIDIIIJsis, spec:ial consideration
    should be given to actual sttuamalllODliaearity in eoutt8!tt to the dnctt1ity values (R..
    fiu:toIs) which arc used as urans of Cilttgy djssipatioD capabtlity of a stmctmc or
    structural system.
    Sjmalar to the IHSpOJJSe specuwn aua1ysis, in a time history modal SupelpOsitioD
    aualysjs. enough modes must be consideIGd to captwc at least 909& of tile total mass
    4-21
    patlk,q.aring In a dired httegtatiun scheme. by definjrjon, lfJOlJD of the mass is
    . considered in the solution at each timr: step.
    4.5.6 Sealing of Results
    When a d)'DlIDIic amUysis is pemjll,*,d. various bw'ldjng codes p.umally require
    that tb= base shear (after dividing by R..) be compaxed to that of an equivalent static
    analysis. If tb= dyDamic base shear is less than tb= equivaJeDt static base shear. the
    mn1ring espouse patant'ClS me scaled such that the dynamic base shear equals the
    foDowiDg values:
    a. 909b of the static base shear for megular buiJ.ding-Jike structures
    b. 80% of the static base shear for regular bm1tf'q-like stmc:tures or
    nODbuilding-like suueturcs
    The ratiouale for tbis scaHng of the nsults lies with tb= fact that the eatthquake
    force lewis dett:r:miued using the equivalent static method ieflect tb= infInenre of
    period, dru:ttTtty BDd d'Fi'l'iug for V8Iious straCbJll'l .)steiliE Ilecense it is
    djfIjcnlt to reflect these influ""'CS on a mnsistent basis for d)llllUlic analysis design,
    the code requites the abow m:atioDed scaHng This is also tial to tb= fact that tb=
    Fat DII90rlty ofbm1tting stnJctDres desig,uod using modem equivalmIt static ....rhods
    8IId dnctiIe derm1ing requite"- uts ha.Ye, in general. peafi"""'" wen c1
    w
    in' past
    earthquakes. In addition. scaHng is iDtroduced as a safeguaid against unmatistically
    low fon:es obtained through irIapproprlaie mocWing ISS'''' q"jons
    Be c lise stnJctDres in petiOCOO"; al tjy:01itjr:s lypJca1ly bIne simple and
    straig
    J
    "
    ti
    uw81d strucmral canfigULadtms with weD. defined mass aDd SliFBI'SS
    cbararte';stics. il is felt that tbis cade iequitCiDiiUt is not appxoprlato for typical .
    peaoc )ellde al &cility st:ructareL However. Ie B"se it is -ape i&:aDy zequhed in
    bw1ding codes, it is rec:oilii'C"ded that an indepIindcut peauevie:w be used to tIlSUl'e
    that tb= seknric iaput and resuIIs PI' & .. ." by tb= dyuawic 8IIIIlJsis 8i1: adequate aud
    rasoDllble to be used directly in design Special C8i1: should be tabD wJ:a the static
    _)'Sis base shears IIIC much higher tban those predicted by d,yJwwic analyses.
    If dynamic aua1ysis resaIrs judicare a base shear gzeaie. dIaD tb= equivaleDt static base
    sbear, the dyDamic ana1ysis results can be ried down to llJOlJ& of tb= static value.
    Howe,,,,, C8i1: must be CJLiilcised in doing so; there may be special chi iil!lStances
    wbich Jesuit in increased dynamic rc SpiiN. such as togionaI e ,,, icky.
    Son-Stmcture Interaction (Sst) Iefers to dynamic iateraction ...... s belween a
    stnzc:ture and tb= underlyiDg son dming a seismic eWIIL SSI effila.'ts 8i1: pmut'unced
    for heaYy embedded struclUres fD1mded on soft or nzdimn soil. and in geaeraI can be
    4-22
    ignored for light and surface founded suactures or smx:tureS founded on competent
    marcrial (stiff or rcc:k).
    For structures founded on rock or very stiff soDs. the foundation motion is
    essentially that which would exist in tile soil at tile level of the foundation in the
    absence of the structure ami any exca:wation; this motion is denoted the free-field
    ground motion. For soft soDs. the w",,'a'ion motion differs from tbat in the free
    field due to the coupling of the soil IIIIl structure durirJg the earthquake. This
    interaction results from the scattering ofwavcs from the foundatjon IUld the radiation
    of energy from the stII1CtD1'CI due to suuaural vibnItioDs. Beca
    nse
    of these effects.
    the state of defolmaUon (panicJe displac. "' DU. ami accelerations) in the
    suppmting soil is difieIcnt than tbat in tile iRe field. In tum. the dynamic response of
    a structure supponed on soft soil may diffi:r sultstanriaUy in ""i'Htnde and frequency
    content 1i:mn the response of an identical structure supported on a very stiff soil or
    rock.
    SSI efli:cts usually result in potenria
    1
    amplification or de-ampJification of the
    structmal rcspcmse depending on the sir: SJiC" is,, mnditinns and the COhlbjmd soil
    ami structure dyDamic cbaJw:t.,. is' Ics Generally. tbem reads to be. a sIdft in the
    combined soi1-sttucturc DatWal period wIIm to tile period of the strucmre
    only. Where profound, this shift tends to inczease the system period.
    Methodologies for ccmsidering SSI cfIi:ds am available in the 1itetatme (Wolt
    1985 aud NEHRP. 1994). These efrects can be simply allowed for. if the underlyiDg
    soil bappe1iS to be. a WIiform Jlmjn" aud as sach, can be lepl '-!1
    M
    by an
    equivalent sprmg aud a danqcr. If the underlying soil is layered, to properly aDow
    for the cfIi:ds of Sst one must msort to mare ccrmplicated tecbnitpJes such as finite
    element !III!Ilysis. or other alternate methods
    a. The system period maeases
    b. 'I'heon: is an 0ve:raJl reducrinn in sttuctura1 response tm1ess the structure
    aDd the underlying soil happen to be in 1CSOnam:e ( ...... Mexico City.
    mid-rlse mn1dings)
    Co Subsystems wbich am mare ffcyjb1e may have .iDcreased response ami

    d. The rocki1lg efti::ds are more profouad resnlting in higber sttw::tma1
    displwemN."
    4-23

    4.6 CONSIDERATIONS FOR EXISTING FACII.1TJF.S
    4.6.1 Geueral
    The plucedmes 01uJined above apply primarily to the design of IICW fa",1jtjes
    This section S!iliIl!II!hC; 5pe'
    m
    e gnidance for the evab>atiou of existing fa",1ities
    Diffe.te.ut plWosopbies and methodologies arc apptoprlate for existing fact1jtjes for
    sevetal lC8SODS. including the following:
    a. Older faC'1jties were probably designed to earlier codes and ,.,...,dards
    that were not as lelltlictive or apptoprlatc as CWle.ut sta:adards with
    JlSpec:t to seismic design.
    b. While the objective is to enhance the seismic safety of the aris'ing facility
    UDder consideration, it would be vety cfifljt:glt to upgrade it to meet all
    the tequhecuents of CUl:eDt sranciards.
    c:. At the time of IICW design, the desil''''I can afliml to be IIIDIe
    coaserWitive cx.mpazcd to the time of lctndit. wheae optioDs an: IIIDIe
    r
    ....:.-.s in . . of d
    'I1IIUaI mo ("Ig a pveD set SC'S"UC npgPLft c:r;rena
    FanIki
    F
    'I' ne., it is also recognized tbat structarcs fmmd m fact1jties teDd
    to be older, ami therefwe. were designed to lower 8MIIs of seismjc demand with far
    fewer of the cJttct.ile detailing prov.isioDs fotllld in today's codes, thus iDcteasing the
    Deed for accurate assesS!!!CDt of these SUuctDteS with apptoptiatc levels of dnctJlity.
    4.6.2 Methods for Evaluation
    1'helI: an: no widely accepted ami used med'U for ewtnating exisling .
    _ fact1jties It is reeG"liie'lrlm tbat ID apPIOptiale ewb'ptjon
    methodology incorporate on-site IIMews of the elislin. &1Iuctmes aDd
    systems. as desc:ribcod in detaiJ. in Chapter 6, in COJUPnc:tion with app.toprlate aDalydcal
    mriews.
    0JIc metbod. which is CWlQl1ly bemg used in sevaal1llllilic qaljries in CaJifomia.
    was developed to satisfy tile tequhelle
    nts
    of tbe stare-mandated Risk MaDa.gemr:nt
    aDd Prcvcmdon Program (RMPP). for facilides with lhremJd quantities of cadain
    Acutely Hazardous Materials (ARMs). Becau," tile RMPP criteria an: not readily
    obtainable by pzacricing engin.ms, _ bave heeD im:Imfed in tb:i:r eatirety as
    Appendix 4.F. Those criteria differ from a typical bmlding code approach in dID
    following areas:
    a. The metbod is based on uJrimate streDgth radIer than wOlking stress.
    with the R.. factors for ex;,,;n, fa",
    1it4
    es adjusted to retIect dID cIiffaeace.
    4-24
    These new factors me tefeued to as Q factors and me generally lower
    tban Rw factors.
    b. The input motion used for new faC"1jtjcs, by definitiou, colTCSpOnds to a
    ground motion with a "tD=m plus one standard deviation" msponse
    specuum, i.e.. there is 84CJJ c:bance tbat tlIis motion wBl not be exceeded
    at the site, given the seismicity of the region. In contrast., for existing
    faC'1jtjes, the ground motion is defined as a rnr:djan re5pODSe spectrum.
    This COllesponds to a ground 1IIDtion tbat has SOC1D chance of
    exceedance. 'I'herefom, the ground. motion definition for evahwion of
    existing faC'1jrics is less CODSeIVative tban a COlIesponcting motion to be
    used for design of a new facili1;y.
    c. The.importam:c (I) fiIctor to be used in Eqnarion 4.1 is always set to
    unity (1.0) for cvaJnatiop of eaist ins fm1ities 1lDl=ss it exe c ds 1.0 for
    "special'" stmc:mres at tile OWIitii'S request. In cuntlast, for design of
    new faC'ljties, apPlopriate T factor. depending on importance of the
    SUucttue and functioual reqaireliK "'S, may be higher tban 1.0 (as JIIIJCh
    as 1.5) as spo iSeci in Table 4.3.
    d. For evaluation of ellisHng facr1jtjes, site-spe> ifir. Z values and site SJlI" iSc
    tespoDSC specaa may be used widIout the coment of the buDding official.
    For new faC'Ties, if a si!e-spe# i5c Z wIDe or RSpODSC specuwn is
    s}leri5rd which ctiff'ets Dam code 5p'"* ified values, the mnsem of a
    lmt
    10
    mg official umst be ohraiued
    For meting building-like sttuctIlIes, some guidance is also oifeIed inATC33.03.
    4.6.3 Overturaiag Poteatial
    In evalnariml of exi."ling stIIlCtUI:es. it is lccolllllcnded tbat the safety factor
    against OyettutlJiD& be rmrited to 1.0; however. the dead load n..b'Ction of 0.90
    should be allowed for. Altematively, more tefiued 0'fllilllcn1h, cbecks, SDCh as the
    "Energy Balance
    n
    approach, may be used. The euetgy baJance approach checks tbat
    the potential euetgy to OVettmD the muctwe is not exceeded by the imposed kinerie
    energy cansed by the earthquake. Strain eutilgy eH=s in tile str:uctun: and. more
    importantly, in the soil can be incbuled.
    Appendix 4.0 provides futthcr des' 'i.ptilm of the energy balance approach for
    c:bt&king against overtuming.
    4-25
    4.6.4 SIIdiIIg Potential
    For structures in existing petrochemical titC1
    1iti
    r;,;, a factor of safety of 1.5 against
    sJjcfing is recoliii i ended for fRIe-standing strUCtUreS that are not bolted or otherwise
    anchored to their t'cnmdaIicms aud that caDDot otherwise tolerate movement.
    For free..stamting stnJctID'es resting directly on soil, a factor of safety against
    sJitUng of 1.0 at the foun
    d
    atio'3lsoB interface is CODSidered appxopJatc. as it is
    obserVed tha: %IIO"YeIDCDt of follJldati'lJ)S resdng on son does not usually occur.
    In the eWllt stiding di,uacea oent5 arC requirecl (for ex
    81
    i'l,te for evabladon of
    tole.tance lequiremeulS, pipe displacements, etc.), the methodology prescribed in
    Appcudix 4.E can be used. 'I'be methodology "!SIders the vertical upward
    accele.tations pxeseut clming eanhquala:s that can redw:e the efli=ctiye :fi:iction force
    l:IetWeeD stntcturc am! support smface. The ma,;n) " sfiding displacene
    nr
    can be
    related to the velocity h:upa:rted into the sttuctme dming the earthquake.
    T'm: history !ItItdiJ=s of d.yDamic srat..1ity show Ibat die CaIcWated maiilinU!
    inertia forces act for _lu short ~ ~ of'-- .. direc:Don"""'" times . -3 _ ~ __ MW4m -J
    during an earthquake. Considering these maw iii!"!11 forces as staDe forces for
    pmposes of staJro1ity and sfiding IIlI8lysis is very ems i .ative. In fact. tile factor of
    safety against sJicting and o'Wtatwuiag has been sbowu to drop below 1DIity for short
    periods of time during the 9'imric evr:.at without fid!m& ThIs isb""m!!,,, any rigid
    body iIlOVCIDent is arrested when dyamnic forccs decicase ormvase dhections.
    4-26

    APPENDIX 4.A
    TYPICAL PERIOD (T) COMPUTATIONS
    FOR
    NONBUILDJNG STRUCTURES
    NOTE: EquatiODS in tbIs Appendfx are preseated In Engllsb UDlts ouly,
    as coefficients are developed for EngHsb IIIIits oDly
    4.A-l
    ..... .. '.'" .. " ...... .. ... -.
    A.
    A. Natural Period ofVlbratioD - One Mass, Bending Type structure
    w
    *
    3
    T ..
    E1g
    Where: W .. Weight of Mass
    H
    I
    H = Height of Caadle\Ia'
    B = Mgdnlps ofEasric!ty
    I = MOIIICIIt ofJarcia
    B. Natural Period ofVlbratiOD - One Mass, RIgid Frame Type Struc:tore
    Ta LB14 iC:::
    ILl: i J. w
    'Lie
    h-
    I,,-
    For CoImnns IDDged at Base
    B
    2K+l
    a=
    K
    For CoImnns FIxed at Base
    B
    3K+2
    a-
    6K+l

    4.A-2
    C. Natural Period ofVlbration - Two Mass Structure
    where: c.. = DefICCIion at A Due to Unit LaImaI Load at A
    Cw. = Defla:!ion at B Due to Unit LaImaI Load atB
    c... = Defla:!ion at B Due to Unit LaImaI Load at A
    WA:via = Smnmarion ofVi:nicalLoads atLeve\ AorB
    See Example 1 for Application

    D. Natural Period oCVihratfon - BendiDg Type Structure, Uniform Weight
    DIstribution and Constant Cross Sec:tlcm
    H
    4.A-3
    E. Natural Period ofVibratiOD - UDif'orm Vertical. CyllDdrical Steel Vessel.
    ,r
    w
    -
    n

    t

    '0///0,
    H
    TaE!!(!!)2l2WD
    10
    6
    D t
    wbere: . T .. (sec)
    W = We:islat (IbIft)
    H .. Height (ft)
    D = Dlammer (ft)
    t .. Sholl ThicJmess (iach)
    F. Natural Period ofVlbratiOD - Non-uafform VerdcaJ. CyUndrical Vessel
    ._."
    To pcziod (sec)
    I

    !.E.03 .t.Ay
    B .. cmntI1 heigbt (ft) .
    w .. c!!striImtM weight (Ibsfft) of em:b sccIicm
    H W .. We:isbt(lb)ofem:bCna uaadMass
    D adlanetel (ft) of em:b sec:sioD
    t.. shell tlddmess (iDdI) of em:b Ie ,iall
    Ee mnc!p!ps of eludrity (miDjggs ofpsi)
    II, II. ad Tille' .... melc!!lS far a giwDleveI
    d F qll.'I on b,/Ihalio of tile be:islat of the
    level above gmde to tile ovaaIl Jmi&ht. 4a
    IIIId ATIIIe the dI:ffea ........ in thII VIIha:s of CIt
    IIIId T. fram thII top to thII WIIIM. of ear:h
    sec:sioD of .... ilihiil weight. diBm"'"' IIIId
    tldclmr:ss Ills "'" ,i"rd ad far em:b
    con' e"",,"" mass. Values of II, II. ad T
    _ rainIIa!ed on tile followUIB 1abJe. .
    4.A-4
    Coemcients for DeIermiJdng Period of VIbration ofFree-StandiDg Cyllndrlcal
    Shells with NOD-Uniform Cross Sec:tion ami Mass Dlstributlon
    0.79
    0.'18
    0.77
    D.804
    0.762
    0.722
    4.261 D.999309
    4.102 o.9!l9133
    3.946 II.!J98923
    T
    4.A-S
    G. Period ofVlbration - Generalized One-Mass Structure
    y.. sattic deflec:rioD of mass raultiDg
    from a 1araalload applied at the
    IIIIISS equallIJ Us OWII weiJht.
    See F .... mple 4 for appJil:aIima.
    4.A-6
    Example 1-TwooStory Concrete Vessel Support Stru&:ture
    ...
    (
    "
    w.
    ~
    1 ....
    ~ " .&.
    II'
    +
    f.
    -
    ... t Ir4
    .,. ..
    111'
    w.
    1
    r ..

    ./.
    .&.
    _r.
    Irt
    ...t
    tr
    trSQ trSQ
    ao ..
    UIMIII_I
    roll'

    R'Y'i'lPtt
    ---
    .--
    Two-Story Concrete Vessel Support Structure
    Period ofVlbratioo:
    Earthquake Pon:es (Trausverse Gircction - Loads on one bent)
    W = 2D kips (includes stnlCt1:Ire weight)
    Deflections from 1 kip at A ami B (calculations not shown):
    c.. = 0.0384 in.. c.. = 0.0180 in.. Cw. = 0.0157 in.
    Nams:
    1. ~ 1 s
    1I0II0I,,,,
    Ioodiqill
    _'UII
    IIl=Iiaa
    0IIiJ.
    :z. Weiala
    iIoo:Iud8
    o.s
    12(0.0384) + 8(0.0157) + [[12(0.0384) - 8(0.0157)]2 +4(12)(8)(0.0180)2 f.s
    T = 2(3.14) 2(386)
    = 0.234 sec
    4.A-7
    -,

    EYJlmpie 2- UJdform Cylimlrical Column
    "In most columns of COJIStaDt dlamerer. the entire mass can be assumed WIifOImly
    distr.ibuted over the height. Where there are large concenttations of mass or
    variations in c:ross-secrion, the amdysis should be made as shown in Enmple 3.
    ~ ~ ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - +
    ,
    ,
    ,
    W.4IIIO UIIPr
    -
    -+'-511"
    I
    ,
    !
    ',. !p
    ....... _ .. -' t IW h
    _I-
    I
    //
    UJlifOlW Cy1imfrical Col!!mn
    Period ofVlbratioa:
    7.78 (100)2 (1.2.t6IIIb6)0.5
    T .. '6 - .. 0.B98sa:
    10 6 0.25
    4.A-8
    Example 3 - Column wllb Variable Cross Sec:tlon and Mass Distribution
    w(lb.ll)

    Au wAu
    or
    II
    P
    or
    T AT ""0' .. ,,,.,
    W (\hi)
    WIIIII
    r-
    .......
    .. III 2.103 1.Il0l
    8'6" ~
    25.5
    'D.25
    , 1,s1D \.1143 2,861 0.0122
    "
    .
    1t-1/16
    -to
    .
    3.5 I
    0.622 '- 0.2111
    0.9818
    26.0'
    1,5311 0.2835
    --7',- ~
    434 0.2l51 1,369
    'D.15
    ....
    1/16
    , ...
    '''IIO,IDO 0.260 0.1IOS222' 0.D9564"
    ... II ...
    '0.1321
    L
    .'
    " ~
    3.5'
    2.51D 0.D0325 8.4 0.0169 465
    1' ... _
    D.211 - o.mI7 0.6452
    15.25
    -t:
    it-1/16 '1 1,250 0.001911 2.5 0.6452 3.494
    /////////
    W.393 1)=5,413
    Example 4 - SphereOD Braced Columns
    The common bracing sysrcw for spheres consists of x-bnlcing connecting adjacent
    pairs of columns as ilIasttated below_ The bmcing for IaJ:Je sphenls subject to
    earthquake loads should be effective both in tension and "illiquession to better resist
    the lateral forces.
    - - 4 ~ - Diam. =40'
    1be shear in each paud ami tbD max
    nmjmnm paud sbear could be found by
    the foIIowing fommJa-
    v
    "
    PLAN
    Period ofVibratim:
    vp =(2VhI) cos II
    v_=%Vh1
    v p .. JIII1II=l shear
    v ..... = ii.diiiilinpmelshear
    V .. IaIInl fcm:e
    = 89'n I a afplaDls
    II III qIe betw_ plane of
    JIIIIClIIId dInicIIoD of
    IaIInl fan:e.
    The period of vibratiau. is found using the gcaeral fomuda for cme-mass SII:'IICtUIe
    J=Viously. The sta'IiI: deflection, y, is found by de" .. ",jili"g the c:baJlge in length of
    the bracing resulting fmm a total Jateralload equal 10 the weisht of the sphem.
    Deformation of the oofumns ami balcony gilder are usually aegJected for cme-stmy.
    NEVADON
    30'
    1
    BllIdng
    P a Ye.;"""" fcm:eiD IDace
    = (lI2) (211 'l"'V6) (36.0J20.0) ..
    450 kips
    A .. ,."". in JeIIgIh of Ince
    = PJ.JEA .. (450) (36.0) (12)Y
    ((29.000 (8.0)] .. 0.838 in.
    Y - 4faine-(O.B38) (36.0120)- l.51 in.
    Paiad ofVDnlioD, T _ 2s (y/g] CU
    T .. 2s (l.511{32.2)(12)] CU = 0.393
    - Crass-Se:niDMI
    Area .. 8.0 sq.in.
    _ T cngtb = 36'
    4.A-10

    APPENDIX 4.B
    GUIDELINES FOR DETERMINATION OF
    BASE SHEAR FOR COMBINATION STRUCTURES
    4.B-l
    A. MEIHODOLOGY
    NON-BUILDING STRUCTURES SUPPORTED ABOVE GRADE
    (WuO.2SW
    s
    )
    {
    {
    Ws
    WE less tbaD Q.2S Ws
    TEless tbaD 0.06 sec_
    (Rigid)
    Sum!oJ:t SIIUcam:
    V .. .!!E!.with Rw forSllUClllft: from Table 4.4
    Rw
    (Lump mass of l.=n with mass of SIIUCIIIre)
    NOll BuilcJing Item and AI!cho!ase
    Use larger of V .. O.5ZlpWE
    or V= ZC, IpWE withCp fmIIITable4.5
    (Note: use 2.0 x <; If support SUUCl1iie is
    f1aible aad 2.0 x <; need IIOt exceed twO)
    CASE I
    Ws
    (F1cIible)
    Spppmt Sttucam:
    V .. w i t h R w farsaw:asrefrom Table4.4
    .Rw
    (Lump mass ofl.=n with maSs of SU_o)
    Non BuiI!!imr 11m! mel t\ndmrm;
    DCW
    Use Jarscr of V.. E
    It"
    wilhR (far Ciqllil' 'l)fmlllTable4A
    ..
    c.:V .. Z(2.0 x Cp)l, Wa withC, ftam Table 4.5
    (Nore: 2.0 X <;-.ueed I10t acealtwv)
    CASE 2
    4.B-2
    NON-BUILDING STRUCTURES SUPPOR'IED ABOVE GRADE
    (WE>O.2SWs)
    Non-BuiIltiDg WE
    Irem {
    - -VI
    Support
    S\nICtIIre
    {
    Ws
    WI! gn:arer1ban 0.25 Ws
    Ts less \han D.06 sec.
    Note: Case 4 may always be usal"
    Suppmt SaW Iii .. !
    with It. equal to the SIIIIIIJl:rof
    tile values for tile cquipmeul
    or saiiCWie from Table 4A
    <=-.==2.75
    C based on gmibincd system T
    (Lump mass of item with mass of suiiCWie)
    NOD-Building lIE!!! and A
    n
    5hemeE
    Use laJpr of v" = 0.5 ZI, WE
    or v" = ZC,l,W
    E
    wi%hC,fromTable4.5
    (HOle: usc 2.0 x C; if SUPpuit SUiiCWic is
    tbible and 2.0 x C; IIIIed DOt exceed two)
    CASE 3
    4.B-3
    WE
    Ws
    WI! gearer\han 0.25 Ws
    T E graDIZ' \han 0.06 sec.
    (Rexiblo)
    with It. equal to the smaller of
    the vaIaes far 1he erp.ipii iC'!ftt
    orauuawe from Table 4A
    <=-.=2.75
    C based on mmbined SysIaD T
    CASE 4
    B. EXAMPT ,F.C!
    Example: Table Top Rl:hd'mced CouwClii SlnICUIle Supponing lteacIor Vessels
    30'
    16'
    I t I I I
    I I t I
    J
    Itt 1t2 Its
    3V,a"-
    I:!


    3*-
    1
    .
    1"1'
    1
    1"1'
    1,.-
    1
    JD ID JD
    f--
    \.1 'Z,!I
    " "
    ,
    /
    ,
    y

    y.
    ,rr -X-6"sq
    I-L...,..
    4- l...!-
    i It'
    Jt
    11' 11'
    ,
    fRONTE EVA'llON
    ,

    .... - .. - -.. - .... - ... - .... - .. ".-
    . . . . . .

    13.5'
    1 1 I II


    I
    . . .. .
    j- - - - - t i -- --- i -j- -. - - -1-
    I

    PESIGNPATA:
    -WEIGHT:
    3P.........,
    StIIel P1atfmm
    Support SU'III:lln
    a fIXI'
    .. 10"

    TOTAL W .. 845"
    '5,. I
    -coNCREmDATA:
    rc: .. 4_ Py .. 60ksi
    I I I I J
    I I I
    , I
    , I
    Y
    'T 11' T
    sure E EV ATION
    .-_OCI'AGON
    OPBNING (TYP)
    CKilEklA:
    Z. .. G.4(ZaDe4)
    I .. 1.0
    S .. 1.5
    R.. .. 4.0 (SeeNoie 1)
    DETERMINE STRUCTURAL PERIOD. T :
    By iDspcction, each of the reactors is rigid and thus the ftmdarnental period of the
    combined structure will be determined based on the stiffness of the supponing
    structure. If the reactor vessels are not rigid (i.e. T > .06 seconds), then the
    structure may be considered as a two lumped mass system whose period may be
    detcnnincd using other methods.
    1) 'IRANSVERSE DlREClION
    ..
    (
    1 ) .. W .. (30)(30)' .. 67,500 in.
    4
    C gTtJ18 12 12
    Assume (Ie) eff .. 50% x IJtIISS" 33,750 ill.
    4
    Be = S7J.4000 = 360S ksi
    Assume the table top slab is a Rigid
    diaphragm. (See NOli: 2)
    Support stiffness per Bent :
    For simplicity, assume as a lDomem wi1h
    iDfuIite1y rigid girder.

    H3
    12x3605z33750z2
    ..
    (14.67z12)3
    =535 kips/ill. (pc:rbent)
    D{ .. 4zS35 .. 2140k / fa.
    FmvIamenta
    J
    Period :
    Too2ft.J:!
    wIIere: M .. toIIllDISS of vessel
    +suppcA1
    Ie. = suppmts'iFfne
    ss
    =D.20Sec.
    NO'IE 1: The suppcnliug SInICIUnI is a COlII:Zefe special momem-reslsring ti'aD!e. theu.Io,,:, UIIIIer
    mdiJwy QrnunS!l!!!rljS iIs R. equa1s 8.0. Howm:r. !w;cause the v.oeight of the vessel
    dmninares that of the SUIICtiIle, WIll c:IIoosc DOt to use Case 3 (as pr ,led ill the
    methodology section). Inqead WIll consider the combined sullCUile to be leptwe,da';ve of
    Case 4. wi1h the sysrmn R. rakea to be that of the vessel suppcnled by a steel skirt, i.e.. R. ..
    4.0.
    NO'IE 2 : If diaphragm is DOt rigid, then the period calculatiOD should be pmonm:d based on the
    Irihutary JDasS per bent.
    4.B-S
    v
    --
    DETERMINE BASE SHEAR:
    Similarly like in Ihc tmrISvase
    diJectiOD, Ihc suuc:tum1 period of
    Ihc Suppon can be deLhi lIIined as
    foIlows :
    Fumfamenta! Period:
    T=
    2Jr
    i M
    :IX


    .. =G.2Sec
    214W86.4
    Since Ihc pclriod and R.m boIb Ihc same in both directioDs. SO toll will be Ihc base shear.
    V ..
    R",
    R", =4.0
    L2SS l.25zLS
    C ... -=
    r 13 (o:JJJy.1 3
    C 2.7S
    -=-=o.6!l>G.2S
    R,. 4.0
    V = o.uLO.lO.69zW
    =0.276%845
    ... 233 kips
    4.&-6
    LATERAL FORCE DISTRlBUTION :
    Since the subject table top sauctUrC has a rigid diaphragm. the lateral force is
    distributed to each bent per its relative stiffness. Since the stiffness of each bent is the
    same. the lateral fcm:e to each bent is essentially identi.caI.
    TRANSVERSE DJlU!ClION :
    F._-
    .,..

    I

    I

    2/3x3Oo4O' !
    I

    +
    F._
    &=30'
    IL= 16'
    LONGInlDlNALDIRECIION:
    Wt.of SIIf11HJTl.
    (V-Ft)wzh
    F. co %
    % I W I ~
    Whcm F.., = Force at level x
    F
    t
    = Force at top level
    SiDceT <0.7. Ft=O
    (610)(36) x
    &= (610)(36)+(235)(16) 233=I99kips
    Same as far lrailSia ... dncrion calm1eted above.
    4.B-7
    APPENDIX 4.C
    DETERMINATION OF BASE SHEAR FOR
    SELEC1'ED STRUCTURES
    4.C-l
    Base Shear Remarks
    Fp=ZlpC,Wp V=O.5ZlpW
    1.1 on !hIck skirt
    Ancborage 4.0 0.69ZlW

    Q
    1'1
    1.2 Suppotted 011 sbUcture
    a) For Wv S 25,'Jo WI Vessel&: Zl.,x2x.15W. Rigid or flexible
    Wv
    anchorage equipment supported on
    flexible structure
    Special Support structure 8.0 0.34Z1W
    Moment Resisting
    Frame (SMRP)
    steel OrdiIlll1l' Moment-
    6.0 0.46Z1W Non buildIng structure
    Resisting Frame (OMRP)
    wltb structure system
    &: conc. Intermediate
    similar to building
    Moment-Resisting

    Frame (lMRP)
    Ws b) ForWv > 25'Jo Wa
    Vessel &:anchorage . 4.0 0.69ZlW
    steel &: cone. SMRF.
    and support sJtucIure
    steel OMRP. and cone
    .. '
    -

    EqulpmenUStruclure Types Componenls
    a. Base Shear Equation Remarks
    2.0 Horizontal vesselslExchangers
    V=zg
    ~
    Fp"'ZlpCp W. V=O.5ZlpW
    2.1 On shortIdgld piers
    ~
    -Ji)
    Forbotb Vessel and anchorage
    ZIp" 213"
    -1
    ,-
    longhudlnal and
    transverse dlrecllona
    .75W.
    rr < 0.06 sec) Support struclUre
    o_.sZlpW Non building structures
    2.2 On IIeltlbte plersllees
    (
    r-
    )
    r
    =:t
    For both Vessel and ancborage ZlplI2.o.myJ
    O.sZl.W Use larger of two
    longitudinal and
    .-

    . transverse directions
    T>D.06sec Support structure 3.0 0.92ZIW Considered as Inverted
    ... _.
    -
    pendulum structure
    EqulpmentlSlructure Types Components R. Base Shear EqnaUon Remarks
    3.0 Alrmoled exchangers (On rans)
    V=ZiCW F,=ZI,C,W, V=II.5ZI,W
    R..
    3.1 Mounted at grade
    a) Longitudinal bent Braced frame 6.0 o.46ZJW Non building Sb'UCture
    concentric steel brace frame with a structural system
    similar \0 buildings
    b) Transverse bent 81_ OMRF Moment frame 6.0 O,46ZlW Same as above
    3.2 Mounted on top of plpeway (less
    Ihan 25" of structure weight)
    a) Transverse bent
    SteeJOMRF Flnfen design 6.0 0,46ZIW Zl.l2xW. Use larger of two
    I'
    "-
    Sa
    ....
    I I
    :-' Steel &; conc. Plpeway design SEB ITBMNO Include reaction from lin
    ~ & e
    SMRFor 4.0 fan
    OMRF
    b) Longltudloal Bent
    A
    Steel concentric Fin fan design 6.0 0.46ZIW Zl,.x2xW. Use larger of two
    X
    braced frame
    lX lX
    (COP)
    ,
    Steel collcenttic Plpeway design SBB ITBMNO. Include reaction from lin
    braced frame 4.0 fan
    (COP)
    "
    CoDCJete SMRF or Plpeway design 8BB rmMNO. Same as above
    OMRF
    4.0
    .
    ,
    "

    '. '"


    -
    EqulpmentiStructure Types Components
    R. Remarks
    4.0 Plpen"
    V=ZHa! F,=ZlpC.W, v=o.szlpW
    R ..
    /'
    I !c{ \ Ii'" V' Traasverse
    "'V \' I' .,
    l IF: IF l I
    l IF
    4.1 Steelframe main plpeway SMRF B.O O.34ZIW Non building structure
    a) Traasverse benl OMRF 6.0 0.46Z1W ---
    with structuml system
    similar to building
    b) longitudinal benl EBF B.O 0.34Z1W-
    COF 6.0 O.46Z1W
    4.2 Concrete I'rarne main plpeway
    B) Traasverse bent SMRF B.O 0.34Z1W
    Non building structure
    IMRF 6.0 0.46Z1W
    with structuml system
    OMRF S.O O.s$Z1W similar 10 building
    --
    b) longitudinal bent SMRF B.O 0.34Z1W
    1MRP 6.0 o.46Z1W
    OMRF S.O O.SSZlW
    Steel Bracing 6.0 0.46Z1W
    4.3 SleeUconcrete candlever stanchion Candlever Column 4.0 D.69ZlW Nole difference between

    plpeway and Inverted
    pendulum
    I
    .1

    'W"
    .... ,
    EqulpmentlStrudure Tft1!8 Componmts
    It.
    Base Shear Equation Remarks
    5.0 Horizontal box healerlfumaee
    V=ZI!a! r,..ZI,c.w, V=O.!IZI,W
    a;;-
    S.I LongltudlnallJraced frame and/or shear
    panel
    rSn
    CDP or shear panel 6.0 o.46ZIW Non building structure
    deslsn (usually with structural system
    redundant system) similar to building
    X X
    -
    S.2 Transverse momml frame
    A
    ~ I
    OMRF 6.0 0.46ZIW Non building slrueture
    with structural system
    // similar to building
    ~ ~
    S.3 Tall concrete p1erlpedestal pier/pedestal 3.0 O.92ZIW Inverted pendulum type
    system
    EqulpmentlStnu:lure Types Components
    R.
    Base Shear !quaUon Remarks
    6.0 Vessel on bracedlnnbraeed legs V .. ZICW
    F,=ZI.C.W,
    V..o.sZlpW

    6.1 Sphere (wllhoul top girder or
    stiffening ring)
    Sphere and bnu:ed 4.0 0.69ZIW Noo building structure
    frame design
    Use same base shear for

    design of anchorage and
    support structure

    6.2 Stack/cylindrical furnace.
    vertical vessel. or hopper on
    cantilever or braced legs (wIthout top
    girder or stiffening ring)
    r"o
    Steel bnu:ed legs 4.0 o.69ZIW
    Steel cantilever legs 3.0 O.92ZlW
    - --
    - Concrete cantilever 3.0 o.92ZlW
    l;..
    .
    EqulpmenUStructure Types Components
    R.
    Base Shear Equation Remarks
    7.0 BoDers
    V = ~
    F.=ZlpC;Wp V=O.5ZlpW
    R,.
    ~
    '(Jf
    0

    Light steell'tamed 6.0 0.4fiZ1W Non building structure
    wall with structural system
    lransmse or similar to building
    Steel braced frame
    where bracing csrrles
    II
    gravity
    II"
    or
    SteelOMRP
    ,,&LJil
    J ' ~
    b!!ngltu!!ll!!!!

    Equlpment/Struclure T7Jles Components
    R.. Base Shear Equadon Remarks
    B.O CooJlng Tower V ..
    B;
    Fp=ZI.C.
    W

    VaO.5ZI,W
    ~ L r l L U 1
    ""'
    Tnmnme Wooden braced B.O 0.34ZI\V Non building slructure
    frame willi SInIclural syslem
    similar 10 building
    I I I I I I
    I L___________________ I
    LonBll!!!llnal
    APPENDIX 4.D
    STABILITYCHECK USING
    ENERGY BALANCE APPROACH
    (ExistfDg FaclUties Only)
    4.0.1
    .- -, . , .. ..
    4.D.1 INTRODUCTION
    The factor of safety against ovenuming under static loading is defined as the ratio of
    the resisting forces to 1lIe Ol'eJlIllDing forces. However, this classical approach may be
    overly conservative when used for earthquake loadings since it does not recognize the
    dynamic cbaracter of 1lIe loading. The methodology described in this Appendix is adapted
    from material presented by lhcbte1 (1980) and presents an approach based on energy
    balance. In this JlM"l1Iud, the factor of safety against overturning during earthquake
    loading is defined as tbe ratio of potential energy (Pee) required to cause overturning
    about one edge of the SUilCtUie to the maximnm kinetic energy (Ke.) in the structure due
    to the earthquake. This factor of safety should be at least 1.5. Presented below is an
    overview of the methodology.
    4.D.2 CALCULATION OFFACI'OR OF SAFEl'f AGAINST OVERTURNING
    The structure is ronsjdered unstable in the overturning mode when the amplitude of
    rocking motion caJlses tbe c::cmter of strw:tura1 mass to reach a position over any edge of
    the base (fig. 4.0.1). 'lh: hO'hanis", of rocldng motion is that of an .inverted. pendulum
    with a vety long natmaJ p:dDd co"'pared with that of the linear, elastic sttuctura1
    response. Hence. so iiIr as Oieilw iii", evaluation is c:ont:eIned, the structure can be
    treated as a rigid body.
    The factor of safety api'iSlI overtuming (FS) is given by:
    IJ1urr.
    ; ~ .. !!.
    KE
    PE = PoteD1ial-zy m GiaimO tbe suucuue
    ="" All
    1( = rmeric eDaIY of Cllllhquake input to tbe SIrUCUIte
    = ~ m y 2
    2
    m = tmal massofdleitliLllUe
    g = ecceImatinn ciaem pPity
    V = I"'$QlI!!!!t II1II1 of tile SII1ICQD6
    All = height to wIIiI:b __ of _ of tile SIrUCUIte must be lifted
    to reach 0'",'" IIhcpwizion for a block as shown in FigAD.l, All is given by:
    All =(1i
    2
    +f) 112_1'
    1i co heightof_of_
    L 12 = half widIh of lllana'aide of suucuue
    4.D-2

    The factor of safety, ps, is then given by:
    FS= mg/lh
    lI2mvl
    The velocity. V, is calculated as follows:
    Total venIcal velocity, Vv = (Vvg
    2
    + VvS2)1I2
    Total x _ direclion velocity, Vz = (VZg2 + VZS
    2
    )1I2
    Totaly-direclionvelac:lty, Vy = (Vyg2 + VyS2)1I2
    where:
    Vvg, VXg. Vyg me the peak JlOU"'d velocities in the vertical, X and Y db:ectiODS
    Vvs, Vxs. Vys me the sttuctQre velocities in the vertical, :It and y directions
    Using the coJl\POilCll1 factor method to obtain total struc:tum response from separate
    lateral and vertica1 analyses. there me three diffCImlt load combinatiODS to consider:
    CombinatiOD I: 100% Venica1 + 30% Horizontal :It + 30%BorlzODtal y
    v = [Vv
    2
    + (D.3Vz)2 + (D.3Vy)2j
    = [Vvi + Vvs
    2
    +O.o!l(VZS
    2
    + V.a:r
    2
    + Vyg2 + Vy.f2)j
    Combination 2: 3O'JD Vertical + 100% Horizontal :It + 3QIH, Horlzcmtal Y
    v = [O.o9(VPg2 + Vvs
    2
    )+ Vzs2 + V.a:r
    2
    + D.09(Vyg2 + 'Vy.f2)j
    CombinatiOD 3: 30% Vertical + 3Q1J& Horizontal:lt + lOOCJfJ Borlzcmtal Y
    v = [o.09(VPg2 + Vvs
    2
    + Vzs2 + V.a:r
    2
    ) + Vyg2 + 'Vy.f2j
    For cases where the spet:ified :It and Y horizontal grou:ad motiolls and structma1
    responses are the same fI.e.. conservatiYc use of the peak of the velocity respoDSe
    spectia). CombjnariODs :2 and 3 me irfenricaI and htmcc 0Dly two load combjnatimls need
    to be considered.
    Note that in the above computation of total vertical and horizontal. velocides., the true
    relative velocity is IIK)Je appropdate to use than the peak groUDd velocity. However, for
    long period osc:t1!ators, this value approaches the groUDd velocity. wbi:teas the commouly
    used pseudo-spectral velocity tcDds to zero. Therefore. to guard agaiDst tbe use of
    velocities that are below the groUDd velocity. the peak pound velocity bas been acfded to
    the estimates of the peak structural velocity. No peualty is aV<Jciated with this
    conservative approach since the factor of safety is ordiDarily a very large D I I " ~ c r , despite
    4.D-3
    " " , ..
    the usc of conservative peak velocities. The peak horizontal ground velocity can be
    obtained from any 6:pproptiate source. It is recommended that, lacking other informatiOn,
    a value of 4 fUsee. for 19 n.h;"",," ground acceleration can be used for competent soils
    (Newmark ami Hall. 1982.). For the vertical ground motion, the peak ground velocity
    shall 'be 2/3 of this value. Structure velocities can be obtained knowing the structural
    periods ami the applOpr_ acc:eleration response spectla in all three diIec:tions.
    4.D.3 OtHER EFFEC'lS
    The above analysis 'su"'es rigid body rotation about one edge of the structure that is
    not free to work. Othm' efFrrts such as soil flev"ht1ity, embedment ami buoyancy can
    signific:antly iIIfluence the CUnqhiled factor of safety depending upon local conditions.
    4.D.4 EFJiECl' OF SOn. J'lEXJBB.JTY
    Considering son flexibt1ity bas two significant effects. First it changes the axis about
    which "effective .. rotation '" itS The axis of rotation moves inboard from the edge of
    the struc:t1m:., as shown in Fig. 4.D.2., towards the ccmtcr, thereby making it easier to
    rotate the structure towm:ds instaJriJ/ty. SecoDd, the son can DOW absorb energy (since it
    has :fIcxibiIity). The anw ..
    ml
    ofaueJgy absorbed can be significant ami this effect adds to
    the "Icsistance" to overnld!ing The iDstabiIity equaIion now bee. ,mcs
    ICE = PE+SE
    where:
    SE = sttain eneq:y of the soil block
    A &.ctor of safety of 1.5 is DOW required on the angle cansing ovextuming versus the
    angle at which the above eqhH'inu holds true (Le., 9ovl8 1.5). A chec:k of the computed
    maximum son pressme apinst tbe allowable bearing capacity should also be pcrfoIIneci.
    4.D.5 EFFECI' OF EMBEDMENT
    Embedment gives rise to additional teSistance agaiDst overtuming due to the side
    passive soil piasswe COl.;')' led as follows.
    Let"d"be the depthofendwlncnt sad "d'" be the mne.ged depth wbere the poUDd
    water table is above the c:kovatiun of the base. The i1rUCture is asslll!tf!d to rotate about
    the toe edge for the OiCilhiiliiu, evahtation. To simplify the aua1ysis for practical
    pUIp05CS, only the passive son pie5SUie developed on the toe-side is CODSidered, and the
    wan friction and action ofdle soil on the opposite side of the structure IR neglected. 'Ibe
    passive pressure diagram is mndHjed to be c:t'nsisteJtt with the ass"mption that the
    structm'I:: rotates about ODe edge. Fi" draining son conditions are also as!!1mgcf Figures
    4.D.3(a) tbrough (c) &bow die J'P!sn1tant idcaU.".d passive pxessurc diagram (Pol for
    different c1evations of the pIIIIld water table when it is above the base (i.e.. d' 0).
    4.D-4
    As was the case when consicleriag soil flexibility at the base of the strIlCtU1'e, the effect
    of embedment is to include some strain energy absorbed by the soil in the instability
    equation KE = PE + SE. Calculation of the strain energy can be performed through
    integration of the pressure and strain diStlibution over the volume of soil affected.
    4.D.6 ElF'ECT OF BUOYANCY
    When the ground water table is above the base (d' > 0), the buoyant force has the
    effect of increasing the OlO!\X.tUming potential of the struc:ture. The buoyant force B acts at
    the centroid of the volume uf water displaced by the subme:tged ponien of the st.-IlCtUre,
    and its magoitude varies during the Ove.ttllOling process. At. any position before
    overtuming takes place, t'Je centroid of the displaced volume of water is located at height
    z above the elevation of the edge R and the corresponding buoyant forc.c is Bz
    (Fig. 4.0.4). The work done Ly the buoyant force is:
    where Za and Zt. are the heights of the centNld ofbuoyaDt force above the edge for the
    . equilibrium and tipping positions. respectively.
    In the instability equation, the work done by the buoyant force is additive to the kinetic
    energy imposed by the earthquake, i.e..
    KE+WB = PE+SE
    In addjrinn to buoyaucy effects, if the block is sitting on saturated ground, suction is
    created when the block tries to lift off. It should be noted that the positive effect of this
    suction in resisting overturning is difiicuIt to quantify, but may be much larger than any
    effects of buoyancy, especially wben the water is vmy shallow.
    4.D-S
    ,....... POSmON (B)
    POsmON (A) , ........
    .... ....
    " ........ ,
    ...
    "
    , ,
    , ,
    I ,
    , .... J' .. ----- .......,t /
    .,.,......... f.M I .Ma,
    H ...... .. II. I fI--r-
    .......... ! i l -
    .. ,.. ;; II
    ...... "
    .... 1/
    .. _Ft;:, ,,7.,,", *'" , ,"", ..
    1
    Vertical
    Excitation
    LI2
    Figure 4.D.1: Position or the structure when 0vertumiDg About One Edge
    4.1)..6
    Ayl
    ,
    ,
    I
    )t
    Mass
    M
    .... -
    I e
    I
    B
    I.
    I
    I
    I
    LI2
    I
    I
    I
    ,
    I
    I.
    I
    I'
    I
    ,
    I
    ,

    KE .. .!.mv2
    2
    PE=mg(LI2-B)(I
    SE .. 5uainEm:qy of SoiIBloclt
    .. 1/2cr AV (EAV) (VobameofSoilBloclt)
    CI AV .. Avc:rapsuess in soil bloclt
    E
    AV
    .. Avc:rapSllllininlOllbloclt
    KE .. PE+SE
    !!!! > LS (faclor of safety of 1.5 against OV&WiaiDg)
    (I
    CI_
    tfllAJl < a.w. (c:brd; pnsSiUe lesstbalUlllowablc baring c:apacity)
    FIgure 4.D.l: Effect of SoD FlexiblJlty
    4J)..7

    T
    z
    1
    d=d'
    (A)d'=d
    ~
    p;
    . r'
    ...JZ.... _.-
    -
    \
    f7
    d'
    ~
    (B) dfl <d' <Ii
    d'
    (C) O<d'<dfl
    FIgure 4..3: Idealized PassIve SoD PressW'l! for (hC1turDiug About Edge R
    4.0-8

    tJ

    m


    0

    t9
    i=t:

    1:1
    ..J
    e.g.,
    .j
    I>
    /1
    J
    ri
    J

    e
    I

    c
    a-
    S

    I
    1
    z
    0
    -
    to
    t:

    i
    !
    :E



    ...
    =
    d
    tJ
    :J

    -
    f
    g
    J
    f;J;j
    .-.
    ..J <

    ....,

    4.0-9
    APPENDIX 4.E

    OF SLIDING DISPLACEMENTS
    (Existing Facilities Only)
    4.E-l
    E.! INTRODUCI'ION
    The occunence of sliding of the structure as a rigid body due to earthquake loads does
    not necessarily lead to a failure mode as long as sliding is within tolerable limits. A
    J]J'!a",rre of the factor of safety then is the ratio of the calculated to allowable
    displacements. The methodology describecl in this appendix is adapted from material
    presented by Bechtel (1980) that fOnows and procedure originally developed by Newmark
    in which an acceleration. ng
    t
    is defined that would just cause a rigid block to slide.
    E.2 ME1HODOLOGY
    A.sstmring asiDgle acceleration pulse, ofmagnitude tlbg and of duration II. is applied to
    the rigid block (Fjgure 4.E.l-b). a velocity plot. as shown in Figure 4.E. loe. can be
    coJlStrUCted. Given the ma!juNhI horizontal ground velocity. Vilma.. time 1/ is then
    estimated from: .
    The velocity due to the UlSjding acceleration is given by ngt. At. time 12. the two
    velocities are equal and the rigid block comes to rest relative to the ground. From Figure
    4.E.1-c, time t2 is given by:
    ~
    t .. H_
    2. lIB
    The maximum displace"e"t of the rigid block relative to the ground is obtained by
    integrating the velocity curves up to time 12 and subtracting the n:su1ts. This is equivalent
    to COmputing the area of the shaded lriangle. The maximum is then given by:
    A, = Me ,h,,,,,," sUdiDJ .'1;'" e "e",
    V .. M"jhhiili IDIIl wlacllyof1hcS1lUClllnin 1hcbwiUlillaJ diMclion
    H_
    I '" Acm1enllian - to JIIl'VitY
    I1.h .. MaJimmn total hi +iMp"'" acce.\aation in g' 5
    n" FIacIicm of gIlh" .a' acce.\enIIion tbat would cause the SIrIICIIIre to slide
    .. "U-I1.y)
    Jl" Coeftlr:lau of fiietiuo between S1IUCIIIn lUid ground
    11. .. MaJimmn vcaicalllX:elaation
    11
    4.E-2
    Using the component Iactor InetDOQ, "n-............ -- ______ _
    Combination 1: 100% Venical + 30% Horizontal x + 30% Horizontal y
    112
    V
    H
    _ = [0.09 (v.%i + If.D2 + Vyg2 + 1IyI2)]
    all = [ 0 . 0 9 ( ~ +,,;)]112
    1I=1I(1-a.)
    Combination 2: 30% Vertical + 100% Horizontal x + 30% Horizontal y
    V
    s
    _ = [(V;rg2 + V%l
    2
    +O.09(Vy,2 + Vy.l'2 )J1I2
    all = [a%2 +O.09a
    y
    2f
    II = II (1- D.3av)
    Combination 3: 30% Vertical + 30% Horizontal x + 100% Horizontal y
    V
    s
    _ = [v.n
    2
    + 1IyI2 +D.09 (v%i + V%l2)]112
    all =[Ill +o.09a% 2f
    II = II (1- D.3a,,)
    In the above equations; Vxg, Vyg. Vvg are the peak ground ve1oc:ities in the X, y and
    vcnical directions; Vxs. V:ys. Vw are the structure velocities in the X, Y sud vertical
    directions; a... a,. a. are the peak amplified struc:tmal acc:cIerations in the x, y 8Ild vertical
    directions. Vertical ground xesponse parameteIS can be taken as 2/3 of horlz .. atal values
    aDd values of peak ground velocity can be estimated from emrical equadODS.
    It is to be DOted from the equation for As that when the applied acceleradon coe:fficlent
    lib is less than or equal to the les;s' ;ag acc:elcration coefficient Do As is equal to ZI:l'O. This
    result is compa",,\e with the definition of the c:oefficieat Do Relative displacement would
    occur only when lib is greater than Do SettiDJ DIa., in the equation equal to ZI:l'O will
    provide an upper bound esljuwte of As: howewr. it must be mcogaked that this
    simpijfication leads to finite dispJaccmems for aD. cases.
    Note that in order to calcuJate total dispJacement, the sliding dispJaC'ement needs to be
    added to the in-structme deformadon, a5mrming the structure does not move at its base.
    4.E-3
    W.=W (l-a.)

    F,
    (A) SLIDING MODEL
    III - - ~ - - - - -
    tl
    (8) RECTANGl.Il.AR ACCELERATOR PtlLSE
    I



    ~ S'IRUC'I'UREMO'IION







    I


    I
    I

    (C) MAXIMUM VELOCI'IY VS. 'l1ME
    Figure 4.E.l: Sllding due to Earthquake
    4.E-4
    TIME
    APPENDIX 4.F
    RISK MANAGEMENT AND PREVENTION PROGRAM (RMPP)
    GUIDELINES FOR SEISMIC ASSESSMENT OF FACILITIES
    CONTAINING ACUTELY HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
    Committee Note: This appendix contaiDs a document prepared by others for use In
    evaJuating existing faclJities. It Is reprinted In its entirety because It Is Wllently
    beiDg used by regulators throughout CaDfortda for facilities containing Ac:u.tely
    Hazardous Materials, but it Is not pubUshed and Is not easily obtainable by
    practicing engineers.
    4.F-i

    PROPOSED GtlIDANCE
    FOR
    RMPP SEISMIC ASSESSMENTS
    Prepared for the
    RMPP StJB.COMMIttEE of the
    SOUl'BERN CALIFORNIA FIRE :BII<:!4'S ASSOCIATION
    Prepared by the
    RMPP SEISMIC GUIDANCE COMMIttEE
    June 1992
    4.F-i
    RMPP SEISMIC GUIDANCE COMMITTEE
    Teclmical Authors
    Roben Bachman, Chair
    LceBenuska
    Sohrab Esfandiari
    Orban Gurbuz
    OordonHau
    J.ucien Hersh
    MikeKnarr
    Alfredo Lopez
    JobnMasek
    Allan Porush
    Mayasanclra Ravinclra
    Philip Richter
    Kenneth Saunders
    Ian Stubbs
    Paul Summers
    WenTong
    Lmy WesseJink
    Joe Young
    Other Contributors
    Catherine Caraway
    JIDl Goodfellow
    Fred Lercarl
    Tony Markham
    Edward Mueblbacher
    David Myers
    Jeanne Perkins
    Barllara Yu
    Fluor Daniel, Inc.
    Lindvall Richter Benuska Associates
    ABB Impell Corporation
    Becb.td Cmporation
    ABB Impell Corporation
    Bechtel Coxporation
    Southem Califomia Edison Company
    Bechtel Cmporation
    Dames Ie. Mom:c
    Dames Ie. Mom:c
    EQEJntemadonal
    FluOr Daniel, Inc.
    Hopper Ie. Associates
    E8tL Engineering, Inc.
    WGP Engineering, Inc.
    EQE International
    Chevron Research Ie. Technology Company
    East Bay Municipal Utility District
    Califomia Office of Emergency Services
    can,,, "i, Seismic Safety Commission
    Cafifumia Office of Emergency Services
    Los ADgcles aty Fite Department
    South Coast Air Quality Management District
    Los Angeles Cty Fite Departtmmt
    Associatiml of Bay A%ea Go'Yefiiiilents
    Los AngeJes County Fite Depauwent
    4.F-ii
    CONTENTS
    DESCRIPTION
    PAGE
    Title Page
    4F-ii
    Auth.m's
    4F-iii , .
    Contents
    4F-iv
    1.0 Introduction
    4F-l
    2.0 Seho;;;.; f.; ~ : ~ a z u d Evaluation CDteria for Existing FacjUties
    -4F-2
    3.0 Walkthrough Considerations
    4F-3
    4.0 Analytical Evaluation Methodology for Existing Structures
    and Systems 4F-3
    5.0 Assessment ofEquipmmlt and Non-structural Elements 4F-S
    6.0 Ac:ccptmxce Prac:edme for Above Ground Piping Systems 4F-S
    7.0 New Fat:t
    1
    jries 4F-ll
    8.0 Strengtbcaiug Criteria
    4F-12
    9.0 RefeIcnces 4F-12
    Table 1 Ductility-based Reduction FacImS (Q) for Existing
    Structures and Systems 4F-16
    4.F-iv
    ~ ..
    PROPOSED GUIDANCE FOR RMPP SEISMIC ASSESSMENTS
    1.0 INTRODUcnON
    The objective of Risk Mauagement and PreveDIion Program (RMPP) seismic
    assessments is to provide reasonable assurance that a release of Acutely Hazardous
    Materials (ADM) having offsite consequences would not occur as the result of a
    major earthquake, The purpose of this doc'''''C!JIt is to provide guidance regarding
    acceptable criteria to be used in such assessmM'S The guidance provided is
    applicable to structural systems and compoDents whose failure would result in the
    ~ of sufficient quantities of AHM to be of concern. .
    The gnidance given in this docnme
    mr
    provides fiIr a cfeterministic evaluation of
    structural systems and components. This evaluation is generally performed
    considering an earthquake level which bas a law probability of occunence. The
    seismic capacity of stmctures and C" ,nq"""rmtl! tD withstand this level of earthquake is
    calculated using realistic criteria and ass qrticms. An alternate approach is to
    ..-. babilistic' , ":-'- ...c .... ___ .f_' and' 'ghts the
    _.arm a pro ~ assesSl!lent w ....... r-........... estnnates JDS1 on
    relative risks and vuJnembilities of diffeleut SYSJr:mS and components.
    ConfOl1l!aDce to this docnment does not guaIIII1ee or assure that an AHM release
    will not occur in the event of strong earthquaJre ground motions, Rather, the
    guidance provided is intended to minill'ljp: the risk of release of AHM by reducing
    uncertainties and increasing resistance to earthqnake ground motions.
    It is assnmed that the owner, administering agazcy, and consultant petfU! ming the
    hazard and operability study will identify the systems and components of concem to
    the RMPP seismic consnltant It is exyrted that three classes of items will be
    evaluated. These an::
    1) Systems which C:C""ain snfficieut qna!lli'ies of AHM to be of concem,
    2) Adjacent fac:tUries whose sttuctw:al far"hmo. or displacement could result in the
    :failme of systems which c:ontain AHM.
    3) Utility systems which would be requited to operate following an earthquake
    for emeJgem:y reaction or to maintain the facility in a safe condition, e.g.,
    firewater or emergency power StSlems
    At this time, CaIifomia state law requires tbataU new facJljties buih after Janwuy I,
    1990, be designed in accordance with the 1981 edition of the Unifonn Building Code
    (UBC), It is the conseasus of the Srismic GnjdaDre Committee that AHM systems
    aDd components designed in accordance with the 1988 UBC (or later) provisions
    provide reasonable assurance of withstmufing eanhquake effects without either
    4.F-l
    . -.'
    I',
    structural failure or a ldease of AHM having offsite CODSequence5. Two situations
    exist for which the Committee feels it is applOpJiate to exceed the minjmum
    requirements of the aBC. The fim case is when the facility is situated near an active
    fault.' The earthquake ground motions in the near field zone of a major earthquake
    may be gteater than those specified in the UBC. The second case is when the facility
    is situated on a soft soil site identified as UBC Soil Profile S4. Here, the site
    t5pODSC amplification effect may ueed to be increased beyond the amplificarioo
    factors currently provided by the UBC. It is the judgment of the Committee that
    guidance provided in abc Reco"""""ded Lateral Force Requimnents and
    Commentary of the Sttvetaml Engineer; Asscv:iation of Califomia may be utilized to
    assess the extent of possible bigher ground motions in these two cases.
    2.0 SEISM:!!C BAZARDEVALUATION
    FACILITIF.S
    A site specific seismic Iiazaxd assessment shrmld address and. where apPIOjlliate.
    quantify the following emdIquake effects::
    1) Gmumi sbaking. inclmting local site amrJjfic:ption effects
    2)' Liquefaction
    3) Fanlhuptwe
    4) Seismic settle iF. ill
    5) T mufsJide
    6) TSlllla
    m
    ilseicbD
    It is the consensus of the Seismjc GlIidance Committee !bat the earthqUake hazard
    which sbouId be used as the basis for evaluation is that which has only a 109&
    probabllily ofbeiDg el! wed in SO}'elllS. ie.. one with a mean =um period of 475
    years. 'Ibis probabffity of 1/ ismic hazard is the same as !bat used for establishing the
    design earthquake gromui motion for IICW fac:jlities as ip'Cified in the 1991 UBC.
    Three Pl(ICC 'hies am .,..,jlalt1e to chamc'e' im ground motions associated with the
    above retu:m period.
    1) Utilize the UBC static base shear equation or UBC standard specual sbapes
    anchored to the effective peak ground acceleration (POA).
    2) Utilize ATC-14 spectaal shapes anchmed to the effective PGA.
    3) Develop site specific criteria for ground shaking in teJ:ms of clastic IeSpODSC
    spect1a at 51J1 of c:riticaI damping.
    The pbilosopby of the Committee is to use mean es'i11lates of ground sbakjng for
    assessment. of existing fa",1itieL 1'h=forc. IeSpODSC specua.liquefaction potential,
    and seismic settlement bazaxd esfunate values should be based on mean estimates of
    4.F-2
    oceutrenCe. The Qmmrittee recognizes that combining the UBC base shear equation
    or specttal shapes with a site specific meaD effective PGA represents a mean plus one
    standard deviation groUDd motion estimate, which is conservative.
    Any procedure used to cbaracrer:ize groUDd motions should be adjusted for soil
    conditions and near field fault zone effects. Effective ground motion parameters may
    also be utilized.
    3.0 WALKTHROUGH CONSIDERATIONS
    The evaluation program should be geared to finding, evalW\tiDg and, if necessary,
    strcngtbeniDg governing e
    1
    e
    n
    '*i!IS in the 6)stem. Thus, a systematic walkthrough
    should be an integral part of the serismic evabmtion program. Walkthroughs should
    concentrate on governing elements and potelltial areas of wcmknesses due to design
    or construction deficiencies, mnctifieatioDs. or detmioratioD. These areas of wWmess
    may not be apparent in design drawings or calcnJllfjons. The walkthroughs should be
    conducted by experienced engineers fmrit1illT'with seismic design and the effects of
    earthquakes so that they can zadily identify the areas of weakness and prioritize the
    cfetaUed evaluations that may be needed
    4.0 ANALYTICAL EVALUATION METHODOLOGY FOR EXISTING
    STRUCTURES AND SYSTEMS
    4.1 Define ground motion for evaluation in terms of elastic response spec:tta with
    S% critical damping adjusted if neoessary for Dear' field and soft soil effects.
    These spectta may be based on meaD estimates of OCCUiXence.
    4.2 Acc:eptancc for existing str.uctures, systems, and their fonndllfjons may be
    am ""Z,lished by ODe of the followiDg pI'recllues:
    4.2.1 perroxm elastic modal analysis or cquivaleDt stIIfjc analysis.
    The evaluation COIl$ists of demonsttuiJlg that capacity exceeds
    demand for idtmrified systems. Acx:eptam:e is prcs""rM if the
    following equation is satisfied:
    DEMAND
    ~ D = Dead load
    r
    I
    I
    i
    I
    I
    l
    4..F-3
    CAPAcrtXBASEP ON
    1.6 x Working Stress Allowable
    (without 1I3%diDcr=se)
    or
    L = LiveloperatiDg load
    E = 'Elastic 10% probability in SO year earthquake load at
    5% damping
    III = Capacity reduction factOr (per ACl) or resistance factor
    (per AISC)
    Q = Ductility based Rduction factor per the attaChed Table 1
    R,,= Nominal capacity per AISC Load &. Resistance Factor
    Design (LRFD)
    U = Nominal capacity per ACI
    1) For syStems whose iimd!lTl'!f:Dt!J period (T) is less than the
    period at which the peak spectral acceleration occurs (Tpeak),
    one of the following approaches should lie used to deter.mine
    the applopri4te level of seismic acceleration for the
    v'iidanM"al andhigbermodes
    a. The p=ak spec:ttal amierati.on should be used for the
    6mMmeilW mode of the struc:tIJre. When considering
    higher modes, citherthe p=ak or actual spectral.
    acreJemtions values may be used.
    b. For stmctures whose fundamental period 8IC less than
    D..67xTpeak. the mnimllm spec:ttal accelemtion in the
    mage of O.sxT to 1.5xT may be used in lieu of the peak
    .. ba] acccleIation. When ronsidering higher modes,
    either the peak or acbIalspecuaJ accelerations values may
    be used.
    2) Formbmdant stl'UCtIUal systems, e.g... multiple bents. in which
    seismic loads in individual membcJ:s may be rcdistrlbuted
    without Wlmc. the d!lD!a
    nd
    (from the previous equation) on
    inIfi.vidual mem'heJs may exceed capacity by up to 50 percent.
    3) ReIadve displa'"eli b'llts sball be ctJl!Sicfered and sball include
    tuIsiaual and nansJarioua] deformations. Structural
    displpMmplts that are dete! i j"N! from. an elastic analysis that
    was based on seismic loading mdnced by Q sball be muJti.plied
    by O.5Q [but not less than 1.0 (onc)1 to determine
    disp'. emf'''S to be used in an evaluation.
    GenmDy. the drift (relative borjmntaJ displacement) shall be
    Jess dian D.Ola whmc H is the height between levels of
    " This drift limit" be d :d if" be
    am'''+'a1JOD. may excee ~ it can
    d!lD!!InSbilll=d that greater drift can be tolerated by structural
    and mmstruc:tural dements or the equipment itself.
    4.F-4
    To obtain relative displacements between different support
    points. absolute flmm1
    ati
    on of the individual displacements can
    conservatively be used. Alternatively, the square root of the
    sum of squares (SRSS) method for combining displacements
    may be used where apPloPliate.
    4) When evaluating ovcxtuming, a 15 percent reduction in dead
    load should be assnm
    ed
    to account for vertical acceleration
    effects.
    5) The capacity of m:hor bolts embedded ill t:Oncrete may be
    evaluated in accordmce with the stxeIlgtF! ,ll",sign provisions of
    Section 2624 of the 1991 UBC.
    6) Structures that do DOt pass these evaluation criteria can be re-
    ass-.ed using a DlCI& rigorous appxoach to determine if
    suuctural retrofit is actually requited.
    4.2.2 Structures that are judged to meet the intexlt of the 1988 (or later)
    UBC, and for which a 'Visual field iDspection mveals well-pxopoxtioned
    and complete latexal force misting systexns. may be deemed to meet
    the intent of these requhenwmls withODt further evaluation.
    4.2.3 Altemative procedures using xaticmal analyses based on well
    esrab1isbed principles of DID banics may be used in lieu of those
    pxeS! ribed in these reo II nnwmdarious. Methods such as non-linear
    time history BDBlyses would be acceptable. The resulring inelastic
    deformations must be witbin appxopxiate levcJs to provide Ieasonable
    assurance of SlJ'Ucrnral in'es' i'l.
    5.0 ASSESSMENT OF EOUIPMENT AND NON-sTRUClUKAL
    ELEMENTS
    The anchorage of equipmeDt and JlDD-SUUCtU1'al elements sappoxred within or
    by structuxes may be evalnated in accoxdance with Section 2336 of the 1991
    UBC.
    6.0 ACCEPTANCE PROCEDURE FOR ABOVE GROUND PIPING
    sySTEMS
    6.1 Evaluation of piping systems are primarily IIC':h"Q
    lli
    sbed by field
    walkthroughs. Such qualitative evaluations of piping systems are best done
    by an engineer cxpexiexu:ed in this mea, v.isually inspecting the pipiDg system
    UDder conCClD. This is pIef'emd because some piping is field routed and, in
    4.F-S
    some instances. piping and supports have been modified from that shown on
    design dmwings.
    This guidance is prlmarlly intendoo for ductile steel pipe constructed to a
    national standard such as ASME B31.3. Evaluation of other piping material
    is discussed in Section 6.6.
    6.2 The pJOcedme for eyab.ating above ground piping systelIIS will generally be
    as follows:
    1) Identify piping systemS to be evab1ated.
    . . , ~ De .. t of' --"- basis _.. . ... f -_'CU'
    .IO} tel iIilllfl angmaemgn ......... iWU ~ l j j ; ' "'m u co........ on.
    3) Assess exteat of conosi.onlerosion.
    4) Assess =-of significant cyclic opemtiODalloading conditions
    wbich IDafAdiidal!!iaJly mIuce system fatigue life.
    .. S) Ped'unu a waIktbrougb oflbc piping systems for seismic capability.
    Dtx:nwent the waIktbmugh and identify areas for derailed evaluation.
    6) Complete tile detajJed evaluation of any identified areas and
    n:c::cuiilleml re1liMjaJ actioDs.
    6.3 CompU!I1!!:e with dIese pUl""'fnres does Dot assure compliance with CUllent
    constxuction codes and standuds. It must be emphasized that damage to or
    failure of pipe suppwrs should Dot be construed as a piping failure .m1es
    s
    it
    ditectly contributes to a pessute bmmdmy failure. The intention hexc is to
    pItiStii ve the ess-nrial pIe5Sme cnldaiDing integrity of the piping system but
    DOt lIflCCSsmily leak tigl" hC'S Thercfme, this procedlJI'e does not preclude
    the possibility of small leaks at bolted flanged joints.
    6.4 Ducdle piping sySII:IDS have. in gwmal. performed adequately in past
    earIhquakes. Whete damage bas occuned, it has been mlated to the following
    aspects ofpiping l)s'eiliS:
    1) Brc:essive sc:jmric: ancborm.ovemmn.
    2) IDteJaction with other elements.
    3) &tensiYe amosion cfiws
    Seismic anchor monmeilts conJd MSUlt in relative displaceDIfl1)tS between.
    points of suppmt/atta! "m .... t of the piping systems. Such movements include
    relative disp1arc
    n
    'dUs between vessels. pipe supports, or main headers for
    bJanch lines. 'Jntcmcrion is the FeiS! Ideally induc:ed impact of piping systems
    4.F-6

    with adjacent structures. systemS. or components. including the effects of the
    falling hazards. Corrosion could result in a weakened pipe cross section that
    could fail during an earthquake.
    Additional aspects of piping systems which should also be reviewed during
    the walkthrough for seismic capability are:
    1) Large pipe dispJacemeDtS from inertial effects.
    2) Brittle eJemenu.
    3) Threaded connections, flange joints, and special fittings
    4) lDadequate supports.
    Special features or conditions to illustrate the above cancel us include:
    1) Iuadequate anchorage of attached equipment.
    2) Shortlrigid spans that cannot arcmmnodate the relative displarement
    of the supports. e.g.. piping spanning between two structural systems.
    3) Damaged supports including corrosioD.
    4) Long vertical nms subject to inter level drift.
    S) Large unsupported masses (e.g.. valves) auached to the pipe.
    6) Flanged and threaded connecrinns in high stress locations.
    7) Existing Jeakap locations (flanges. threads, valves. welds).
    8) Extemal corrosion.
    9) Inadequate vertical supports and/or insnfficient lateral :restraints.
    10) Welded attachments to thin wall pipe (,Lf:., pipe less than Schedule
    40).
    11) Excessive seismic dispJ.amnertts of expansion joints.
    12) Brittle elements. such as cast iron pipes.
    13) Sensitive equipment impact (e.g control valves).
    4:F-7
    14) Fatigue of short to medium length rod hangers.
    65. After the walkthrough is perfonned and an analysis is deemed necessary. the
    following general rules should be followed:
    1) Frlcticm Iesistance should not be considered for seismic restnUnt.
    except for the following condition: for long sttaight piping runs with
    numerous supports. :li:iction in the axial direction may be considered.
    2) Spring supports (constant or variable) should not be considered as
    seismic supports.
    3) Slwrt rod hangers can be c:onsidered as effective lateral supports if
    justified
    4) Approprlare stress intensification factor ("i" factms) should be used.
    S) ADowable piping stresses should be teduced to account for fatigue
    effiocts due to significant c:yc1ic OpeJdtion
    al
    loading conditions. In this
    case tho allowables pi sented in Section 6.5.1 may need to be
    red"'.
    6.5.1 Pmced'''es for seismic anchor mov"""mf evaJuation of piping are as
    follows:
    1) Use tho telative seismic anchor displacements as detemIined in
    tho Section 4.2.1.
    2) Piping stress due to seismic anchor i s p ~ t should meet
    the following aitetia
    iM_ S3.0S
    Z A
    i = stress intensification factorfromASMEB31.3 or
    other apPlopDate tefetenee
    M.- = mOD!Mt amplitude due to seismic anchor
    movement using nomina) pipe wall thickness
    z = elastic section modulus of pipe = 2t t
    4.P-8
    Sh = basic material allowable stress at pipe operating
    temperatu:Ie from ASME B31.3 or other
    appiOpriate reference
    r = mean cross sectional radius
    t = design nomjnaJ wan thicJmess minus design
    COJrOS.iODiemsion aJlowances or actual wall
    thic:kness minus future anticipated
    cmrosiODiemsion
    3) Flange cCJlml'dioDS should be checked to ensure that moments
    due to seismic 8J!cbormovement do not result in significant
    leakage. Factors to be considered are flange type and material;
    gasket design; bolt m!!tf:ria', nttmbc:,:, and preload; rated
    pressure and upelating pressure. If the rated pressure is
    greater thaD the o}flB'i'lg pzessure. the moment capacity of
    the flange body may be significant, and an equivalcDt ptesswe
    approach may be used. Bolt loads should also be assessed.
    Bolt stresses above preload may result in inteImittent leakap.
    Bolt stresses above yield are potential concerns.
    6.5.2 Pmcedmes for inteJaclion evaluation of piping are as follows:
    1) ABM piping sball be visually iDspected to identify
    potmtial interactions with adjacent structures, systems,
    or c:omponNlIs Those interactions which could cause
    bl
    .
    unw (epUt e Gamap to plpJDg. p1p1ng C' hiij+oD.Cllts
    (e.g.. c:ontnIl valves), or adjacent critir;al items should
    be nritigated
    Note that res'tic:rjng piping seismic movement to
    pteclnde intmcrion may lead to excessive restraint of
    tbr:rma
    J
    expansion or inbibit other nDCessery

    2) The waIktbrough should also identify the potential for
    interaction bctwee.u adjacent structures. systems or
    co:wpcmelilS. and the AHM piping being investigated.
    Those interacIions wbich could cause unacceptable
    damage to ABM piping should be mitigated. Note that
    falling hazards should be considered in this evaluation.
    6.5.3 PIoc:ohlies for CODOsion evaluation of piping are as follows:
    4.F-9
    1) During walkthrough identify conditions conducive to
    external ccmosion.
    2) Wall tbickness should be evaluated for potential
    reduction due to erosion or corrosion.
    3) Extent of intemal COIIOSionlc:rosion can be evaluated
    by any of the follow.ing methods:
    a. Review of existing COII'Osion inspection program
    for AHM piping systems.
    b. .Review of successful opeutting experience.
    Co Wall tbicJmess measillemcnts.
    4) C
    . . . . andA...-
    ~ " ' i p " e exiSting COl1OSlOIl expenence ~ .........
    IIDtjrjpated cuaosion to original design cuaosion
    a1lowam:e.
    S) This seismic eva1uation guidance is not applicable if
    excessive COIJ'Osion is evident.
    6.5.4 Procedures for seismic inertia evaluation of piping are as
    follows:
    1) Large DDSUppcnted spans of piping should be checked
    for iacrIia loads. The inertial moments should not
    exceaI1hose allowed in Section 6.5.1. It is not
    I'D ary to combine moments from seismic mchor
    movement and inertialloacUng. Inertial loading shall be
    based on the 8pPlopxiate pipe support motions and the
    chI .. ," jsrics of the piping c:cmfigmation. Seismic
    inatial
    l
    oading usually can be evabllltf'i! by simpHfiM
    calcnJatimis.
    2) If tile intent of ASME B31.3 or other 8pPlOPliate
    mab"''''' can be demonstrated to have been met for
    seismic effcas. then the piping system is deemed
    acczptable.
    3) Flange CC)!!1!f'l:rions shall be checked to ensure that
    moments due to seismic inertia loading do not result in
    significant flange leakage. Refer to Section 6.5.1(3).
    4.F-IO
    6.6 Procedures for detennination of allowable stress levels for piping materials
    other than ductile steel accepted by ASME B31.3 are as follows:
    Piping made from materials other than ductile steel accepted by ASME B31.3
    may be required to withstand seismic loading. The criteria ourJines above for
    ductile steel piping should be followed for piping made from other materials
    with the followiJlg allowable str=ss values:
    1) When ductile material piping is designed. and constructed to a national
    standard with basic allowable stresses given, then those values should
    be used.
    2) When piping mpterials meet a natiOO& standard with.a minimmn
    specified tensile strength, a., then the basic allowable suess at
    operating tenlJwatule should be:
    Ductile Materials: Sb = ! a. at temperature
    3
    Brittle Materials: Sb = 1- a. at temperature
    40'
    3) When piping materials cannot be jcfentified with a national standard
    with a mjnimum specified tensile strength. then one should be
    estimated from published literature or a testing program. The basic
    allowable stress at tempeIatuIe should be cletenninc:d usiDg the
    apjJJopdate equation in (2) above, unless a higher allowable can be
    justified by seismic testjng
    4) If a strength cannot be detenDined with a mssooable level of
    confidence, then the piping material should be replaced with one
    having known ptopenie.s.
    7.0 NEW FAClLI'I1ES after adoption of these rules)
    Desi f facili
    t AHM satisfy the . f the
    gn 0 new ties con alft'"g must 5elS1QJC prDVlSlODS 0
    1991 UBC. An I-factor of 1.25 and Ip-factor of 1.5 (for pans and elements of
    structures) should be uri1iud These factors are defined in the UBC.
    4.F-ll
    The fonowing two UBC c:riteda modifications should be included in new designs:
    7.1 . Modify site peak grouad acce1er.ttion for fault near field effects. Use the
    larger of the seismic zane factor (Z) per the 1991 UBC or the site specific
    effective peak gI'OlDId acce
    1
    er.ttion corresponding to a 10% probability of
    being exceeded in SO yeam.
    7.2 Make a rational determination of the effects of soft soil amplification of
    bedtock. motion if the site is der.ennincd to have a UBC Sell Profile S4.
    8.0 STRENG'I'BENING CRITERIA
    In the event a struCtIlre. syst:m, or C'lIiilonent is deemed Imactptab1e based on the
    guidance provided in this doi,"'rent, astn:DgtheDiDg program should be initiated
    Appropriate strengthening ethel ia must be developed to provide reasonable assurance
    that retrofitted items will pel f(jj ill adequately when subjected to strong ground
    shaking
    It should always be kept in mimi that 1hc intent of retrofittiDg these structDIeS,
    systems, or compommts is DOt "to bring them up to cadent code." In many instances
    this may not be practical. Til: rettofit design criteria should be consjstemt with this
    proposed guidance. It is always advisable to meet code requiIements to the extent
    practical
    An imponaDt point to c:cmsjdr:r when mtrofitling is that over strengthening areas of
    the stnJCtUre that ani cundy deficiem in strength can force the weak liDk(s) to
    occur in other elements that are perhaps more brittle. This can have a negative
    impact on overall strIlCtIJml pe:di'llllance dnring a major earthquake. In other words.
    a structure that is present1y weak, butdncrile, should not be strengthened to the point
    that its failure mode becm
    Des
    brittle with a lower energy absozbing capacity.
    9.0 REFERENCFS
    ACI 318-89 Bullcling Code aDd c.!lm .. :uwy - Building Code R.equinmtmtsfor
    Reinforced Ctmcrete, Amer;, an Conctac Institute, November 1989.
    AISI, Steel Tanks for LIquid Storage. in Steel Plate Engineering Data. Volume 1,
    1976 Edition.
    ANSlIAWWA DlDO-84,AWWA Stmldardjor Welded Steel Tanksfor Water
    Storage, American Water Works Association.
    ANSlIASME B31.3, ASME Codefor Pressure Piping Chemical Plant and
    Petrokum Refinery Piping, 1986 Edition.
    4.F-12
    ANSI/ASME B31G-1984, MDnIIIllfor Determining the Rnnaining Strength of
    Convded Pipelina, a Supplement to ANSVASME B3I Code for Pressure Piping.
    API Standard 650, Welded Steel TanJcs for OU Storage, 8th Edition, November 1988.
    ASCE 7-88, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, American
    Society of Civil Engineers, 1988.
    ASCE 1987, 'The Effects of Earthquakes on Power and 1nd1Istrial FaciJjties and
    Implications for Nuclear Power Pltmt Design, " Working Group on Past Behavior,
    Sub-Committce on Dynamic Analysis, Committee on Nuclear Structures and
    Materials, Sttuctm'IIl Division, AImaican Society of Civil Engineers, New York,
    1987.
    ASME Boiler am:! Pressure Vessel Code Section vm. 1989 Division 2. Appendix m.
    Rules for Bolted Flange Connections.
    ATC-14, Evaluating the Seismic ResIstance of Existing Buildings, Prepared by
    Applied Teclmology Cmmcil. 1987.
    BaclunslI, R.E., April 1992, "Proposed Gu.idancefor Preparation ofRMPP Seismic
    Assessments" in Pfoceedings ofHAZMACON '92. Session on "New Developments in
    Earthquake Caused Ha.zardo1l3 MateriDls Releares, "Long Beach, CA.
    Baughman, Paul D., Mani L. Aggarwal, Steven P. Harris, and Robert D. Campbell,
    "Seismic Evaluation of Piping Using bperience Data, II S=cmd Symposium on
    Cmrent Issues Related to Nuclear Power Plant StruclUIeS, Equipment, and Piping
    with Emphasis on Resolution of Seismic Issues in Low Seismicity RegiODS. EPRI
    NP-6437-D. PJepared by B1ecttic Power Resean:h Institute. Palo Alto, Califomia,
    Bechtel Power CoIporation, Bechtel Topical Report BC-TOP-4, Revision 4,
    "Seismic Analyses of Structures and EquqliUtllIt for Nuclear Power PlaIus", 1980.
    Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) Report NP-S617, "RecrnnmDuIed Piping
    Seismic-luJequacy Criteria Based on PeifoTl7UJ1lCe During and After Eart/rqutJkes, "
    Volumes I and 2. PMpared by EQE l:acmporated, January 1983.
    Gurbuz, 0., Lopez. A., Smllwm. P., AprllI992, "lmplmlentation of the Proposed
    RMPP Seismic Assessment GuiIJJmce to Perform a SITUl:IllTIll Seismic Evaluation of
    Ezisting Facilities" in Proc eedings ofHAZMACON '92, Session on "New
    Developments in Earthquake Cm.ued Ha.zardous Materitlls Releases, "
    LoDg Beach, CA.
    Manual of Steel Construction, N'mth Edition. American IDstjmte of Steel
    Construction, 1989.
    4.F-13
    NEBRP Handbook for the Seismic EvalulJtion of Uisting Buildings, Developed by
    the Seismic Safety Council for the Federal Emergency Management Agency
    Based on a PreljmjDlIIY Version PJepared by the Applied Tecbnology Council, 1992.
    Newma1k:, N.M. "Effects ofEanhquakes on Dams and EmbankmentS",
    Geothechnique, Vol. IS, No. 2, Janllary 1965, pp 139-160.
    Newmark, N.M. and Hall, W:1 .. "Earthquake Spectra and Design, EERI
    Monograph", 1982.
    NFPA-13. Sttmdllrdfor the butD11tJtitm ofSpri:nkler Systems. 1988 Edition, National
    FIre Protection Association.
    Perkins, J.B., Wyatt, G.E., Sc:bmidt, J.H., and Selvadm:ay, G .. November 1990.
    Htgqrdous Materials Problems in Earthgugkes: A Guide to 2jleir Cause ond
    Mitigation: Association of Bay AIea Governments, OalcJand, CA, 72 pages.
    Perkins, J.B., Wyatt, G.E., Schmidt, J.H., and Sc1vaduray, G .. November 1990.
    Hrrrpus Materials Problems in Ean!uiu.akes: Background Materials:
    Association of Bay Area Gow. ",,+",S Oakland CA, 281 pages.

    Perkins, J.B .. Wyatt, G.B., No .. e:mhet 1991. Tozic Gas Releases in EartIvptalter.
    Existing Programs. Sources ondJ4itigatitm Strategies: Assrv:iation of Bay Area
    Governments, Oakland, CA, 306pages.
    Perkins, J.B .. Wyatt, G.E., andSelvadaray, G .. April 1992. "Mitigating Tozic Gas
    Releosu in EII.rtIt.qu.aku" in PI' rib", ofHAZMACON '92. Session on "New
    DevelDpmtmts in EtuthquiJks Cmrm'I1tIz.artlma Materials Releases. "Long Beach,
    CA: Association of Bay Area GohG iIiI+nlS, OalcJand, CA, pp 562-573.
    RMPP Pnblication No. 101. RMPP "DnelDpment Guidelbw, "published by Los
    Angeles City A= DeparlmeDt, Hazardous Materials Section, Risk Managelllent &:
    Ptevcntion Programs UDit, Sc:p'""lei 1990.
    RaviDdra, M.K., -Seismic A..uessment ofChemiclll Facilities lhulu Ctdifomia Risk
    Management ond Prevention P'DlIWII, "lntemational Conference on Hazard
    Identification and Risk.ADalysis, s.."iQi' Factors and Human Rc1iabili1;y in Process
    Safety, Jaamary IS-17, 1992, QrIandn. Florlda.
    SEAOC - RectJ71l1l'le1Ule LatertzlForce Requirements ond Commmtory, Seismo]ogy
    Committee Sttuctural Enginecxs Association of Califomia, 1990.
    Stevenson. J.D. and Lapay, WoS., -Amplification Factors to be Used in Simplified
    Seismic Dynmni& Amdysis of Piping SystI!1IiS, .. ASME Paper No. 74-NE-9.
    4.F-14
    State of CalijomiD. Guidance for the PreptJnJtion of II Risk Mll1IIlgement tmd
    Prevention Program. Prepared by California Office of Emergency Services
    Hazardous Material Division. November 1989. .
    Uniform Building Code, 1988 Edition. Jntematioual Confenmcc of Building Offi.cials.
    Uniform Building Code, 1991 Edition.lntemational Conference of Building Officials.
    1992 Supplement to the Uniform Building Code. Intemational Conference of
    Building Officials
    4.F-lS
    A.
    TABLE 1: Ductility-Based Reduction Factors (Q)
    for ExistIDg Strw:tures and Systems
    STRUCTURES SUPPORTING EQUIPMENT
    This covers SUuctU1es whose primary poupose is to support equipment,
    such as air coolers, sph=s. horizon"" vessels, c:xcbangers, h=ters.
    vettical vessels and reactors. etc.
    L Steel stnu:tuns
    Dadilemoment frame
    Use Q=6 if theze is a signiR"!I! departure from the intent of
    -the 1988 (or Iatcr) UBC for special moment-resisting f'rames.
    0ntiuaJ:y1llOJlll!llt frame
    The follow:iDg structural i IM'" Mimics me usually indicative
    of a Q=2 value (also see NCIIe 6):
    a.1ben: is a signifiamr SllaJg1b discontinui1:y in any of the
    vertica1lateral force resicling elements, i.e.. a weak story.
    b.1ben: me partial per.tibiililil. wr:ldcd splices in the
    cohunn
    s
    of the momentresiS'ing frames.
    -
    c.The SUUClUie exhibits suong girder-weak cobmm"
    bebavior. i.e.. under c:ombined lateral and venica11nading,
    hinges occor in a signifit:an
    t
    IDIIJIber of columas before
    occaaing in the ..........
    The following stnlctural clMm I jslics me usually indicative
    of a Q=4 value (also sec NCIIe 6):
    cLADy oftbe moment fnaII=eJt:menrs is not compact.
    c.ADy oftbe beaJn..cohmm coiliienions in the Iatmal force
    msiSling IDI I" .. n! frames does DOt have both: (1) full
    fiC'I.etillion flange welds;1IIIIl (2) a bolted or welded web
    , h"'dJiOD.
    f. 1ben: me bolrcd splices ill the mbnnns of the moment
    msiSling tiawcs tba1dollDtam
    ua
    :t both flanges and the
    web.
    Braced frame
    The following structural c
    ha
    n":If1i
    id
    il's me usually indicative
    of a Q=2 value (also see Note 6):
    a.1ben: is a sigaificaut sumgtb disconrimrity in any of the
    venicallatmal force .esMog clements. i.e.. a weak story
    b.The bmcing system inc:btdcs "K" braced bays. Note: "K"
    bmcing is peiimued forframes of two stories or less by
    using Q=2.. For frames of DIllIe tban two stories, "K"
    bracing must be justified on a case-by-case basis.
    c.Brace WI" ections am IlDl able to develop the capacity of
    the diagonals.
    cLColumn SDlicc details CiIIIIot clevelOll the column
    4.F-16
    Q
    6or8
    2.4. orS
    2.4, orS
    TABLE 1: Dw:tDity.Based Reduction Factors (Q)
    for Existing Structures and Systems (Continued)
    A. STRUCTVRES SUPPORTING EQUIPMENT (Ch"UIIUed)
    Brac:ed frame (Cont.)
    The following structmaJ chamcteristics me usually indicative
    of a Q=4 wJ.ue (also see Note 6):
    e.D.iagcmal e1e
    meills
    designed to cany COIllpIeSSion have
    (k1Ir) glearet dum 120.
    f. The bracing system inclnc!es cbevnm ("V" or inverwi
    "V") hnv:jng that was designed to cany gravity load.
    QmtiIever column
    The following structmaI cbamcrerisrics me usually indicative
    of a Q=1.5 value (also see Note 6):
    a.Column splice dmiIs CIIIIJlOt develop the cohnn capacity.
    b.Axialload demand lepIesents more thalI2O'1b of the axial
    load capacity.
    %. Ccmc:rete struClllres
    Ductile moment frame
    Use Q=6 if then: is a significant depaiaue from the inu:nt of
    the 1988 (or Ia!er) UBC for special moment-mistjng frames.
    luteuliediatemcrment frame
    Ordinary 1IUIJ!Imt frame
    The following stniCIWIIl chamcreri!lrics me usually jndjcative
    of a Q=1.5 value (also see Note 6):
    a. 'lbete is a significant SInIDgtb disl
    e
    hIIinuity in any of the
    venicaI lateral force resistjng e1e
    v
    ours, i.e., a weak stmy.
    b. The SIIiIdIIIc exhibits "1IrmIg giJdc:r-weak column"
    behavint. i.e., under combined Iaretalllllli venical Joading,
    hinges occur in a significant dumber of columns before
    Cle hi iug in the beams.
    e. 'lbete is visible deleriD1'll1ivn of c:oncn:re or reinforcing
    steel in any of the flame eleums,lIIIIi this damage may
    lead to a briule IiI11um mode.
    d.Shear f'lIiItne OCCIIIS befcm= fJextna) faih= in a significant
    JPUIIber of the columns.
    The following stniCIWIIl cbaJacImistics me usually indicative
    of a Q=2.S value (also see Note 6):
    e. The lateral resisting frames incbule pn;stlessed
    (preteDsioned or post-tensioned e1emculS)
    4.F-17
    Q
    1.5 or 2.5
    60rB
    4
    1.5.2.5 or
    3.5

    TABLE 1: DuctDity"Based Reduction Factors (Q)
    for Existing Structures and Systems (Continued) .
    A. STRUCTllRFS SUPPORTING EQtllPMENT (Continued)
    0rdiDary moment frame (Ccmt.)
    f. The beam stirrups and colmnn ties are not IIIIChorr:d into
    the member cams with hooks of
    135" or IIlOle.
    g.Colnnms have ties spaced at greater than dl4tbroughoUt
    their Jength. Beam stimJps are spaced at grealiu than d/2.
    b. ADy colnnm bar lap splice is less than 35db long. Any
    column bar lap splice is not c:aclosed by ties spaced 8db or
    less.
    i. " 1agth for Jcmgimdjna1lms is less than
    24db-
    j. Shear failure oa:ms befoJe ftmmtl failun: in a significant
    " .. ,,'bet ofdte hemns
    Shear wall
    The followiDg sttuctma1 cllamc!=istics are usua1ly iIIcticativo
    of a Q=1.5 wlue (also see Note 6):
    L'Ibem is visible dererioJaIicm of COIJCII'te or reiDfcm:ing
    steel in any of the frame eMIroil's, and Ibis damage may
    lead to a brlUle failure IIlOle.
    b. 'Ibem is a significant stI1mgIb didiscsc:oJlUlllilrinm'Dty ill any of the
    venicalJataal fcm:e _sting d!!lQeiils, i.e.. a weak stoJy.
    c.ADy wan is DOt cujiljMOUS to the HI Ja'jon.
    The followiug said IUI.l charaM'a'.iPies am usuaDy imJjratiye
    of a Q::a wlue (also see Note 6):
    cL TIle &ehifuxc:htg steel for COIiCiele walls is DOt gteattit than
    O.oo:zs times the gross area of the wan aloDg botb the
    JongimdiDal and tmnsver.se axes. TIle spacing of
    leiufUJc:htg steel along eitheraxis ezn"Cds 18 iIIc:b=s.
    e.For shear walls willi HID gmarerthan 2.0. the boundaiy
    d.,"'riUS are not mnfinr4 with citbc:r: (1) spirals; or (2)
    lies at spac:htg of less than 8db.
    f. forconplai shear wall b't
    n
    1dings, muups in any conp1ing
    beam are spaced at gaeatcrtban 8db or are DOt anchon:d
    into the c:me with hooks of 13S" or iDOIe.
    4.F-18
    Q
    1.5.3 orS
    TABLE 1: Ductility-Based Reduction Factors (Q)
    for Existing StrDcbnts and Systems (Continued)
    A. STRUCTURES SOPPORTING EQUIPMENT (Cootinued)
    Cantilever pierlmJmnn
    The following SDUCtunl c:baracteristic am indicative of a
    Q=1.5 value (also see Note 6).
    L TIIcrc is visible deterioration of c:om:rete or reinforcing
    steel in any of the el",",' IllS, IIDd this damage may lII8d to a
    britde failure JDDCIe.
    b. Axial load d!!l!!8lll! lepteseu1S IIlOlI: tban2OCJI, of the load
    capacity.
    The following SDUCtunl c:baracteristic are usually indicalive
    of a Q=2.5 value (also see Note 6).
    c. The ties am DOt anc:hon:d inIo the memher cmcs with
    hooks of 13S" or IIIDJe.
    d. Cohmms have ties spaced at gxeatel' than dl4 tbroughout
    their IeDgIh. Piers bave ties spa=! at gxeatcr tban dI2
    tbmughout their ltmgth.
    Co Any pierlcohmm bar lap splice is less than 3Sdb long.
    Any pierlcohmm bar lap splice is DOt enclosed by ties
    spaced IIdb or less.
    f. Development lcDgth for longjtnOtnpl bars is less than
    24cfb.
    B. EQUIPMENTBEBA VlNG AS STRUCTURES Wlfii
    INTEGRAL SUPPORTS
    L Vertical V"""EJsIheate&S or spheres supported by:
    Steel skirts
    The following sullCtlilal cbamc:ta:istics are usually indicative
    of a Q=2 value (also see Note 6):
    L The diliiWet (D) divided by the tbjclcness (t) of the s1drt
    is gxeatcrtbaD O.441*ElP,.
    where E IIDd F, am the Y OUDg's Jl!CICbdus IIDd yield $UtsS
    of the skirt, respectively.
    Steel brac:ed legs without top girder or sdlfener riIIg
    The following stnICl1IJal c:haracIerisIic am usually indicative
    of a Q=1.5 value (also see Note 6):
    a. The bracing system includes "K" braced bays.
    4.F-19
    Q
    1.5. 2.S or
    3.5
    Q
    2or4
    1.5.30r4
    TABLE 1: DuctIlity-Based Reduction Factors (Q)
    for Existing Structures and Systems (Continued)
    B. EQUIPMENTBEBA VING AS STRUCTURES WIlli
    INTEGRAL SUPPORTS (rAndoUell)
    Steel Juaced legs without top girder or stiIl'ener riDg (Cont.)
    b.Bracc c:o.nutrtions an: not able to develop the capacity of
    the diagonals.
    c.Cobmm splice deraDs cannot develop the cobmm capacity.
    'I'hc following SIn1camIl charactcrisIics an: USLlll!lY im!irative
    of a Q=3 vaIuc (also see Note 6):
    d.DlagonaJ elcnMlils designed to cany compression bave
    (IdIr) gRI8ler tban 120.
    Co The bmcing system inc!udc:s cbeflW C'V" or bMrted
    "V") blacing that was designed to
    c:my gravity load.
    Steel urduaced legs without top girder or slilfeuer ring
    -
    'I'hc following SIn1camIl charactcrisIics an: usually indjcative
    ofaQ=l.5 value
    (also see Note 6):
    LCobmm splice deraDs cannot develop the column aqmcity.
    b.Aldalload demand representS I1IOm tban 2lJ'I, of the axial
    load capacity.
    1. CJdmneys or slacks
    Steelpyal
    Steell'!RldiJewr
    Omrr'*
    C. PIPEw'AYS
    Ncne: This b* )"des pipeways SUPpolliug equipneDt that does not weight
    I1IOm 1ban 259& of the other dead loads. Forpipcways suppotting
    equiJlDltiU1 that weighs more tban 259& of the other dead loads, see
    Seaion A. STRUCTURES SUPPORmmEQUIPMENT
    1.
    S"
    Dw:tIIelilViiidltfnme
    OnIiDaaylliCiillDt frame
    Bxated frame
    "'a
    nlD
    lea wI.1II1II
    4.F-20
    Q
    1.5 or2.S
    4
    4
    4
    Q
    8
    6
    6
    5
    TABLE 1: DudilityBased Reduction Factors (Q)
    for Existing Structures and Systems (Continued)
    C. PIPEWAYS (".I!ialled)
    2. Coacrete
    Ductile moment frame
    Ordinuy mament frame
    CaDtilever .......... a
    - =
    D. FLATBOlTOMEDTANKS (See Note 4)
    1. AIlchored
    2. Uuaadmred
    .
    Eo FOUNDATIONS (See Note 5)
    L Piled
    2. Spread faotlllgs
    F. ANCBORBOLTS (See Note 6)
    1. ADchor bolt yield amtrvJs
    2. CoDcrete faIlme or am:har bohsJippage c:ontroIs, or there Is a IlOJI-
    dudDe force tnmsferma '"",ISID betwusa stractw:e aDd foundation
    (also see Note 7)
    NOTES:
    Q
    8
    5
    4
    Q
    4
    3
    Q
    6
    6
    Q
    As for
    structure
    1.5
    1. The usc of the higbest Q-facIors in each category requites that the elemems of the
    primaly load path of the lateral fon:e misting sysrcmhave been propoItioned to 8SSIIIC
    ductile rather tban briUle system behavior. 'Ibis caD be cfemonsrrared by showing that
    each CUllDCClion in the prima1y load path has an u!rhuate SUCDgth of at least equal to
    150% of the load capacity (governed by either yielding or SUIbility) of the e1emem to
    whieh the load is tnmsfened. A1temaJively. Q-factms should be n:dm:ed consistent
    with the limited dm:tiHty of the governing COjhl"'Ction andIorthe govemiDg wmltCli.on
    should be moDified as requin:d.
    4.F-21
    NOTES (Cont.):
    2. . A Q-factor differeDt from the tabulated values (higher or lower) may be justified on a
    case-by-case basis.
    3. If mon: tban ODe of the conditions specified in the IBble applies. the lowest Q-factor
    associated with those conditions should be used.
    4. Other approved national standards for the seismic assessment of talIks may be used in
    lieu of these gniAli!Jes.
    S. These values ofQ apply to oveJlwning r:Jt!T:
    ks
    , soil bearing, and pile capacities
    6. Ifbolt yidtfinJ COJIIrOls the evalua1ion of the ancIIf.lr t. (as opposed to concrcre
    failme or anchor bolt slippage). and there is a ducIile force traDSfer unbanism betweeJI
    the SIrUcIIIIe and fnuncJation (such as the use of properly propOIuoneci anchor bolt
    chairs between skins or 1IInk sbeJIs and the fol!!!dptjon), then the Q-factDr to be used for
    both the evaJmnion of the anchor bolts and the est of the SIrUCUJnIl system wuesponds
    to thatforthesrruchllal systcmitself.
    If COIlCRiIe f'aiJIue or anchor bolt slippage controls the evallllttion of anchor bolts (as
    opposed to bolt yielding). or there is a non-ductile force transfer mcc:Ivurism between
    the SIrUcIIIIe and foundatinD, then a Q-factDr of 1.5 should be used for the mrbJ8fion of
    the anchor bolts aud the teSt of the stnrcturaJ. sysr.em.. Also see Note 7.
    7. AItema!ively, for SU'UCtDl'es that may contain loc:atjndfsingle features with limited
    clucIiIity, such as Hnriting CODJiecrums or spIic:es. noncompact sreel members, high (kJIr)
    members and mndncriIe anchor bolts. that do DOt occur at a sil2rificant number of
    loc;atimm the load '*j"'ciry of the specific: "miring featare(s) may be mWated and/or
    iuquoved in lieu of using system-wide lower Q-t'actms that tend to generically penalize
    all e1elMiiJs of1lle SUUdUlal system. 'l1IcmWmrion for these Inc:alind feimDes may
    be perfU1illed using a Q-factDr equal to OA tima the Q-facroi ncmmlly lee. h Ibl. 3!cfed
    fLO., waul" ed) for the S)'SIeIII. 'l1Ic evaJuarion for the fflJlw;ade of the system may
    then be pe:tfouDcd using 1IIe Q-factor nmmally itOJJlJIi\lndcd withaut consjdt:nmun of
    the IocaJjmI fea1me wiIh Iimjted clucIiIity.
    4.F-22
    ChapterS
    PRIMARY STRUCTURAL DESIGN
    5.1 INTRODUCTION
    This chapter provides guidance for the seisnlic structural design of petrochcmical
    faet1ifies Once the design forces me csrabHsbed using IIIIIIlysis techniques as
    discussed in Cbapter4. the design may-proceed as omJined in this c:ba.pter. The
    methods described me applicable to structures and components, including supports
    and am:horages of clectrical and mechanical systems. Seismjc design of electrical and
    mecbanjc:al components (e.g. t:raDsf'omIcrs, pwups. CCiUlple5S0rs, vessels. etc.) is
    outside the scope of these guidelines. Both new design. retrofit and modificatilJn of
    existing facilities me addtessed.
    The gnirIeJines proWled herein me based mainly on CUl1ent pracIice. For this
    pmpose, c:ritcria and specificatioDS from several petrochemical companies and
    architectural and engineeIiug firms were collected. rmd reviewed. The criteria and
    practices most commonly used were geDCIlI11y pJefemd and WCftI therefore adopted.
    Criteria related to spcciaJ cases may not be UDivmaJly applicable and therefoIe were
    not incbuJecL As a resuJt, this c:ba.pter incbtdes design I'CC''''''' e' .dations for which a
    genetaI consMsus exists
    Where spec:i6c building code tequiJeneiils me .=e",,=II, this c:ba.pter ptimarlly
    uses the 1994 UBC, as that is the most CCilWWDly used code for lieismic design in
    petrot:bemic:aJ facfflties (see discussion in Chapter 4). Some material is based on
    ASCE 7, when the material is not addJessed in the UBC. Use of these guidelines with
    other codes and standards (e.g., $BC rmd BOCA. which me based on the NEHRP
    (1994) provisious) is expected to result in compatable designs
    5.2 DESIGN CRITERIA
    S.2J.lntroductiOD
    Section S.2 addresses the loading C(\mbinations to be used in design and the
    acceptance criteria to be met. The loading COm])jmujDllS me derived mainly from the
    5-1
    UBC and ASCE 7 and are deHneated to provide specific guidance for common
    structures and components at petroCMmjr.a] facilities. The loading combinations
    CUllently in use by the uugar petroleum firms have also been considered. The
    accCptance criteria are defined by reference to accepted indnstry codes and standards.
    At petrochemical faC""Hties, more types of loads affect the design of members than
    those ge.ue.1IlJy jm:hJded in mdes Thus the engineer should carefully review an
    applicable loads and design the structures components for their effect$,
    . including:
    D = Dead Load is the total weight of materials fOllDing the pt'llllal'ent part of
    a struc:tIn. jm:1udiug struc:tm3l :framjng, pJatfmlllS. waDs, fixed equipment,
    vessels, piping, insnJation and fiaepro diug.
    DV = Vessel 0peIaI:ing Load inclncfes the weight of any liquids or solids
    . within the .. : se], arramed cquipJDCid, and piping durlng nonnal opctatioD.
    DP = Piplng Opctating Load inc1ucfes weight of any liquids or solids wilhin
    '. and ,1-... """';"n 1
    prpmg on ...... equqliiCDI ..... _ DQr11IlL operattOD. "
    L = IJ1e Load is the weight of all movable loads such as pciSODDel, tools,
    stored IlW'erjal. :mowbJc panitions. Cl8!lCS and hoists, maintenance loads, snow
    and icc loads. jnq@i I. surge "9ibmtion, and longitnctinal and transverse
    hodz(Jnt
    al
    fcm::es.from IIIOWlg c.qnit"'e
    ll
    ' The design live loads should be the
    ma.
    bmll
    " Joads likely to ICSUlt iiomde intended use and should not be Jess than
    those given in appJicable bnilding codes.
    E = Earthquala: Loads incbJde de inedia effects due to a design earthquake.
    Far detem:dnation of eat
    l
    ' "l"aIce Joads, Jeter to Chapter 4.
    W = Wmd Loads are tbose stipuJared in applicable mdcs
    s = Snow I Gads are those stipulated in applicable mdcs Roof live load
    should be zep
    1
    aced by the snow load when the snow load is greater.
    n. = lnngitndjnaJ Pipe TbemJilIGad
    s
    , include pipe anchor forces. if any. In
    lieu of d,.",,1ed caJcnJatimJS. the thermal sliding force can be appro:dmated as.
    10% of the vmical operating pipe load plus pipe weight being supported. When
    there are tbree or feIft:r pipes use 30'.1& of the vmical operating pipe load plus
    pipe weight of the heaviest pipe.
    5-2

    T = Thmmal Loads are the loads caused by a change in temperature and may
    resuh from both operating and enviromnental condhions. Such forces should
    include those caused by vessel, piping. and structure expansion and contraction.
    TE = Test Loads, incbJde the weight of equipment and of test fluid related to
    the test condition.
    H = Soil Loads inchJde the effects due to weight and lateral pressure of soil
    and water in soil.
    5.2.2.2 ComhiDatlous of Loads General
    Structures IIIld foundations should be designed for the most critieaJeffects
    resulting from the combination of an applicable loads which may reasonably occur
    simnJtaneously.
    The load combinations for aDowable stress and streDJth design methods are given
    below. It should be noted that codes differ in the treahitmt of load combinations.
    These diffen:Dces often exist between aDowable stress design and strength design
    The local building ju:risdiction for a particular project is the fiDal authority. The
    combinations shown in subsections S.2.2.3 and 5.2.2.4 should be c:onsidered as
    Jcpxesentative of common practice and are JeCViiliilended for use .in the industry.
    In the appJica.tion of the load combinations, the following caveats should be
    adhered to:
    a. Loads other than those specifically jdentifu:d in the loading combiDarions,
    such as lateral son pressmes (11). sett1eJJtmt effects, vibJ:ation loads, impact
    effects, mlative IIIIChor me",.," eilts, bundle loads, occasjonal extreme
    operating loads, fluid pressures, min loads, test loads, blast effects, and
    vehicle loads that could occor simnltaneously, should also be consideIed, as
    apptop,iate.
    Any of the above concwltmt loads PJesent in aDowable stress design should
    be included in the loading combination with factor ofuaity
    Any of the above collCUJIelll loads plesent in factomdload design should be
    added to the loading combination with a factor greater than unity. The load
    factor should be deteu"hlfti consic!ering the accuracy of esriuwte and
    probability of occurrence and should range between 1.2 (low probability of
    oCC1,llrellCC of full value) to 1.6 (high probability of oc:curJeIICe with high
    uncenainty of magnitude).
    b. When the effects of design loads counteract oue another, special care should
    be exercised to ensure adequate safety against maximnm load effects. e.g.,
    5-3
    tempeilltlue effects should not be permitted to reduce the strength require-
    ments.
    When the effect of the dead load is to reduce the design requitemeDts, a load factor
    of 0.9 is used for the dead load. This factor is somewhat greater than the UBC value
    of 0.85. This is justified sizu:e the dead loads at petrochemical fac1
    1iti
    es are more
    precisely defined (i.e., absence of nonstructuraI elements common in
    However, in the case of vessels, the engineer is cautioned to consider the sitnatious
    when part of the dead load is removed, e.g., dead load inside a vessel For example,
    in the loading comhinatioDS that inclnde wind or seisiric loads, a reduction in full
    design live load is in order sizu:e it is amlikely that load wID exist at the time of
    maxirnnm design wind load or design earthquake. A va.l!.le of 0.5 for allowable stress
    design and 1.7 x 0.5 for strength design :.: tbD document.
    5 2.2 3 Loading CombiDatfoDs and Load Factors - Allowable Stress DesJgu
    In the allowable stress design method, the combinM loading effects, with load
    factors of tmity, are compared with the allowable values (stress, strain, or displace-
    ments) in the applicable code. For some co .. drinatio-as of loads, the allowable values
    may be increased by the allowable stress muItiplim' as showD.
    The fonowing combinatious of loads are recomm:ud
    M
    for use in COJ\i1mction
    with the allowable method of design.
    l.D
    Load
    Combination
    2. D+L
    3. D+L+T
    4. D+O.5L+ (EorW}+T
    S. 0.9D - (E or W)
    Vessel Support Design
    A11owab1e
    Stress
    Multiplicr
    1.00
    1.00
    1.33
    1.33
    1.33
    A11owab1e
    Load Stress
    Combination Multiplier
    1. D+DV 1.00
    2. D+DV+(EorW}+T 1.33
    3. D+TE+O.2SW 1.33
    4. 0.9D - (E or W) 1.33
    )
    Pipeway and Pipe and Equipment Support Design
    Allowable
    Stress Load
    Combination Multiplier
    1. D+DP+TI.
    2. D+DP+(EorW)+T
    3. 0.9(D) - (E or W)
    1.00
    1.33
    1.33
    5.2.2.4 Loading Combinations and Load Factors - StreDgth Design
    In the equations below. U designates the required design strength.
    General
    1. U= l.4D
    2. U = l.4D + 1.7L
    3. U = l.4D + 1.7L + 1.4T
    4. U=0.75( 1.4D+0.8SL+(1.9Eor 1.7W)+ 1.4T)
    5. U = 0.9D - (1.4E or 1.3W)
    Vessel Support Desigu
    1. U = 1.4(D + DV)
    2. U = 0.75(1.4D + 1.4DV + (1.9E or 1.7W) + 1.4T)
    3. U = 0.75(1.40 + l.4TE + 0.4W)
    4. U = 0.90 - (1.4E or 1.3W)
    PJpeway and Pipe and Equipment Support Design
    1. 1.4(D + DP + TI..)
    2. 0.75(1.4D + 1.4DP + (1.9E or 1.7W) + lAT)
    3. 0.9D - (UE or 1.3W)
    5.2.3 Acceptance Criteria
    5.2.3.1 General Requirements
    Design of petrocb"p'jea] faCIlities should comply with the project criteria which
    should be developed based OD the owner's spec jfh "tiODS, design criteria and
    appJicable standards. some of which are listed in Sections 5.2.3.2 through 5.2.3.5
    below.
    S-5

    All projects should coliform to the safety requirements of OSHA. Local building
    oftici.als should be consulted to deteimine codes applicable to the project. The
    edition date. and any addenda and/or supplements should be detczmiDed. When more
    thari one code may be applicable, the mcm: stringent provisions should be used.
    5.2.3.2 Steel Acceptance Criteria
    The design, fabrication and erection of steel struetures should be in accordance
    with the requirements of the following applicable references: AISC (1989),
    AlSC (1993), AISI (1986). ASCE B. sn (1990) or AISI (1973).
    J'caign and ccmstnJction of steel fuuuing systemS it! UBC' Seismic :l:Dnes 1
    through 4 should also coDform to the requitcments of applicable sections of the UBC.
    In case of conflict, the more SIriDgcm requirement should apply.
    5.2.3.3 Concrete Acceptance Criteria
    Design and CODStJUCtion of xeiufi>.ced concrete sttuctures should coDform to the
    requirements of ACI 31B.
    In UBC Seismic Zones 2 through 4, dedgn and constxuction of reiDforced
    concrete structures should coDform to the requirpmcnts of applicable sections of the
    UBC. In case of conflict, the mere stringent n:quixement should apply.
    The design, COJIStnlCtion, and quality assurance of masonry components that
    resist serismic forces should conform to the require
    n
    cnt5 of ACI 530 and ACI 530.1
    except as modified by the provisions of the UBC.
    5.2.3.5 Wood
    The design, constxuction, and quality assur.mce of membexs and their fastenings
    in wood systems that resist seismic forces should confoxm to the of the
    UBC.
    5.3 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
    5.3.1 Iatroduction
    This section describes typical structures and components found in petn,v:bemica!
    facilities and provides special design NCOiilliiCndations forthem.
    5.3.2 Buildings
    The buildings typically found in petrOchemical faC'lTtties are administration build-
    ings, control buildings, sobswicms. warehouses. fire houses, maintenance buildings,
    and compressor shellers or bniIdings. They are most oiteD single stOIY buUdings, but
    can be multi-story. Typical construction materials are masomy, concrete and
    strUCtural steeL Lateral load resisting systems used are shear walls, braced frames,
    rigid frames or comblnations. Unlike nonbuilding structures, these buDdings can be
    designeD with direct application of the UBC or other model bllDding codes. For the
    purpose of differentiating these buDding types fi:om nonb1n'ding structures. it is noted
    that they are 1:
    l1J
    Dding shells which generally do not supp>rt opeIating pettOcbemical
    equipment and piping systems In some petrochemical fiu:
    t1iri
    es. control buildings or
    substations are designed additicmaUy to resist blast eff'a:rs from a postn1ated explo-
    sion within the facility.
    5.3.3 NonbuUdJug Strw:tures
    5.3.3.1 Geaeral
    As noted in Chapter4, nonbtto
    1d
    ing structures lepl !If the bulk of items in a
    petrochemical plant. T.Izy can be classified as nonbtn1cting structures with structural
    systems similar to buildiDgs. or orher nonlmilding st:nJCtImIS.
    5.3.3.2 Drift aDd P-DeJta meets
    It is important to note that for nonlmDding sttuctures it is not necessary to meet
    drift criteria specified for other litIUctlJles in the UBC. However, p-DeIta effects
    should be consideted when dIit limits, which would otherwise apply, are exceeded.
    An acceptable p-Delta II118lysis pzocedwc is pM Ilfof in the Co"liiCnrary to
    Sect. lE.9 of SEAOC (1990). For this aualysis. ddft detam;ned using code design
    forces should be multipfied by 3(RwIS). Code design bees have been reduced by
    llRw. Multiplying the msulring deflect;cms by 3CRwJ8) Jives a better appzoxVnatiou
    of real seismic dcflectioDs . This IeqUircmcnt is not clearly stated in SEAOC (1990).
    .. The SEAOC (1990) CoiilliCiltazy equation (el-I), should be modjfird to MlJ1tip1y
    P X A by 3(Rw18). Section S.s bmem should be tefeaed to for other pzccautions
    relative to stlUCtU1'e drift. Note that SEAOC (1990) also uses the quantity 3(Rw/8)
    as a force amplification factor forthc design of critical +"'eills
    The SEAOe (1990) CoiilllCillary contains several cautions rc1ativc to use of the
    3(Rw18) factor to es
    r
    jnm
    te
    inelastic ddlections. The factor is a direct canyover of
    the 3.OJK factor from pzcv.ious editions and is therefOlc based more on tradition than
    on hard facts. The Col ," I cmary states that the force ampJjfication of 3(RwI8) is
    genemIly on the high side while the defotmation factor of 3(RwI8) is on the low side,
    and could be as high as Rw. When Rw is less than 6, the 3(RwI8) factor may become
    sma
    Der
    than the Engineer wanrs to use in design. The value should never be less than
    5-7
    1. Where there is reason for concern, the value should probably not be less than z.
    ASJ. example of such a situation would be when inelastic deformation would cause
    damage to a component containing hazardous or flammable material The
    Collillitmtary also states that P-Delta effecrs are potentially much more significant in
    lower seismic zones than in higher seismic zones. because the relative stiffness of
    1ateralload resisting systems in higher seismic zones is required to be greater than
    those in lower seismic zones.
    5.3.3.3 BaildJDgLike Struc:tun:s
    Pipeways aDd equipment support st:ructures are the two main categories of
    building-like structures found in petrochemical faCt1iries. Materials are concrete or
    structural steel Lateral load resisting systems used are braced ftames and moment-
    resisting frames.
    Pipeways and equipment suppon structnres. are buDding-like because of the
    lateral load resisting systems commonly used. Howewr, they differ from bm1dings in
    that they are most often open stnlCtUres. They lack the non-struetura1 compommts
    found in \t11i1dings, such as wall panels, which increase damping and enexgy
    absorption during a seismic event. Also, they se"'''''Uy have less redund!l!!C)' than
    \tnDdings, They inch1de complex piping systems which may or may not pax'jc :;llte in
    seismic shaking. It is conuwnly thought that dead load participa1ion of piping
    systems in structure inertia forces is ovmes,hna"'" in most designs.
    Pipeways
    Main pipeways are usuaRy frames 20 to 25 fI:et (6 to 8 m) wide, spaced at 20 to
    25 fI:et (6 to 8 m) longitudinally. They generally are longitudinally stNtted and
    braced at every third to fifth bay. They often c:my ODe to tbree levels of ptocess and
    utility piping, conduit and cable trays. Many times air coolers are placed at the top of
    main pipeways. Strucwral steel is most often used for these structures due to the
    ease of em :Iion. When pipeways need to be = resistant, structural steel is encased
    in concrete or the pipeway is coDStrUcted of COJiClete. Ccmcxete pipeways can be
    precast, if a sufficient quantity is requhed to justify establishing a jobsite casting yard.
    There should also be adequate mobile crane capacity for erection. .',
    Secondary pipeways in process UDits, or ofrsite pipeways are usuaRy single level
    unstnltted frames. These frames are 10 to 15 feet (3 to 5 m) wide, spaced at 15 to 20
    feet (5 to 6 m) IongitndinaUy. The material is almost always steel and often not
    fireplOofed.
    Rw values for both main and secondary pipcways are included in Clmpter 4.
    Chevron bracing or cross bracing systems should be used in braced bays and
    designed in accord!!!!ce with the UBC, but K-bracing should not be used. The
    SEAOC (1990) Commentary to Sect. 4O.3.b. states, "1'he K-bracing configuration is
    undesirable for seismic resistance. Deformations of the bracing system due to tensile
    yield and/or bm:kljng may cause lateral deformations of the connected column
    sufficient to cause column buckling and subsequent collapse. a
    Knee-bracing can be used as an alternate method of creating a beam-to-column
    moment coJlIlection. However, the column or beam length used for calculating KJ/r
    ratios should ignore the presence of the knee brace unless the combined bnc:!cling
    behavior of the column and knee brace is evaluated. The presence of the knee brace
    should not be used to reduce the beam or column design moment.
    Equipment Support Structures
    Equipment suppon structures are usually open frame structures supponing
    elevated vessels (horizontal and vertical). heat exchangers, other mjsceDaneous
    mechanical and electrical equipment, and piping. For OpeiaUon and maintenance rea-
    SOns, these structures also include significant platform areas, stairways and ladders.
    Equipment is elevated eitber for process reasons, lack of plot space or a combination
    of both. Materials used are usually fizeploofed stnu:mIal steel.
    Steel structures usually utilize moment-rmsting frames in one direction and
    braced frames in the other direction. -The cost effec:tiveuess of braced frames
    suggests tbat whenever possible, braced frames in both directiuus should be used.
    However, access quite often lead to the use of IlICIJI1CI1f-resisting frames.
    Rw values for JIIOment-resisting frames and braced frames, ami the issues related to
    bracing systems, are distmssed in Chapter 4. Rigid equipmeDt is generally treated as
    lumped masses for analysis purposes.
    EqtLip",ent anchorage loads should be cal I itd to the main Jateralload system by
    horizontal bracing. C'becker plate pla1:fi Ii mi"S can be treated as a diaphragm to also
    carry equipmmt loads to the main Jateralload system. Often. certain cJu:cker plate
    areas are detailed to allow removal of the plate duriDg maintenance opetatjons In
    such cases the diaphragm may not be ptesent during a sei
    smS
    event OCO:Wling in an
    extended maintenance Opeiation and horizontal bracing should be pIOVided.
    Another category of equipment stzucture supports rotating equipmcnt such as
    compressors orgener ... ..,...,rators, or equipiilent with intcnni.ttear signfficant vibrations such
    as coke structures. Materials used are usually concrete, to provide sufficient mass
    and Frlifuess to limit vibrations to a permissible leveL
    Concrete structures which suppon large rotating equipment or other equipment
    which generate sustained impactive loads are usually quite massive. Three feet
    square columns and three to four feet thick concrete decks are common. These
    snuctu:res can be designed with little concem for ductility. ami therefore with low Rw
    5-9
    values. Such a structure can be designed on the basis of Rw = 1. in which case
    ductile detailing specified in the UBC can be relaxed.
    5.3.3.4 NonbuiIdfng-Like Structures
    There are a number of nonbuilding-Jike structures iD common use which have
    special cbaJacteristics The following gnjdeJjnes address some of the issues to be
    taken under consideration when designing these sttm:hdts. Other stJ:uctm5 are
    essentiaDy defined in UBCTable 16-P.
    a. Tanks can be supported at grade. on pedestals or on braced or unbraced legs.
    Chapter 7 addresses the design and evaluation oftlmks at grade. This SCdion
    addresses tanks on pedestals or on braced or tmlnamd legs.
    All taDks should be anchored to the foundation or IIIIIin structure. Tl1Dk: legs
    and the tank-ta-leg c:ormcct:ion should be diN lett!! for stress and 1mckling
    effeclS.
    b. Vessels, both hmizhnt,J and vertical. are designed to satisfy ASMB code
    requitemmts (ASME, 1992). The design of the 18 me portion of the vessel
    is geumaJIy not &ovezned by seismic effects The 8 ....
    lo
    ,*,"s to fonndations
    and structures, are the e1emems directly affio.d .... by seismic loads. These
    elements are osuaJly skirts or legs for vatical vessels and saddles for
    horizontal vessels For seismic load resist!l!!tZl, """Dtion should be given to
    weldiag and bolting, and bracing or plate buckling d'eets Most often vessels
    are designed by TTlr!C:banical engineers. Occasionally struc:tmal enginem are
    asked
    . . "--' cal I . .. loads.
    to gave g w ~ m en aung apptopl1ate SrI liilC
    Co Bins ami silos are SIrUctU%es used for storing soHds. e.g. powder and g""ml
    ar
    J!Il!teriaIs Silos are by definition tall bins. In biDs ami silos the lateral fuzees
    are mitigated by frlcIion in the material stored in the bin.. Research has shown
    that equivalent viscous damping may be as moch as 20 pacem. Also, the
    center of gmvity can be considezed at the ceulCi of mass rather than at the
    cenuoid of the mom fam,TtlIr triangular ctistdbutiolL Good guidance exists for
    bin and silo designinAC1313.
    d. StcmIJC m:ks are typically mass pzoduced elements wbich are assembled on
    site. The geometty and strength requitellcnts are quite varied, and standard
    componems are mixed appzopxiabely to proWfe the requited performance.
    Mally m:ks are made of relatively slender or cold formed elc>ments, which
    requite special evaluation prm:edures. Good goid8!!!!'!: exists for storage rack
    design from the Rack Manufactmezs Institute (RMl. 1990).
    e. Skid-mounted equipnent systems are usually very rugged. since layout and
    design criteria should take into consideration forces imposed by crane lifting.
    5-10
    and uuck, rail or ship transportation. The skid is usually a base frame
    consuucted of structural steel shapes and the equipment includes pumps.
    compressors. small vessels and exchangers. and piping. The skid should be
    anchored to the foundation to resist horizontal seismic forces.
    5.3A EJements of Structures, NonstructuraI Components and Equipment
    5.3.4.1 General
    UBC Section 1630 and Chapter 4 herein specify the lateral force to be used for
    design of parts and portions of stractures and their attaclnneuts, permanent
    noDS1IUcturaI components and their attachments. and the auac:lunent, for permanent
    equipment supported by a str'UCtUre. In general, these hems are most often found in
    buildings and not in the typical re1inety structure. The SEAOC (1990) CommentaIy
    to Section 10 provides definitions to better distinguish the various categories of
    item; which are covered by this section. A review of these definitions will show that
    "attachments for permanent equiplilent supported by a structure." are the item; most
    often found in petrochemical plants. It should be noted that UBC Section 1630
    applies only (in the words of the C011lT!1!!!!tary). "to elements, components. and equip-
    ment attached to bnUttings whose dyuamic behavior does not substantiaD.y alter the
    1:n
    1
    ilding's response." This implies that the c1emauts. components and equipment are
    relatively small in relation to the supporting structure. w=e this is not true., design
    is governed by UBC Section 1632 (Nonbuilding Structures). Also. some large
    grade-mounted equipment such as boilers and turbines may be CODS1IUcted within a
    structure. In such cases the equipment should be considered as a nonbnjJdjng
    structure.
    Another approach is given in the NE1IRP (1994) prov.isioDs which provide a more
    comprehensive treatment of this subject tbaD the UBC. A number of additional
    factors which affect the respDDSe of equipment are addR:ssed in NEHRP (1994).
    NEHRP (1994) also has a simp1ffied approach sbm'", to the UBC. Additional
    guidance is also given in Section 5.s hmcin, which discusses physical interaction.
    "Parts and portions of structures" and "pet i i iAilMt I1OIIstIUCtU1'a components" in
    the UBC are bllDding elellaents rarely found in refineries. Parts and portions of
    structures refer to miscellaneous assemblies or portions of structures haWIg a
    structural :fimction reJated to the structure and include exterior waDs. interior bearing
    waDs. penthouses (except wbere framed by an extension of the main buDding frame).
    and prefabricated suuctural c-lemcnts other than waDs ami. diaphragms. Pcnnanent
    nonstructural components are pet11181 ..... t assemblies not having a st:nlCtUral fi.mction
    and include parapets. nonbearing waDs and partitions. masonry and concrete fences
    over 6 feet high, exterior and interior ornamentation and appendages, signs and
    billboards. cabinets, book shelves. and storage racks, inclucijng contents, over 5 feet
    high, 8"=15 floor systems. suspended cetlings and light fixrwcs.
    5-11
    5.3.4.2 Typic:al Supported Equipment
    .The common per!iianent equipment supported by struetures in petrochemical
    plants include the following groups of items.
    Cantilever suuctures include chimneys, stacks and towers. Design concerns for
    these items in petrochemical plants, are generaD.y no different than supponed items in
    blU
    1
    dings, For these cantilever struCtUreS, it is especially imponant to recognize tbat
    in many cases., the suppon lewl is a flexible structUral floor system. If horizontal
    detlectiOl!S ncar the top of the c:antilever item is a concem, it -fllY be necessary to
    increase the rigidity of the suppom lewl to achieve the desired performance. Once
    the loads ba've been detb wiilc.d and support t1exibllity issues have been addressed,
    design pi ...... I ... es for a .:I';ii111ey, stack, tower or any other Um;]n csnt11ever
    str1lCtme are the same as if they were supported at grade.
    Vessels 8IId Taaks
    Vessels and taDks incbJde boilers, heat exchangers, fired and UDfired pressure
    vessels, and mjsce
    D
    8J!N)US tanks. Design concerns for these items in petrochemic:al
    plants, are gcumaJly no dltfe.tent than supported items in buUdings. Since these items
    should be Jdatively small to be included in this section, suppon flexibolity is xelatively
    UDimportant. unless the item is quite long. If the item is long, relative vertical suppon
    movement may aeed to be addressed. Design aspects of vessels and taDks are
    discussed in Section 5.3.3.4.
    Mechanical EqulJ"'*'III1
    MecbanirW equipuent include twbines. chiIIers, pumps. motorS" and air-handling
    units. Design concerns for these items in petrochemical p1attts, are generally no
    different than supported items in bm1dings These items are usually vety rigid
    compared to the support leveL Since these items generally have a low profile. seismic
    loads rarely, if evar, cause tension forces in the anchorage. Howevar. it bas been
    observed that the conUte,! ing structure between the component and the supporting
    strI1CtUIe is S'iiierines designed without due CODSideratiOD for seismic loads. The
    engin"tlf should &eview the adequacy of any COnON! iug struc:ttrres provided by
    component vendors to assure that adequate Iatcralload capacity exists. ADchorage
    aa:eptabiIity is evaluated by compaxing seismic forces to boh shear and tension
    capacity, without frictional resistance from dead load of the item.
    Vibration DoJators are often uti1ized with rotating equipment to minimize
    vibration in the equipn:eut and its supporting struc:tme. The isolators. while solving a
    difficuk vibration problem, may create problems during an earthquake ums care is
    5-12
    exercised to restrict horizontal and vertical movement at the isolators. This is often
    accomplished with snubbers, guides or stops.
    In some cases, mechani<:a.l equipment needs to be reviewed. Although specific
    guidance is Dot provided herein, seismic design of mechanical equipment should be
    performed by qnaIjfje.d structuralImechanicaJ engineers. The desjgn should take into
    consideration inelastic behavior as well as potential .interaction with the supporting
    structure. These and other factors are consideJcd inNEHRP (1994). Chapter 3.
    For additional guidance., refer to the SEAOC (1990) Commentary to
    Section 1G.1.
    Elec:tric:al Equipment aDd Control Systems
    Blectrical equipment and control systemS include traDSfom=rs, switch-gear.
    control panels, standby power equipment. and computer equipment. Design concerns
    for these items in petiur:hemical plants, are genetally no diffetent tban supported
    items in bnj1dinp. These items are sjrnt1ar to cantDever structUreS, mechanical
    equipment. or something in between. Depending OD the size and shape of the item,
    follow the apptopdate gukhmc:e in the paragraphs above on c:antiIever stl'UCtlJm and
    mechnical equipment
    Distributive Systems
    Distributive systems include piping. ducts, coodoits. c:able trays and conveyors.
    Design concerns for these items in petrochemical plants. are generally 110 different
    th!!D supported items in bm1dings. except that the pipe sizes in pipjDg systems are
    usually larger in petrochemical plants. The major design COJICCtD for the item itself is
    the effect of relative movement between points of anchorage.
    Leakage at equipment and piping flanges is often due to underdesign of the
    flange. ie designing the flange for only Ope1ating pn:ssure-tcu'leratme conditions.
    By increasing the flange class, the seismic moments may be accommodated without
    leakage.
    NEHRP (1994) has developed specific gllideJiDes for the seismic design of
    distributive systems, such as those noted above. These guidelines ;"cb1de refcIences
    to codes and SU!7I!'lards. ~ c to given types of systems. h is RCllDID'IMded that
    these guidelines be used for the design of distributive systems in petrochemical
    faCJ1jties
    5-13
    5.3.5 FoundatiODS
    5.3.5.1 General
    Except for cettaiu types of equipment (horizontal vessels, heat exchangers and
    vertical vessels), foundations in petrochemical facilities are similar to foundations in
    most other iDdustries. Tberefore, the desip of foundations should satisfy the
    requirements of appxopxiate building code provisinns.
    Foundaticms should be designed for seismic loads calrntlarcd for the overall
    structural system. The loads generated by individual elements, e.g. braces designed
    for 150% ofbrace load, should be considered for anchor boh design but should not
    be used for fouadarion design.
    5.3.5.2 ADdJor Bolts
    Two design apptoacMs for anchor bolts sbould be used for petrocbeJnica
    l
    facilities. Usiag UBC terminology, the first appJllaeh, Service Load Design, follows
    the requixenhdS of the UBC. This should apply to grade moUDted equipment such as
    be8t exchangeu and horizontal vessels, vertical w.ssels, pots and drums with a height
    to diameter ratio Jess than 3, pumps, colDpJessors, generators, transformers, and
    other skid-u .... "'",., eqliqw*,'" Here the lequiteme4t is to prevent the supported
    items from sljdjgg during a seismic event. 'Ibe second approach, Str=gth Design,
    should follow the requitcments of ACI349. App. B, with the exception that the
    concrete pull-oat capacity should develop the bah's yield snength (not its n1tjma
    t
    e
    teD",1e strcngtb) umltip1ied by 1.25. This slmnld apply to vertical ,'eSSI'Is with a
    height to diander ntio gRater than 3, and bniltJing-Jike structures, where ductility is
    figured into tile Rw "fBlues.
    5.3.5.3 OfCClutuiDg
    The UBC does not requhe a check for foundation overtuming. If resistance to
    overturning is drckrd, a factor of safety of 1.0 should be used, considcIiDg only 0.9
    times the dead load for tesistance. The 0.9 Detar for vertical loads accounts for
    uncertainty of the dead load and upward vettical acceleration.
    AC1318 n:quitcs that die reiDforced com:zete of footings be poportioned to
    resist factored loads. This mquiI:es appIyjng load factors to die loads and calculating
    a fictitious soD pi "e. The reiDforced CODCIete is then proportioned to resist this
    fictitious son ptessute. Wben the factor of safety against ovenuming approaches 1.0.
    it may DOt be posst"ble to calculate a fictitious soil pressure because the er:ccntricity is
    outside the footing. In this c:ase, it is recoTT!T!!:!!ded that a point load at the edge of
    the footing be ca!r:nlarcd to replace the fiQjtinus soil pressure. by dividing the
    factored ovellwning moment by one-half the footing width in the direction of the
    tnoment (see Figure 5.1).
    5-14
    p
    1.06P
    I
    ~ . 4 M
    D/2
    When S.R. = 1.0
    Then MIP = e = DI2
    For Service Loads
    1.4M> R
    I.OSP :2
    R-fictitious = .!&M
    DI2
    R-fictiUous
    For FactoIed Loads.
    Figure 5.1: Concrete Foundation Design When StabWty Ratio Approaches 1.0
    5.3.5.4 SDding
    The UBC does not require a check for foundation sliding. If resistance to sliding
    is checked, a factor of safety of 1.0 should be used, considering ouly 0.9 tim:s the
    dead load for resistance. Lateral loads on spread footings and mats are resisted by
    friction between the footing and soil. and passive pressure on the footing.
    5-1S
    5.3.5.5 POe FOIIDdatiODS
    Lateral loads on pile foundations are resisted by passive pressure on the piles and
    pile cap.
    The lateral load capacity of a pile or pile group is essentially based on permissible
    horizontal deflections. GeoteJ:bnical COD$n)tants will often set lateral load capacity
    based on a pile deflcction at ground level wuy.ing between 114 to 1 inch. The
    structural engineer should determine from the geoteclmical consultant, whether lateral
    pile load capacity is based on deflection or son strength. If de:flection is the
    governing Clitexion, the engineer should then evaluate whether a larger horizontal
    deflection is acceptable for the particular facility being desipd, to avoid mnecessary
    conservatism.
    Most petrochemical facffitics operating UDits are paved with 4 to 6 inches (10 to
    15 ClD) of COJICl8te. rciDforccd with welded wire fabric to minimize shrinkage
    cracking. ConsideIation should be given to taking credit for the presence of the
    concrete paving in resj", ing Jatera1 seismic loads to reduce the mtmber of piles
    requjred for iadividual foundations. While this may increase the paving thickness to
    create the nee :nary mass, this may be a cost effective solution. Care should be
    exercised when CQJIIbirring lateral pile resistance, passive pressure on the pRe cap and
    frictional resistanc:e of paving. It may not be apPIOpIiate to take the maxjrmtm value
    of each mode.of resjS'HIIIT: when used as a comJij"arjon. This subject should be
    discussed with a gee'" lmjl:HJ consnltant Asphalt paving should not be considered as
    performing in the IlII1D: ,,*""er as concrete paving. Asphalt paving is uureinforced
    and has low shear stlaIJth. and therefore is unable to contribute to resistance.
    The UBC requires tha1 pile caps of every struCtDle subjected to seismic forces be
    interconnected by ties (e.g. grade beams), which are capable of resisting a mi"hmtm
    horizontal force equal to 10 percent of the larger column vertical load. Other
    approved methods may be used wb:re it can be demonstrated that equivalent restraint
    can be provided. In pen .. ::llflmjca
    J
    plants. it is desirable to minimize the use of grade
    beams to avoid Wei fdlem:es with UIIderground piping systems and underground
    electrical duct systems. Adequate lateral restraint can. in many cases, be provided by
    passive son resistance agab.
    et
    the sides of the piles and pile caps. Adequate lateral
    resistance is also provided when the structure being supponed can acceptably tolerate
    the latcraI d .. n.:..'tiOJlS and rotations at the structureIpRe cap interface. The
    determination of acccp1abiIity can be investigated for critical stnlClUreS by including
    the lateral and rotatinDal sriffness of the pile and pile cap in the sttUctural analysis
    mode!
    5-16
    5.3.5.6 Pier and Tee Support Foundations
    Pier and tee suppOtt foundations are typically used to suppon grade-mounted
    horizontal vessels and beat e.ycbangers. These foundations are treated as "invened
    pendulums". The vessel or exchanger is anchored at one pier and allowed to slide at
    the opposite pier to Ieliewe thermal expansion forces. The anchor pier is designed to
    resist alllongittutina! . mic forces. For simplicity. both the anchor pier and sliding
    pier are designed the same. When this approach creates excessively large pier
    fOlmdations. two a!temarives should be considered. For vessels with low design
    teaipCl:atures. less than about lSDOf' (6S0C). the vessel can be anchored at both ends.
    Here each pier would be designed for one-half the vessel expansion and one-half the
    seismic load. When tbmnal Cltp"nsiQD cannot be accommodated without allowing
    the vessel to slide, the piers can be tied together with strUCtUral steel strUtS. so that
    again. each pier foundation resists one-balf the seismjc load.
    Longitt1dinal seismjc: loads OD som: analytical models have been stUdied (Richter.
    unpublished) which iUi'irate that a significant amount of enetgy is absorbed at the
    sHrUng end pier. ~ n d i n g on the frictioD coefficient This effectively reduces the
    load applied to the fixed end pier. In the study. a series of calculations were
    performed to investigate the seismic force distribution to pier fonndations including
    nonlinear time history analyses on a two-dimensional model of a typical pier
    foundation. Table 5.1 gives tentative recommendations for load distribution to the
    fixed and sliding ends, as a 1iaction of the total horizontal seismic load. Additional
    savings may be achie\'I:d by designing each pier separately. for the horizontal load
    disuibution sbown in the table.
    TABLE 5.1: RecommendatioDS for Load DIstrIbution
    Transverse seismic loads are usually catried by both pddles and the loads are
    transmitted in shear to the anchor bolts. When it is not possible to determine the
    exact mass distribution at each saddle. some engineen apply 60'1& of the traDSVerse
    seismje load to each sadrDe
    5.3.5.7 Vertical Vessel Foundations
    Historically. the foundatiOD anchor bolts for tall vertical vessels and stacks have
    tended to stretch beyond yield when subjected to strong ground motion. Yielding of
    anchor bolts probably prevented collapse of these vessels. Based OD this experience.
    some engineers design to develop the run UDCOIrOded tensile capacity of the anchor
    5-17
    bolts. However. this is a conservative design practice (See Section 5.3.5.2). Special
    care should be taken to not ovasi:ze the anchor bolts. Excessively oversized anchor
    bolts could remain elastic during a seismic event, creating overturning moments in the
    fQlmtlarion beyond tbat used in die design.
    Wben the anchor bolts exteDd 0JIly into the pedestal. the pedestal dowels should
    aansfer the OvellPi "jng mommt into the footing. The dowels should be able to
    develop an ove.ttUIDiDg mommt equivalent to the overtuming moment based on
    anchor boh strength (J.e. 1.25 time boh yield strength; see Section 5.3.5.2). If the
    anchor bolts extend into the footing, which is often the case for very taD vessels,
    pedestal dowels do not tranSfer overtmDing moment to the footing. In this case, it is
    only necessary to pIOVide a nominal JWJDber of dowels to mjnjmize concrete cracking.
    Tnere are at least tIu:= known calculation methods used by engineers to deal with
    the transfer of horimnta
    l
    seismic fon:es from the vessel to the concrete pedestal.
    a. The USC pmlnbits the use of friction due to dead load to resist horizontal
    seismic forces. 'I'JIe code does petmit the use of fiiction caused by the
    downward foIce from die seislilic overtuming moment. Some engineers
    approximate the dowuwatd force (see Figure 5.2) as the ove.tturDiDg moment
    . divided by two-thirds the boh circle diameter. If the downwmd fon:c times a
    friction cocffi itut of 0.55 evo:ds the hotttontal seismic fon::e, it is assumed
    tbat there is no horizontal force on the bolts. If the horizontal seismic force
    exceeds the iik:tion foIce, the total friction force is applied to the bolts. To
    n 'i";' "he the Deed for ea, ssive boh edge O'5tance or shear n:iuforaIJlent, the
    bolts on a 9O-degn:e an: in the direction of the horizontal force are ignored.
    The horizontal force is then canied only by the bolts on the remaining
    27O-degrec arc (i.e. tlm:e-fomtbs the totallUJTDber of bolts).
    b. The shear-fridiuu ccnwept ofAC1318 is used by some engineers. The total
    size and !!!III"e. of bolts tequixed to resist ovettuming is first determined and
    then the nmllle, of bolls not in tension (i.e.1Ill11I1ler of bolts that can function
    as normal R>infu.tcc@1'/J in a shear-friction design) is determined eNe). In this
    method, the bolt area Jejij e jled by Nc (i.e. Nc x All) must be greater than
    Avf in the ACl318 shear-friction equations. In the shear-friction equation,
    q,:,o.SS and Jl=O.6 (for r:oncrete cast against steel, or in this case, steel placed
    on conc:rete) is used.
    5-18
    D
    M = Overtuming Moment
    =Hxh
    M =P=T
    213D
    J.I. =0055
    IfF = O.55P>H
    IfF = Oo5SP<H
    Bolts do not
    cauyshear
    Bolts cm:ry all
    shear
    Figure 5.2: A Method to DetermiDe Tnm* af'Bo.riJwltal SeismIc Force for
    Vertic:al Vessel Fonndptjons .
    c. The third method is based on the same principles as the &st medmd cited.
    The comp.tessive fcm:c due to ovemmring moment is ass,,"rd to produce
    sufficient fi:il::tioJIal resistanc=, such that the bolts do DOt need to be designed
    to resist tile sejsmic shear if the vessc1's height is :mote than tbn:e times the
    diaDieter ofils boh circle CLe. when HlBC>3.0). IfHIBC<3.0, tile bohs are
    designed to resist tile eIltire seisnric shear. For tile special case wbI:n
    HlBC<3.0, in Seismic Zones Nos. 1 and 2. friction is caJculated as the
    downward fcm:c from the OVeltUluiug J1iOIb:IIt plus 6S peteent of tile dead
    load times a 0.3 coefDcitmt offriction. If this friction force is greater than the
    seismic shear, tile bohs do DOt need to be designed to resist horizontal loads.
    If tile friction fcm:c is less than the sc
    is
    ... : shear, the bohs are designed to
    resist the entire seisDlic shear. Fiaally, for a vessel with HlBC less than 3.0 in
    Seismic Zones Nos. 3 ami 4, supponed on legs rather than a C(\nrinnous base
    ring, llllcimr bohs are designed to resist the entire seismic shear.
    5-19
    5.3.5.8 Earth 'Qetaining Structures
    " " The most commonly used pmcedure for the design of gravity retaining waDs is
    that proposed by Mononobe and Okabe, referenced in Seed and Whitman (1970).
    Mononobe ami Matsuo (1929) and Okabe (1926) modified Coulomb's classical
    solution to account for inertia forces comsponding to horizontal and vertical
    acceleJ3Uu"s, acting at an poiats of an assumed failure wedge. They expressed
    backfi1I thrust against a wall as fi.mction of the" UDit weight of the bac:kfiU, the height
    of the wan. and active stress rneflicient The suess coefficient is a 1imction of the
    friction angIc of the baclcfilt the friction angle between the bat:kfil! and the wall., and
    of the acceleration coefficienrL Seed and Whitman (1970) provide a simplified
    version of the original equation. wbich is commonly used. A detailed description of
    the Monnll.,.be-QIg ..... nu:rbo(\ can also be fonnd in. Dowrick (1987).
    The Mononolz-Okabe eqm!tinn is based on a mrmber of a!ISlII!'IItioDS. The bac:kfiU
    must be defonDahle enough to mobBize mn shear resistance along the failure plane in
    the active sease. and that the accelerations must be constant tbroughout the failing
    wedge. Concerrdng the use of the Coulomb equation for static passive tbrust apply
    to the dynamic case as well. This equation may OVClIestimate the passive resistance in
    "case wall .......... on 15' 1W U&WI r- nt
    Most earth I'd_me theories ""s""e a constant horizontal acceleration over the
    height of die wan. with the lDDvewent of the wall controDecl in some manner. In
    reality, "eirhe:r condition may be satisfied Depending upon die frequency of
    excitation and height of the waD. accelerations may increase signfficantly upward
    through die backflD Furrh", "Hue. die non-Jincar bebmor of die backfill bas a
    significant infIwmc:e Uafufh
    m8r
    ely, thm: aR few weJl-docw:Dente case studies
    from die fi='Id, with ftCt!!p! Dl "'iients of dynamic earth pressures. Several stndjcs
    such as Lai (1979), ZIuJabj (1973), Nadim (1980), Nadim anc1 Wbjtman (1983 anc1
    1984), and Anderson et a1 (1917) show the influence of various ef'ftds on dynamic
    lateral pltsSUle5, e5p"CjaDy die tole of residual pressure remaining after shaking.
    These smdies bave been Sh""""hoi in Whitman (1990).
    Many concepts dewloped for gravity retaining walls may be exrczutci! to other types
    ofJ'eflrining strnctures. WhjliilHii (1990) concIrutes that for design ofn:latively simple
    waDs with heights of 30 feet or less, Mononobe-Okabe equation can provide
    reasonable zesulIS. For Irigher waDs. and those restrained against outWBId movement.
    JDOJ1: carefiil aaalysis should be musidered.
    5-20
    ~ "", '."-, "." , 'T' _ , .,' , ._,.,
    5.4 STRUCTURAL DETAILS
    5.4.1 Introduction
    Typical stnJClUrCS found in petrocbcmic:aJ plants arc discussed in Section 5.3. In
    generaI. specific seiMic details used in the building industry arc also applicable to
    petrochemical plants Most of the bttilding industry practice can be found in Nachn,
    SEAOC (1990) and the UBC. This section discusses special scjsmjc derailing
    requilc"lentS unique to peu.,.",.,emica
    l
    plants.
    5.4.2 Steel
    5.4.2.l General
    The general sejsmjc lequhenents for steel structw:es can be found in Naeim,
    SEAOC (1990), UBC, AISC ASD aud AISC LRFD. Special details that arc not
    ",!II illinnly encoantered in the b
    m1
    ding indnstry will. be diSCllssed here.
    Figure 5.3 shows a COlDiWil conn""tjon detail which has been used in the btJjJding
    industry. In the aftermath of the Janwuy, 1994 Northridge, CaJifomja earthquake,
    over 100 1nriIdings were found where cracks occuned in connections based on this
    detail. The cause of these cracks is still under investigation. A """'mr of causes
    have been posm1ated, such as poor welding and welding ploce hnes. inadequate
    :i:asp=tkm. inadequately addressed thmnaJ ccmsiderations, and the potr:nria
    1
    need to
    JIID\'e the plastic hinF fonnarion in the beam, away from the ke of tb: cohmm. At
    the time of writiag of this doc.", eli', the cause(s) arc SliD. under investigation, aud
    UDti!. the inrfnsny has fomrnJated a solurion, it is prudmn to avoid the connectiDn. It
    is, in fact, cunently prohibited in soae p",ther dismgjon of this,
    jncllJding some suggested deraHs and mrofit details. is provided in SAC (1995).
    The stee1 used in latcra1 fon:e esisting systems should be Ijmjted to the foD.owing
    AS'IM Spo ifiratious: A36, A441, ASoo, ASOI, AS12 (Grades 42 aud 50), aud
    ASSS. Structural steel to ASTM A283 (Grade D) may be used for base
    plares aud anchnT' bolts.
    In exnemcly cold regions. fiDe gmiaed st=ls should be CODSidered to reduce the
    JikeJjborx! ofbrlttle faUme under dynamic loads.
    5.4.2.2 Requirements for Braced Frames
    In the petrochemical indnsny, braced frames rely on diagonal members to resist
    horizontal fon:es aud to provide stafrt1ity. These cma memhers have a tendency to
    xesuict acc:ess Therefon:. it is good praclice to keep the mtmbc:r of braces to a
    minimum. aud to ploperly locate those that arc used.. Gencmlly, chevron or diagonal
    5-21
    'FUll ?EJII
    Flao WELDS
    _,,[THOR
    ,:wtOEtllS
    ...... -. ':. . .!'
    ..... :-
    ~ .... ~ . ' ... . . ~ : , " ..... * :=: .. :... -'.*' *
    ;:;=.:;:::;::;::==#1-., ~ . . . "
    " ' - ~ ~ .. -: .. :-
    :-'flII..L . P.;EN _: ' .. ,: " . "
    ....... .41 'waDS:'
    . ,
    ".:'" ''',: . -. : ..... : ... , ....... :.!,:.
    Figure 5.3: Former shntdml dprtDe moment CODDection detaIL As a result of
    the Nortbridge Earthqaake, this CODDection was shown to have major problems
    , and Is CWiently probJblted In many jurJsdIctlons.
    braciDg is used in pn:fexeuce to X-bracing. Tees an: plefened over double angles for
    ease of i'lAiU'E,B"ce
    Quite aftm. it is neccsse" that the lower wmkpoint of the bracing to grade be
    kept ahem head room uquiIMdI'S to avoid b10cJcing paths of cgress in case of
    ewer! .... , ies Bracing should be located so as to avoid interferences with piping.
    ducts, cle "ic aI trays ami co".ln i'5. and accesswa)'S. Also. diagonal bracing should
    be arranged &0 that it wm not dBect lateral load to only a few fO'mdarion
    s
    5A.2.3 Pipe"_'"
    To aJlow P 55 UDder _ .... way. pipeways an: generally designed as moDlCDt-
    rrsisriag ti&iles in the aausvase direction, and me braced in the k-ngit1Jdina
    J
    merillO. Longitudinal bracing aBDSfCls scismi,: and other k-ngitndjnaJ forces to the
    fo.mdations NOIm8Ily. a long pipeway would require expansion joints (slotted strUt
    CO""c:ctiDns) to aJlow for tbemm
    l
    movCneuts and thus the longit1Jdin
    aJ
    bracing is
    designed for the tributaIy segne
    n
    between expansion joints (typically. 100 to 200
    feet (30 to (j() m). but this dqrnds on plant ami site conditions).
    5A.2.4 AIr Coolers (Fln14ns)
    1)picaIly air coolers me supported on pipeways. The air cooler is generally
    composed ofa large box cCII,tab,h" the fans ami motors, supported on four or more
    legs. 'Ibis geaetally creates a condition where a relatively rigid mass is supported on
    5-22
    flexible legs on top of a peway. Whenever possible, the suppon legs should be
    braced in both directions. This however. may not always be practical due to the need
    for working platfomlS tmd access under the air coolers. Xuee brac.ing audlor chevron
    bracing can be used as long as bcadroom is not comptomivd Figure S.4 illustrates a
    typical air cooler ammgement
    Though not a seismic design issue, care should be exercised to prevent possible
    resOIlllJlCe effects due to the operating frequency of the air cooler motors being too
    close to the natUral frequency of the suppon structure.
    5.4.3 eoDCrete aud FouadatioDS
    5.4.3.1 Framed Concrete Structures
    It has been observed that the conn"Clions of ductile moment-resisting frame
    concrete structureS, when ctenn1ed tmd coJJSttUCted pxoperly. sufl'e1ed little or no
    i'ailme during a large seisiliil: event. In petroc:bemica1 fac:t1ities. this includes
    structures such as table top sttuc:tutes IUld concrete structures SIlPPOIting equipment
    or other steel stnJctwes,
    However. it is clear that some of these items should be dmgned so that the
    coDDCCted elem!!J!ts can peafunn piopedy. This n:quires that the joints be
    pIoponioned tmd detailed to allow the ele"llIs ftamiDg into them to develop tmd
    maintain their saength as we1I as sHRiness while lDIdergoing large indastic
    deformation.
    5.4.3.2 Equipment Fouudatlons
    In general, most equip" e
    nt
    foundations are designed with the equipment consid-
    ered as rigid. TheIefUJe. for seismu: conditions, the andIorage should be designed for
    the code specified shear. Addhional ties are usuaJ1y required around the anchorage
    by the UBC. Special considemion should be given to vessels tmd excbangers as
    outlined below.
    5.4.3.3 Horizontal Vessels and Exchangers
    Horizontal vessels IUld exebangers are UOlmally supported on two pedestals
    supportiDg saddles confunning to the vessel curvatmc. One saddle is fixed to the
    pedestallUld the other is allowed to slide for ther.mal expansjlJlL
    For stacked vessels aud excbangers where the anchor bo.h capacity may not be
    adcqua1e to carry the loads. the fixed foot plate can be welded to the bearing plate. or
    shear keys can be used. Shear keys aud nrdumical stops may be used on the sliding
    foot for traIISVeiSe load resistaDce; however. this should be placed in such a way as
    not to impede the sliding of the foot, Figure 5.5. Note that shear capacity. either in
    5-23
    /""
    --
    ........
    --

    L...J
    '"
    :Ii
    :Ii
    IICTIIIN .....
    FIgaIe 5A: Typical AIr Coolers Supported OD a Pipeway
    the traDSVerSe or longitnctin
    a
    ! direction, may be govemed by the concrete capacity.
    Special ties and dr:tpDs for seismic zones are shown in Figure 5.6.
    For additional g"blance. mfer also to Section 5.3.5.6.
    5-24

    TYP ICAL
    LlECHANICAL
    STOP
    Figure 5.5: Transverse shear resf.stiag elements. Where anchor bolts are not
    adequate to resist shear or are not appropriate, mechanical stops may be added
    5A.3.4 Vertical Vessels and Stacks
    Figure 5.7 illustrates some special details, particularly relating to the number and
    ~ of ties for vertic:al vessel foundations.
    5.4.3.5 Foundations on Piles
    Sometimes the pile cap/pile connection is designed to be fixed. A pile cmlledment
    of one pile cfjunetr:r is rec:t'nmrnded, but not less tban 12 inches (S em). In geueral,
    the cmIJrdment need not exceed 2 feet (9 cm). The pile reiDfol' ne
    ill
    should be
    anchored in the cap the appIOpIiate emlwfment length. Whenever the pile cap!pile
    c:onamction is cfcsigJWI as a pin. the pile CjDleilment into the pile cap should be 3 to 6
    inches (1 to 2 em). Rebar development should be provided in the pile cap.
    S-2S

    ;
    .$II ... .sucr;
    ",
    " -..
    P'" ST.aca.$
    ...... ..
    /.' ;:-,
    -.
    " ... . : ..
    ..
    I :
    ':.'-, " .....
    -'.,
    :',',f'o!. r,..'.i
    AIGft .;;.. .:- 1
    -r 0 .......... ..... f!'JIX . -.......... ..
    . --_tEo .ft ...... 'SHHU .
    . . ...,.. ..
    FIgure 5.6: Typical horizoDtal vessel and exrbanger flJllDdatiOD details. Note
    spedaI seismic ties. ReiDfon:emeat Is typical for IIotb pedestals
    5.4A MasoDrY
    ReiDforc:ed masomy structun!S arc often an iDlegral part of tbe landscape
    tbroughout a peuochemical plant. Masomy SUUCtlII1:S arc Jjmjted to items such as
    rcraining waDs and barriers. opetator shekers, au.v1iary hw
    1d
    ings and in some cases
    control bnMings 0fte:D. masomy is used for tIamal linings in furnaces, beatms and
    other high te'"lcxatwe eqWpliltillt. In an active seismic ZOJle, COJ1IH'f.tion derails for
    the above items should comply with the UBC and related codes. However, care
    should be taken to ensure thermal growth compatibility of any ties with that of the
    masomy.
    5-26
    ...... -9IIU STACKS
    AS IIEO' D
    SOL TS
    lEO SPACED
    PLAN
    P10 REINF
    180T)
    I
    I
    I
    I
    I
    I
    I
    & STRADDLE
    SREC IAL TIES
    FOR SEISMIC
    ZONES
    ,..... .... REIHF
    lTOP)
    OF FDN
    FIgure 5.7: Typical Vertical Vessel FCJ!!Ddatfon DetaDs
    (Note special tie requirements)
    S-Z7
    5A.5 TImber
    In the petrochemical jndUstry. most struCtUrCS are buiIt with materials other than
    timber. such as steel and concrete. However. when timber is used for the con-
    struction of buildings or supporting systems. CO!!JltOC';tOIS sjrnt
    1a
    r to colilllleidaJly
    available se.ismi.c ties or with good seismic resistance, are reco!TlT!1f'!llded. In a high
    seismic zone these special connectors will provide evnJ!ent uplift and lateral load
    resistance to the strucmre.
    5.5 PHYSICAL INTEllACI10N OF STRUCIURES AND COMPONENTS
    5.5.1 Introduction
    This section deals with physical interaction between structmes and components.
    and the precautions that should be taken to mmjrnig the negative effects.
    5.5.2 General
    The physical interaction between structures and compoJlCl1tS of a petrochemical
    plant during a seismic event is sjtmlar to those in til: general COJlilDaclal
    euv.iromrent. The configuration of structures or coh4,,",ellts largely deteuniues the
    ways in which seismic forces are distr.ibIned, ami also influences the relative
    magnitude of forces and displan=mcnts. 4
    The objective of a good petrochemical facility c:oufiga:ration is high opellding
    efficiency and low capital cost. Process, ""W"banjt:al and piping design xequixeJl ents
    and til: desire to minimize plot space encouxagc placing COIDpOJlCI1tS close togetlu:r.
    This inevitably creates til: potential for damaging ixItenction of structures and
    components duxing an earthquake. It is incumbent upon til: structural engineer to
    raise concerns about strIiCtIlrc and component intexaction.
    a. Tall vertical vessels with pJatfoxms or pipe jn close proximity to each other.
    b. Venical or hoxizontal vessels with shared worldng platf'oxms.
    c. Iaterconnecting pipeways.
    d. Mobile equipment such as davits, c:nmes. etc.
    e. Distributive systems wbich c:cnmect compc:iilt5dS suppoxtecl on piles with
    components not supported on piles.
    5-28

    Some of the general concepts that arc practiced to avoid or minimize physical
    interaction arc as follows:
    a. LayOUt all stmcIIJreS as regular strUCtUreS whenever possible.
    b. Provide adequat= space between componems.
    c. Check the "Ph iii!! II n displ8'"11 ",II' Make sure there is enough room between
    the structare and componeDt to match the displacement c:alcuJated.
    d. Provide an apptoprlate support and restraint coufiguration for pipes to
    nrinimTm tranSfer of load across flanges and couplingS.
    e. Make piping syatems more flexible to mitigate the coupling effects of large
    pipes. Include loops in the pipes wherever needed
    It is the general pxacdce to layout an structu:res and compolltlltc to IIIjlljllljze any
    physical
    ..r...w.w 'lUL- pJatfo --_.- _._--
    mterac:aon UoI&UII6 a sersliliC eveDt. ft'UlaliWS or y ~ are m
    proximity to each 0_. the disp1aceIllMtc and/or periods should be cJtrdced to
    iDsure that the spacing between such stJ:tIctUl'eS exceeds the sum of the absolute
    values of the dispJa"'", "'S 'l1= dispJa. fum'S (deft .. willed with code mandated
    forces) for this evaluatiDn, should be increased by 3<RwJ8) to account for inelastic
    behavior. Also refer to Secdon 5.3.3.2 herein, for fi:&rther iufolll.,t;on on dealing with
    inelastic behavior.
    Often, piping in sttuawes is routed ve:rticaIly from a higher elevation to a lower
    elevation into flanges ami coupHngs at tile nonJes of turbines, PWIqiS, ussels. etc.
    Large displac:ements of these pipes may cause leaks at the intetface. thus cansing fires
    and in some cases leadjng to exp.IosioDS. All effort should be made to provide
    adeqnate system tlex;hjJjlY in the pipes to minjnVn: load tl1iIISfet across flanges and
    couplingS due to se;smjI; loads.. This may be achieved by several methods. the III)st
    pxacticaI being pIaper suppo:rt of the piping. ami by Hnriting the displarellenl ofpipes
    as specified below.
    Where large pipe cfispJaillient5 cansed by defJerrion of the suppotting structure
    are UDaCCCptlIbJe. 1iwiting hozw)IIlBI str1JCtw'e displacemenl OD the order of HI24O,
    where B is the height of the suppo:rt point above the flange, may provide an
    acceptable solution.
    5.5.4 PJpeways
    Often, pipeways inteIsect each other, thus care should be taken DOt to transfer
    longitudinal seismic c!isplare!l'CDI and forces from one pipeway into traDsYerse loads
    5-29
    on another. Adequate IcmgitndinaJ bracing or physical. separation of pipeways can
    protect agaiDst such eff'er!s Layout of piping and cable nay systems should be done
    . in a numner to mjnimize such effects
    5Ji GEOTECBNICALCONSlDERATlONS
    Foundations for stnIiClUies designed with the aid of modem buvding codes and
    seismic analysis tec!mjqves have generally perfomm well during major eartbqualce
    events. This satisfac:tOI)' state of eVCDtS is due to a combjnarign of a good
    understanding of seismic balls, good construction ami design procedures. and large
    sati:ty factou used for static loads. Seed et al (1991) ami Krintzsky et al (1993)
    provide some ~ I l e m Ip'*ground materlaIs on seimric mIated. folmdarion issues.
    The following sections pmvidr: additional discnssion on sclected geotechnical issnes.
    5.6.1 Piled FOUDdaticms
    The ASCE Geota Ile at EngineeJing Division xeceudy published a Dumler of
    papers reviewing the 1'1 m understanding of djliiWlic piI= respouse (Prakash,
    1992). Among those papcas was one by Hadjian et al (1992) that miewcd the state-
    of-the-practice as it IdaIes to both code provisioDS ami cilgiamil" practice The
    foDowing is largely milia ted from that paper and fmmKJinitzsky et al (1993).
    Little effort is typically expended on P'''c soil-shlh ""e intemctiDn UIIIess difficult
    soU conditions exists, or tile capital exp=sc or 4Dpw1aiite of the SI:I:IlCtUm is gRISt.
    However. a great ulma ... of procedures have beca pmposcd ami me in use for
    iadependent piles. piI= groups. and linear and nonHnear soU response (e.g.. PPkasb,
    1992; Gazetas, 1991; Ncip"'i et all991. 1992).
    Piles inserted into a.piag groUDds, or adjaceal to slumping marerials, may
    experience lateral Joadimg clue to the tnuISVeI:se JWiCiiEii1 of soU during ground .
    faih=. Such conditions am difJictJlt to desigu against
    Friction piles placed in loose sands, 5C(!sjrive cIaJS or high water ccdent clays
    may exp:rieDce loss of ' Bpd! it)' or settlement dnring sigrrifisant seine events..
    Battered piles offer a stiffer coDDguration to latcIalloads than vmically oriented
    piI=s ami tbmefore teDd to iDaease seismic loads. Stnu:t1UCS DOt approp,iately
    designed or CODStrUCted for dds rcspcmse can exp:,Rhiag setae damage. There me
    proposals to ciliminate futare c:onsttuction with battc:al piles in seismic areas b,.C'msc
    of poor performance
    The seismic petfur .... m:e of piles can be improved by extending them to deeper.
    more conqetent soils. addiag beUed bases to imptove tension and end-bearing
    capacity. or by adding a SUTface surc:ha.rge to inarasc tile t.mOuillg stICSS and
    5-30
    strength at depth. Driving fUll displacement piIcs densifies the surrourufing son.
    thereby improving peziuIlIWlice
    5.6.2 SoD Strength CcmsideratiODS
    Several codes allow the use of increased soil strengths under the action of seismic
    ground sbaking. The iDcreasc is typically on the order of 1/3 or greater. The .large
    factors of safety used in folmdarjou engineering for static loads result in significant
    excess capacity that may be considered for the less fn:qucntly OCCW1ing transient
    loads due to seismic ground shaking. The general satisfac:tOIy peIfonnance of
    buildings ami fmmdations designed under modem seismic codes would seem to
    validate this procedure. However, significant care must be exercised to insm:c that the
    foundation response under'dyna:mic cyclic loading bas been considered in an analysis
    attempting to c:baractcrizc it with simple static load metbods typically used in designs
    5.6.3 Geoteclmic:al SltelmestigatioDS
    Site investigations ate teqohed to acquire basic foundation design data. Zones of
    potential seismic .activity JeqUire some additional CODSidcrations that arc necessary to
    quantify local site response cbaracteristics ami seismic hazards. The following is a
    partial list of data required for conventional fonndath"l analyses ami seismic response
    ami hazard analyses:
    L Depth to bcchoc:k
    b. Ground water rabJc location
    d. Soil physical chamcre! isdcs (grain size distribution. index properties. organic
    content, density, YOidratio, water content)
    eo Soil mechanical characteristics (elastic ptopeztics. consolidation ploperties.,
    shear strength)
    t: SmSlmc parallle!e!S
    g. Unique conditions (sloping bedrock. sutDce grade. ami proximity to faults,
    cliff ateaS, :river fronts or coastal ateaS, m:ctic condjtjons)
    b. Site investigation iepoUS should incblde descriptions of drilling, sampling ami
    in-situ testing mc.thods. as this infollnation in usefi.ll in aiding the compaiison
    of results from different investigations.
    5-31
    Chapter'
    WAIJrnOWNEVALUA'IlONS OF EXISTING FACILITIES
    6.1 INTRODUCTION
    A "walkthrough" or "walkdown" evaluatiou is the term genetalIy applied to an on-
    site. mostly visual. sate";"g review where as-instaDed components are methodically
    "walked down" and evaluated for potential sejsmic vulnerabilities Using this method,
    it is possible to rapidly and cost-eft'ectively identify the highest risk ireas and prioritize
    further, more detailed evalnatiOIlS which might be apptoptiate. This section is jntended
    to give pmctica1 guidance to engineers who will pedoJm such evab,,!!ions
    6.2 BASIS FOR PERFORMING WAI.Jal()WNS
    PetrochemieaJ. fac:olitjes are increasingly being forced to demoDStrate safety against
    toxic releases and poDution by mandates such as the CaliforJIia Risk Management
    Prevention Program (RMPP) req1ilie
    n
    e
    n
    ts, the OSHA law (29 CPR 1910.119), and
    the proposed EPA law (40 CPR Part 68). There is cuuent1y no widely used and
    accepted standard for evah!llting existing faciHries for seismic loads. While some
    bigbly regulated .industries, such as mui/ear power plants, require coDform!l!!ce to new
    codes each time design st!IJ!dards change, when owners of pettt>c:bcmical plants
    evaluate facjljties, it is gCiitliaB.y done voh"!I'ariIy. Upgrade and acceptance decisions
    rely on cost-benefit CC'nsjdCJ3fious, with criteria set by the owners in agIee'uM with
    local authorities as necessary.
    Walkdown tecluriques along with Ijmjted amdytical evaluations have been used
    extensively in Califomia petrochemical fa",
    1iti
    es rather than a nuc1car-type
    methodology to satisfy RMPP requhements since the early 1990&. This approach has
    been implemented beeR""'
    a. Very few existing famTtties would be able to demoDStnlte CODfonmmce with
    current seismic codes Seismic design codes change constantly in order to
    incorporate lessons learned from past earthquakes and ongoing research, and
    have usually become more restrictive and more conservative.
    6-1
    b. The walkdown D!Zthod takes advantage of the lessons Ieamed from the
    earthquake pedOtIll/lUlCC of imiUSlrlal faciljties, namely that most instalIations
    perform well, even when not designed speci1icaIly for seismic loads. The
    occum:nce of damage can usually be traced to known Nlnscs which could
    have been mitigated by the evaluations descdbed in this section.
    Co The walkdown merhod is cost-effective. It is intended that all components of
    interest are looked at during the walkdown. but more costly detajIeA analyses
    an: efuninated for all but the higbM risk itc:ms. Obvious problems can be
    quickly jdentified and mitigated, as well as those areas where low-cost
    modifications or rmVttenance can significantly improve the scismic integrity of
    the equipmentlst!!I!Jctnte (e.g. mjssing hatdw31C).
    d. 'I'he method is lCi!,Iical and defensible to zeguJatms and owners. It considers
    the actual condjlihls of the plant; it .relies OD deJmnstrated performance in
    past earthquakes. backed up by pcdo"'M"':e obserwtioJJs and data; and it
    .iDcOlporates the ift'lerjp"cc. judgment. ami CO""'''DD s=se of the engineers
    perfonniDg the RlView. Several Califomia ICgD1atoxs have accepted and
    n:c:c pi. ilm:nded this approach for RMPPs. .
    e. 'I'he JlII:thod is a;pps:opria1e for regions of high and low se
    is
    deity. 'I'he level
    of seismic baz;m!! can be accounted for in the waJkdowns.
    In snmmary, the waJrdowu methodology allows the owner to identify high risk
    items and assess potentiia
    l
    safety, POllution. and CCODOmic exposure due to seismic
    eventS.
    6.3 GENERALMEJBU.OLOGY
    Walkdowns an: ge!!4af1y perform:d by an engl! r or team of engineers in a
    ~ systeM!.';I; " """. to assure coDSisteDcyaml comp1-te=" The overall
    methodology may inclwfle SC'Vtilal or all of the folIowiug ekments:
    a. Meetings with owners, ope.tators. rcgu1atms, pmcess safety cnginecu, or
    other appropria patties to discuss objectives of the evalnarinn and to
    estabHsh pellt" iiI'M"':e nquia:mcnts of facility.
    b. Idemificatiou of "f"4!!!CiU, structures and piping of blterest. If the review is
    being performcc!as pan of a process hazards aualysis or process relatcd safi:ty
    review, the waJkdown engin ......... should review the ass"hq.tions used in the
    bazaxd analysis a:gatd'ing the expc!:ted post-earthquake avajlability of critical
    systems If the Rl9iew is voluntary, for pmposes such as evaluating insurance
    m:eds or 0Vtil3Il Jist quantification, the engineer may be asked to review an
    major equqjiilcmand stnu:tun:s in a facility.
    c. EstabUsbment of damage categories. Walkdown eft'ons an: often required to
    be coordinated with a process safety team to establish requireJnents for use in
    the consequence aDalyses. For example, the process safety team may need an
    indication of whether. in a given eanhquake, a vcssc1 might
    - be IIndamaged
    - suffer minor damage and leak
    - fail catastrophically.
    d. Collection of site data. Data of interest incblde seismic hazard data, fault
    locations, available soil borings, plot plans to locate items, and seismic design
    basis data applicable to the unit being evaluated.
    e. Walkdown eva
    Juaricm
    of components. This is done systematically, using
    cbccldists for each component, to docnmeJ'lt the evaluation and to serve as a
    mninder of the scw4li
    ll
    g criteria. An example evaluation sheet is shown in
    Figme6.1.
    f. Review of drawings as necessary. This may be done to check adequacy of
    reinforced concrete strucbl1'eS, to verify anchorage detaDs, or to icfentify
    configumtions which CIDDOt be visually reviewed due to obstructions,
    fiIeplCJOting, insulation. etc.
    g. Idemifit:ation of items for IIIlIlytical review. Th=se may incblde "worst-case"
    items or any items that appear to be seismically vulnerable. This is based on
    the potential for damage that would cause toxic release, pollution, or other
    unacceptable pe1fu!lii8!lce charactedstics, such as damage that would cause
    Of! ... o. 0
    S!gJU can' u'tsmess lD.tW:"j'l 'em
    b. Documemaricm of "poor" or "questionable" items for 0Wi1iUS or regulators.
    Sufficient expbmptjou DI11St be provided such that conective actions,
    maintenance, 1in1her evaluation, etc., will in fact address the engineer's
    concerns. The engineer DI11St recognize that others may perform additional
    risk mitigation without futther consultation with the engineer who performed
    thereviewo
    i Recommendation of structural or m,.ctumU:pJ fixes or other eft'ons which
    would mitigate risk from items listed above. The engineer may be required to
    interact with pi0ces5 safety engineers and 0WDeIS to evaluate the economic
    and technical feasibility of structural and pioc:ess mocfjfjc:ptjous
    6-3

    FIELD DATA SHEE'l' FOR EQllIPMENT
    EQUIPMENTID:
    DESCRIPTION:
    LOCATION:
    ,
    .
    ' .
    . .. ':: 'SCREENING EV ALlJATION:.
    ,...,. .;':"1"',
    ..
    ..
    ;:::":. .
    -
    . .: ..... : ...
    ,
    ..
    Summary of Evaluation:
    _ Adequate
    _ Not Adequate
    _ Further Evaluation Required
    Recommendatious:
    . __ :A.T.:nJ'

    ..
    Noted Anc:horage Concems:
    lDstallation Adequacy Weld Quality
    Missing or Loose Bolts Coxrosion
    Concrete Quality Other Concerns
    SpaciDgIBdge Distance
    Comments:
    ,: c- ;., .
    :
    :

    Noted Load Path CoDcems:
    Collllections to C. "Ilpatlf4
    i
    !S Missilll or Loose Hardware
    Support MembeIs 0I:IIIIr Concerns
    Coifiiilents:
    Figure 6.1: 'ibis eump!e waJkdoWD sheet shows how a simple cbecJdlst C8Jl
    remind the engineer of what to evaluate for a giveD piece of equipment. .


    FIELD DATA SHEE'l FOREQUlPMENT (Cout.)
    "
    ......
    .. >
    Noted Struc:tnral IntegritylEquipment Specific Concems:
    __ Maintenance Functionality
    __ Brittle Material Ground Failure
    Corrosion I..atezal Load
    Other Concerns
    Comments:
    Noted Interactfon Ccmcems:
    __ Failure and Falling
    __ Proximity and bnpIct
    Comments:
    ,."'.'
    Name:
    Name:
    6-S
    __ Differential Displaa:rJlCllt
    SpmyJAoodlFire
    Date: ____ -+
    Date: ____ -+
    .n
    ,:t .'
    .. , .
    r"::'!
    . '.:."
    <
    j. Identification of cnuscquenres due to faDure of each of these items and the
    prioritization of any recommended risk mitigation actions according to the
    consequences of failure and the existing level of risk.
    A rating system may be appropriate. identifying:
    - major seismicwlncrabilities which shonld be fixed jrnmMjately
    - serious wlDembilities which might require fixes. depending on economics
    - relatively simple fixes which might be performed in conjunction with
    routine maintenance or during the next turnaround.
    6.4 SYSTEM CONSIDERATIONS
    In most practical lpJifir:ati"us. walkdowns are performed on a cowpoJ1eJ1t basis.
    T_ .. :...: ..... 1 I i:li. r __ 1Iu
    ....... n........ nems. e.g. c'l"'1"'em ttems, vesses, speed: PJPC"'es, are "'--I
    idtmrifjed as hnportant 1M> euse of bazardous materials. me potential, potential
    interaction with other CODip'",milS, etc. and eva!n:ated by the seiSii!ir: waIkdown team.
    Often, these evaluations are perionued completely iadependeat of any process
    hazards analyses (e.g. "What-m", HAZOPS, etc.) wbich may bave initiar' the
    seismic evaluations to be pedm:med. In those sitnatlons, it is hnportaDt that the
    walkdown team interact with teams performiDg process hazards 1UIalyses. A
    constructive iDfonnation intert:hange greatly enhances the efficiency and potential
    benefits from the review.
    The seismic review team should be able to describe to owners and to. process
    safety enginPATS some of the general etfects that can be expected in a scenario
    eanhquake. For example
    a. The entire facllitywill be shaken simnltalleously without prior warning.
    b. The sha!dng may last 10 seconds or longer. Very large magnitnde
    carrbquakea (gmata than magnimde 8) have cans' shaking !asring on the
    orde.r of 60 secmrds
    Co Off-site power will Jibly be lost.
    d. Several systems may be lost at the same time, such as phones, water, etc. and
    for long periods oflime..
    f. Certain wlnerable equiprren
    t
    items and piping systems may be damaged and
    unable to function.
    ,
    1
    ,

    I
    I
    t
    I
    l
    g. Offsite emergency services may not be available dne to infrastructure
    problems (bridge or highway damage) or due to their required use in the
    general comm
    u
    ni1;y.
    h. Concems about pe:sonal or family safety may be the priority of operator
    personnel, and ope:arm action may not be a viable method of mitigating
    damage.
    If the review is pan of a hazard analysis. an of these issues may affect the hazard
    analysis results. and should be mnsidered, by the process safety team. The waIkdown
    engineer should c:rirically nMew what ass"" 'lWDS have been made in the process
    hazards analyses which might be inappropriate regarding post-earthquake capabt1jtie
    s
    of facilities and equipmem.
    The waIkdown engineer should interact with operators. owners, process safety
    engineers. and other avaiJab1e specialists regarding consequences of damage. For
    example, a civiIIseismic engineer might assume that the highest c:ousequences of
    failed process piping am assnc:jated with pipes c:arryjng the most toxic materiaL In
    reality, other considenilums. such as whether the system will contin!)e to feed
    material through the Jim:. or whether the pressure drop will shut clown production of
    the JJl8b:rial. may be IJ1QIC signfficamfactors in the priali1izarion of the hazards.
    This point is made to alert waIkdown teams to be c:onsjsumt in cwluarlons,
    caJibratiDg judgmmt based on UDdctstanding of the systeim, not on UDfounded
    IISSUDIptioDs. It is also made to emphasize to the ci.viJlseiS!nic enginftlr that not an
    potential damage needs to be mitigated. The waIkdown engineer will likely jdentjfy
    several concems which lie detetwined to not have sigrrificam safety or economic
    implications, a d=isiuD that will be made by othe%s with iDput from the walkdown
    team. Al that point. drrisi01lS regarding upgrades should be made by the owner on a
    cost-benefit basis.
    6.4.1 Emergency Syidaus
    During a damaging earthquake, it is very likely that off-site Ut11jtjes will be
    disrupted and potentially lost for long periods of time. If the scope of the review has
    bee
    , cd . _......... .. 1.--'-- _ . . . . : . . I ~ the ...... ." . .
    n Jrntt_ to cqu4 ..... ul ...... plplIlg w..... UiWOiIl""UII ......... _ ... v .... scrsrmc
    engineers should question the process safety engineers to deteulline their aSSlJJlIptious
    on the avaUabiIity of o1kite ntt1ities following an earthquake. It may be pmdent to
    inchlde items such as backup power supplies and water storage taDks in the seismic
    evaluaDon.
    The waJkdown team shonJd also question wbetb=r other em:rgen.:y systems ue
    being counted OD to functirm dudng a large earthquake to mitigate damage. In
    particular, it should be deteullined whether the fixe protedion system,
    6-7
    telecommunications systems. and containment systemS are required to perform active
    functions after the eanbquake.
    6.5 EVALUATION OF COMPONENTS
    The following paragraphs are intended to give guidance for performing
    walkdowus of typical CODl,. lIIents in a petrochemical facility. Note that this guidanCt:
    is not intended to be an ineh'sive; it would be impossible to list an of the possible
    situalioDS that an engineer might encounter. Rather, the issues discnssed below
    represent those that have been identified in the investigatioDS of equipment
    performance in earthquakes throughout the world over the last two decades. In
    additiml, it incOIpoIates the in-plaDt experien.:c of engineers who have performed
    seismic waIkdowus of petrnchemical fac,1ities, pIinwily in CaJifomja. In an cases.,
    the walkdown engineer must use his or her counwn sense and fundamental principles
    of enginem ing mechanics, as necessary, in the jdcmtjfjcation of potential seismic
    vulnembili.ties
    6.5.1 Major Comideratlnns
    Several major c:onside,ations should influence the focal points of the waIkdown
    investigation and the reIaDve effm:t spcut on various aspects B: ... mples inc:1ut!e'
    a. Level of Ground Shaking Hazaxd: In amas of lower seismicity. major
    struc:I:URS and vessels may be designed for sufficient 1ateral load capacity
    1'C"'IJting from design for other criteria, such as wiDd. However.
    displaali i iNll-indn"'" damage can occur at low levels of shaking.
    b. Severity of Other Hazards (fillllring, soil faiJuze, and landslides): Known
    fauJts in tbe Yiciui1y of the site should ale:lt the waIkdown team to be on the
    lookout for situations where imposed disp. e ..... at could cause damage. such
    as buried piping. or equipment supported. OD diffetern suucturaI systems.
    Where known faults ran through the site, a walkdown cwluatjou may need to
    be supplem:nted wiIh acfdjtjogal geotechnical or other investigations. son
    failure such as liquelacrion cou1d also gteatly impact the severity of dam
    a
    !,,-
    c. VJDtage of the faciJiI:y and applicable cades at tbe time of COJIStl'IJCtion
    Applicable codes ami scismi design m=thDds may have clIa.aged c:cmsiderably
    siIIce a tmit was cfcsigIted.. In paujMdar, .eiDfmced COJIQete design codes
    dJaDged. in the early 1970s. adding d"""Ung IcqUhe" ... nts wIdch wou1d ensure
    ductile bebavior in 3D overload condition. "I'hen: should be more emphasis aD
    cwh1ating overall sttactmal capacity in older 1lDits tban in newer units. In
    addition. engineers cwhl8ting older fam
    1
    jtjr:s should be more alert for existing
    damage. such as dears in stracwral hIMi"cIs, damaged concrete, ccnrosion,
    etc.
    d. 0veraII quality of maintenance: Where overall maintenance appears to be
    poor or inconsistent. walkdown teams should be alert for missing nuts and
    bolts. unrepaired damage. fieldmocUfications., etc., especially in the primary
    load path aDd coDDeClions.
    e. Priorities based on puJceSS safety considerations. pollution. regulatory needs,
    etc.: The process safety engineers and owners should identify to the
    walkdown team which components may wammt a more thorough initial
    review due to safety. pollution. or economic CODscquences of damage.
    6.5.2 Generic Issues
    The foDowing issues are common to several types of electrical and mechanical
    equipment. Additional guidmce is provided for several of these issues, as
    apptopxiate. in the discllssion of 5p'" jfic equipment items.
    6.5.2.J. A n c h o ~
    DispJa.:emem resulting !ram iDadequate or mjssing anchorage has probably been
    the most common source of damage to equipment in past earthquakes. Among the
    specific details noted to have C3nsed problems are the following:
    L Vibration Isolators: Rotating equipment .is often isolated from its supporting
    strw:tme by the use of elastomaric pads or springs which do DOt transmit the
    vibrational loads from the equqmeul to tbe SIl'DCtDrI:. Those.isolatoIs. which
    may appear on a quick visual Je'Viow to be designed for Jateralloads, often
    lack tbe stt=Igtb and dnc:fflity to msist seismic: loads without finling (Pigure
    6.2). One potcnljaJ cause of fiIilure is wbeD tbe isolatots are made of non-
    ductile material. sucb as cast-iron. which may fracture rub:r than d.eioIDl
    unde:r eartbquab loading ADotbcr poteadal cause of cfamagc .is a lack of
    venical uplift: resuaints. 'l'be eq"qliiCilf may bollllCe out of the support and
    thereby lose its eflIoo:r:ive Jatmd suppwt. A good detail on a vib:ation isolator
    COUiIWnly hu:!wf,.. 'HIiiiY:iS" in the Jar""l direction (Figme 6.3). or stops
    which will not pehU modon. but will limit the displa-:e!llC!J1f to tolerable
    lewls. A good detail also im:Jud,.. uplift n:sttaiuts. In ge=ral. it is
    Jeco'"'ended that 8DJ i'Du'lion isolated cq'1:'DeD
    r
    be carefiJJly evaluated
    lcoJatms tbemselves should be evah1ated. as well as tbe ccillseq"ences of Jargc
    dispJaremeats which may occur should tbat isolator faiL
    b. Welds: Non-ductile 1iIiIure may 0CCItt in sitnarioDs wb= welds are
    OVeIstxessed. Sihtations of com:em tbat might be idemifiM during a
    walkdown evaluation include;
    - corroded welds, a concmn which should be cvahlated whmever standing
    water acc1!!DulatN or welds are constantly exposed to water;
    -. .
    - potentiaUy lmdmj71'lll welds:
    - situations where good quality welds may be difficult to install, such as a
    weld to checker plate which may not be of high quality (Figure 6.4);
    - welds where they shouldn't be (e.g. anchor bolts welded to their rtseats"
    on tanks); and
    - welds over shim plates (Figure 6.5), an especia1ly difiicalt detail to detect
    in a field mricw, and on1ikcly to show in drawings.
    c. Bolted anchorages: Cast-in-pJacc, groutcd-in-place, and expansion anchor
    bolts may fail not 0Dly due to lack of strength, but due to cfetajls such as
    inadequate edge djstancc or cracks in the concrete (Figure 6.6). Factors such
    as spacing of the bolts may reduce the capacity of bolted anchorages due to
    overlapping shear cones. Spacing and edge ctistancc may cause a reduction in
    capacity if <tistar'C
    cs
    betwccu bolts or bolts and edges me Jess than 10 times
    the bolt diaJncter. Special anenrlou should be given to .hJsj;o:tjon (e.g.. bolt
    dgh"'ess checks) of pouted-in-place and expansion IIIIC11OIs, as their
    capacities me very ...... sffive to plopet hlmllation
    Figure,6.2: ThIs Is an enmple of a faDed. 'Vibration Isolator. In this case, the
    spriDg broke. Other times, the mounting may be made ofbdttle material, such
    as cast troD, and may rxw:twe.
    6-10
    . ,- ~ . -, ."' -,' -' -.-.
    FIgure 6.3: Bumpers should be iJpdnded to &mit the movement of vibration
    Isolated equipmeut. Uplift restraints should also be prorided.
    6.5.2.2 Load Path
    a. The load path of the major equipue
    or
    masses down to the foUDdation should
    always be visually ICVicwed.
    b. The engineer should be aware of lmnsnal cutouts or modificatiOJlS. Where
    those cutouts are obviously field modificatioDs, the mgineer should assess
    whether lateral capacity is sigoific:arttJy reduced Cutouts are common in
    sappan saddles, espo:iaUy for horizomal vessels and beat cxchangeIs where
    the anchor bolts OD the pieIs are DOt cor:r=tly aHped with the pre-drilled
    . holes in t1ie steel saddles They may also be found in vessel support skirts,
    when piping does not align with prefabricated ope"ings
    Co Load cells within the load path (Figure 6.7) may DOt be capable of resisting
    lateralloads. These are typically used for vessels
    6-11
    (" .
    ,-
    : ..
    Figure 6.4: Example of a pm' quaIlty1Nld, In thfs case a tank baR plate to
    checker plate d .... klng. Where welds may be dlfticnJt., the walkdown team
    should evaluate the quality closely


    . .
    ,
    , ,
    Figure 6.5: Sbim plates are often used for leveling vessels. Welds over these
    sbJms may have severely reduced C3pa' ity. This poor detaD is diDicult to spot
    in drawings or In the site investigatioD. In tbfs c:ase, the walkdown team should
    notice the apparent tbkkDess of the base plate.
    6-12




    d. A common problem is missing nuts and bolts on connections. This situation is
    especially prevaIeni where strUCtUral m''''den must be removed to provide
    access for regular maintenance of equipment.
    e. Attenrinu must be given to cases where large .... centri.cities exist. This often
    occurs as a msult of field mortifications which have DO eng;"'! i!tg basis. such
    as a sbifting ofbraces to allow for cIeuance for piping, or other eqnq""ent.
    Eccenttfcities, if signfficant, can induce significant ...... ding on stmctura1
    UlCIDbeIs. such as m1umn
    s
    , for which these JIIImIbcn; ate DOt designed
    Figure 6.6: Large c:raeks within IIJ.bolt diameters could reduce the teDsiOD
    capacity of an anchor bolt. Cnu:ks such as these through the anchor bolts could
    significantly reduce their tensile and shear capacity
    6-13
    Ie'
    ~ .

    FJgare 6.7: Load ails are commoDly used Ia the suppwt for 'L I Is These may
    lack capabDlty of.elsling lateral loads aad should be c:aaefuDy eIH""ued.
    6.5.2.3 Malnte,.,
    DuriDg wa1IcdowDs of fac:t
    1
    iries, eagin =rs routiDely' obsave mmfitious which
    CODiplowise the Mis"ir: SIliiCl1WaI iDtegdty of eqc,ildiC'iI. ;. could be easily taken
    care of through louti'lie majntenance This occurs 0VIIIl in othe.t wise weJ1..maintained
    filc:t1jtjc:g. As dip ,ssed above. this is pi iiIQdly a load patbIam:boJ:agc issue related ("
    to npssing or dam,&, d baidwue.
    6.5.2 4 Cutlusioa .
    The waIkdown ream should always be on the lookout for areas where corrosion
    may occur. The OlE' n is not smface nJsting, but a loss of structural strength which
    may be indicated by ,hi",'; .. " pittjag. or flaking. Areas espccially w1DerabIe would
    be where espeMaUy corrosive materials such as acid are pI em, ami where water
    may accumulate
    Another area wI=e corrosion may be a problem is where C O D C t ~ cover is
    spalled and the t"j,,6.c:e
    m
    c
    nt
    is exposed. This is gc iiicrally a me"e. of majntenance
    6-14

    1
    I
    Because COIJ'Osion is often a high priority general concern to a facility, the plant
    may have a corrosiOD group that can assist in idem;fying potential problem m:as.
    6.5..2.5 CoDStl'actionllDstaOation Quality
    During walkdowus, engineers may also observe consistently poor inJtaDat;on
    practices. This may be evident in welds. or in expansion anchor boltiIJsta1lations.
    For expaIISion anchors may not be able to attain their tensUe design capacity
    if embedment is inadequate. This could result from the use of shim plates or large
    grout pads. It may be evident by long stUds protruding above the concrete surface,
    or exposure of pan of a shell insert. Other of iDsta
    l1ar
    ion concerns would
    such as pins. not installed pl0pedy or fasteners missing
    posttlVC locking deYices for vibrating cqu'lwlCl1t.
    6.5.2.6 Seismic Interaction
    Seismic interaction refers to damage to a system or piece of equipment due to
    impact with or movcmcut of another piece of equipm:mt, system. structure., storage
    Qbinets, farnitute, de. This is a particular aspect where the wa1kdown evaluation is
    the best way to identify potential interactions.
    For the purposes of this doc
    1I
    ment, seismic interactions ate divided into four
    primary categories:
    a. Proximity aad. Impact: This 0CCU1S when there is not adequate cleatance
    between two items to prevent impact. This may occur from stiding of
    tmancbored eqWp"CDC; swinging of rod-hung piping, ducts. or cable trays; or
    cantilevered defIec:riou of eIecttiral cabinets causing pounding with adjacent
    cabinets. waDs, or structural 1re,.dlCl5. Another example would be the hazard
    of walkway phd Ii lid with shaxp ended beam supports. if the walkways ate
    capable of DlJvemeut reJativc to the taDk such that the taDk waIl can be
    punctured.
    b. Structnra1 FaiIme and Falling: This usually occuxs whim iDadequately
    ained fall fro abo' . the' .
    restt c''''q+onents m ve, unpacung eqt''I'i.e:nt m questtolL
    This can also occur when a large item neazby structmally faDs and impacts
    with the eqnipmcnt being evaIna
    tM
    by the walkdown engineer.
    Co D.ifferential Displw:emeDt: This is a particular CODcem for the waDaiown
    team wherever items ate supported by diffe:tent structural systems. The
    engineer should be awme of potential simmons where the diffiaexn systems
    can displace, such that COJIIU!l:ting piping, ducts, conduit, mbjng, etc. do not
    bave adequate tlexibility to survive the motion. Flexibility is the key feature
    to resist damage. This is also a spccilic concern when dift"erent foundations
    6-15
    act as suppons for one piece of equipment. or where equipment is
    tmanc:bmed.
    d. WatezSplay and Floodiug: This may be of CODCem .iDSide buildings. where
    damage to sprinIdcr systemS could affect the opcrabiIity of electrical.
    equipment. Of particular concem should be sprinIde.r heads on fire piping
    which might impart hard structural memben and open. sptaying water on
    electrical eququ, 'em below.
    Process changes may :result in operating conditiollS which have been changed
    from the design ccm1litU",s without consideration of the effect on seismic
    vuluerabiIity. The walkdown team should make appIopliate pzocess engineers and
    oper:ators aware of this possibility and investigate wbere such c:banges may have
    occ:uued.
    6.5.2.8 lDadverteDt Relay Actuation I Functlcmallty
    Functionality of equipueut may be affmed by die action of electrozm:cbanjcal
    relays during an earthquake. This cannot be evalnated dming a walkdown and
    requires a system evaIuatioD. Walkdown engineers should be aware of the potmttial
    for relays chatteriug, It ipl'ing, or changing state due to earthquake ""'Iring and that
    certain types of relays, such as switches rimg UEleuxy fiJIed vacmrm tubes, have
    bccu demonstrated to be Wmuion sensitive. Walkdown enginectS should notify
    process engim=s and operators of this possfut1ity and iIm:stigatc 1iJrther when this
    condjtjon is a concan.
    6.5 2 9 Ground Failure
    Ground faiIme bas led to Be\'eRI damage and coDapse of many otherwise well-
    designed SI1'UCtDICS lIJId eqAit" i ..... t in earthquakes.
    a. Walkdown r:UgiiitliS should always teYiew soil lepwts to identify the
    potential for fimlting. liquefaction and sett1e" Alt. Special caution should be
    exercised whcuel'CI' one or more oftbese Stnatirms is encounteted, since even
    we11-engi"ecml SINCtUles and .ip"ICm can be sevexeIy damaged.
    Walkdown evaJmWoos generally must be supplemcuted with additjomll
    studies whenevertbesc types of ground failme ate poss1'ble.
    b. Steep slopes with potential stability problems should be identified, and if
    questionab1e .slope-stability studies should be me> II I iii !floded,
    6-16
    6.5.2.l0 Design Interface
    In general. the walkdatrn team should always be alert when investigating areas of
    design interface. where amnecting structural elements may have been designed by
    different engineering gIODpS. E."amples inclnde vessels on supports. where the vessel
    and saddle design may be by the vendor, wbl1e the attachment to the support and the
    support may be by others; or finfan units, where the p;peways may be designed by
    one group and the finfaD. sad support framing by the vendor.
    In these situations, the walkdown team should be alert for inconsistent design
    practices. an indication tbat one or more eJem.w.s may not have been properly
    designed for seismic loads.
    6.5.3 Evaluatiou of SperiDo:: Components
    The following sec:Qoas list c:onsideratiollS in the evaJuatioD of several specific
    types of equipment and 51I'11CtDreS found in petrochemical fa!:11itjes, Again, it should
    be empbasized that the following grridance is not all incb.sive and cannot possibly
    address all sit'IJatimu; that might be encountered. It simply indicates observed causes
    of damage and obsctted wIn=abilities from past walkdowns.
    6.5.3.1 Meeb .... ical Eqaipmeut
    Many types of eqliipile
    iil
    coDSist of complex assemblies of JII"cl!arrieal and
    electdcal parts tbat typica1ly arc mamtfactured in an jndustrial pIOCCSS tbat produces
    sVm
    1a
    r or even identical items. Such equipment may inch'de mp""Nrtwer's catalog
    items and arc often designed by empitical (trial and error) methods for functional and
    traDspottation loads. ODe c:bamcteristic of this equip" .... t is tbat it may be inhetet1tly
    capable of survi'ving strung motion earthquakes without sigrrificarrt loss of function.
    Equipment tbat may fit into this category inchrde most air Jumdlers. COmp1essors.
    pumps. motors, engiDes, generators, valves. prn:nmarie, hychaulic and motor
    operators. fans, chUJers, evapmatws. and condensers.
    The engineer pedi"'"'ihg tbe waJkdowus should nmcw each of these items
    looking for possible fragile pans of the compoJleDts and for specific CODfiguratioIlS
    and details that have been shown to be potential probIetns. such as the following:
    a. Am:horagc of the mDt. In particular, vibration isolators may be found on air
    handlers, comptes .. us, and smaI1 pumps.
    b. ComplCSSOrs, gem:mors. and pumps may have engines and motors located on
    separate skids or foundatiollS. In those cases. the units should be investigated
    for potential damage due to diffete.ntiaJ. dispJac1:
    n
    elll, such as biDding of a
    shaft. This is a fimctioDality issue. and may not be an issue for toxic material,
    flammable marerlal, or product m1
    ea
    ses
    6-17
    Co Attached piping must be fIcxib1e enough to withstaDd differential motion
    between its two anchor points. This may be particularly important when it is
    anacl=:l to .mancbored equipment or tanks.
    d. Valves are generally wry rugged seismically. However, there have been cases
    when: they have been damaged due to impact of the operator with a structural
    ~ . This is a spe:dal concem when the valve yoke is collSlruCted of cast
    iron. The walkdown team should also investigate those sitnations where a
    valve and its operator are independently supported on djfft:iC
    nt
    structural
    systemS.
    e. Additional investigation win also be appropriate where in-liDe components are
    large relative to the size of the piping.
    f. Non-ductile materja1s. such as PVC or cast iron.
    Similar to mecbanical cquipuei!l. much eJec:ttical equiIOJI"nt is designed and
    manufactured for functional and trausportation loads and has cbarac:teri1!tics of ample
    construction that make it iDher=tly able to survive stroDg earthqmdres Well
    anchored e1ecttical equipmeut has typically performed well in past earthquakes. This
    incbldes motor conttol CCidms (MCCs), low and nrd
    imn
    voltage switcbgcar, I
    tmnsiomas with auchored iutmnal coils. invcrt=s, ba1ty cbatgers, batteries. and
    disttibution panels.
    When electrlcal equipl1iCi4 is required to Amcrinn during or after an earthquake,
    the waIkdown eng;',,. should lftiew each of these eq"q"'lw items. looking for
    potentia! w1ncrabi1ities. &amples of concems for electticat equipment items incbtde
    the following:
    a. Verify auchorage of cl: h iN!) equipment. The am:borage may be bolts to .
    conc:rete, fiI1et welds to cmhedded steel, or plug welds to ewleddrd steeL Of
    particuJar concem are plug wcIds, which wm not have the SIDDI: capacity in
    tcDsion as they will in shear. Iftb=e is a poteJltial for oyettut1liu&. the plug
    welds should be cbecIred with a reduced capacity. To chect weld capacity.
    USC 25% of the capacity of an equivalent fiUct weld around the pcriwetcr of
    the hole.
    b. Cabinets that are not bolted together may pound agaiDst each ather. This is a
    padirnJar concem if tbe cabinets need to timction after aD earthquake, and
    there are trip s,",sjlivc devices. such as switches and zeIays iIIside the cabinet.
    6-18

    !
    I
    ,
    ,
    J
    C. f'abinets which am adj;K:cDt to sttw:tural columns or waDs may expexience a
    c:antiJever defIecticm, cansjng an impact. EXcept for exnemely flexible
    cabiurts. this should not be an issue where there is more than approximatcly 1
    inch (2S mm) clear space. Again. this is a concern where nip s-skive
    devices are pi scDt. This is not an issue if the cabinet is stiff due to top
    braciDg. oniP.Ry suppoxttai COJIdnit coming ftom the top of the cabiDet.
    II. The fiont to back shear panels should not bave unusnally large cutouts in the
    side, ncar tbc bouom, which may COUiplomisc the stnu:tma1 integrity of the
    cabiuct. This does not refer to mannfactwer's instaUr,c! and rciufurccd
    cutouts. or CIltoIltS and doors in the front and back pancls
    ; ....
    e. Intema1 dmccs should be seemed to'tm, cabinet stlIlCtD1e or internal flawing.
    For fX\I''''lde. bolts t:nnr!N:ting transformer coils to tbs cabinet am sometimes
    removed after Ilanspoxting the UDit to a site and instaJUngthl: eqai.];u .... Dt.
    6.5.3.3 Battery Ra
    rks
    Emergency battery racks are identffied sePaiitteJ:y becanse they bave fidled several
    times in earthquakes. often lemg to a lack of CJD:01geDCY power. Walkdown
    euginmn should evaluate thI: following:
    _ ..... 1 .. ~ ; ; ..
    a. The battcty rack should be stnlCtW'ally sound, capable of resisting transverse
    ... ,'and Jongitnctinalloads. '" '" " ' , , ,
    .. :'; .'0 _ ._" . ._
    Ii.' The bariimes thcmsclves should be restrained fiom faD"mg offtbc rack. This is
    , typicaJly done bY instaW'"g WIap-amund braciag amund thI: barrcries (Figwe
    6.8).
    c. Where batteries bave gaps between them. some f'oml of spacer should be
    ~ to prevent sliding ofthl: and i:"pact or damage to bus bars.
    II. FaDing of overhead eqnip"Mint should be avoided to prevent POSSl'ble. "j.:aI
    shott drcuits or d'""'lp to tbs batteries. Of particnJar concem would be
    fJnoresi-ent tubes in lights. which have been observed to mn ftom fiiclures and
    drop to the floor if then: is not safety grating. An CJD:01geu..oy lights. hams.
    speakm, etc. in the W:iDity of Iralleries should be loobel at to ensure that
    they will not slide. fall. or otherwise move Such that they can hit the batteries.
    c; Ifthl:.;ng;.w,. is rcvicwiug ,tIHi batterlcs to eiusun: their 6ng:
    1
    iljualil:y after an
    earthquake. related clectrical CqUiPiient should also be incJnded in the xcview
    and given special attention (e.g. invcners. contrOl paacls. etc.).
    , '
    ~ . . '. ..
    " ,
    6-19
    . .
    Figure 6.8: Batteries mast he kept from SUding oil'the racks 'Dds is commoDly
    done with wrapannmd bra ....... as Illustrated here.
    6.5.3.4 CoDtrol aDd IDStrnmpntation Equipmeat
    Control panels should be vmwm with the SIIIII:I CO! "" efectrical Cabjll!"S
    Of particular concem wm be the presence of tDp-seilsjlive dmces. such as mays.
    WJ= JeJa,s are pmseut.. the walkdown enpmen shoukl question process safety
    pe:r5OJIIICI1 or opetatms as to whether those Rlays are xeqaired to ftmctiou dmjng or
    after an earthquake.
    lDs!n'meuts on racks geuemIlypecfonn well. provided that they are secwed to the
    rack ami the zack is anchored. J'Dsnliiicmgtjon such as de"''''Cl:luples and gauges
    are not an issue except where tbey can be damaged by impar:t or ezcessive JlXltion
    pulIiDg out cabIN
    A.few other issues that are piiljc,.w to comDl aDd htstIUi'cnratjon equip"e,t
    .
    L Control panels ofteD collblin componcuts on rolb:s or slides. TIiese dmwers
    may not have stops, ami have been observed to mJ1 out ami faR to the floor
    during an earthquake. The walkdown cngir ... as shoukl cbet:k for stops or
    other lest1:aiDts on COl I q aOMES on slides or ml1ms.
    Cb:cuit cards ofteD slide in and out of panels with no resttaiDiDg devk:es.
    These cin:uit canis have been observed to slide DDt ami faR to tile floor during
    earthquakes. Tbe engineer should look for resnailliug dcM=s. Some cards
    6-20
    an: restrained by tight friction and win not have latches. Retrofits may be
    impracdcaL
    c. Control panels often have doors !eft open or unlatched. The swinging of
    doors and resulting impact DIID' be a c:onceru if trip sensWve devices an:
    pzcscnt.
    6.5.3.5 Ptessure Vessels
    Vettic:al plesswe vessels an: often mounted on steel skirts and am:hored to a
    concrete {tlMdatioD. The vessels tht.mscJves ~ e usually designed for high pressure
    and pcduIm wml in ecthquakes. Tan vesscIs and columns an: also often design""
    for wind loads andllave sign; ru :anI lateral alpacity. Of special COllom! for vertical
    vessols an: the followiDg issues:
    a. Umehd'meed cutouts in skirts. Of special c:onrem should be cutouts that
    appear to be field CODStn1Cled.
    b. Flexib;1ity of attached pi.;''! lUgid. sepantely SIlpported piping can
    expe:dence damaged uozz!es or failed pipes as a MSUJl of differential
    displw :eIDe"!
    ..
    .. "

    Co Strength and ductility of the am:hmage., such as anchor bolts with no chain.
    Rorizo'ltal p;;esswe vessels are typically supported on steel cradJtos which an:
    anchored to c:omaete picts. Whae tbeuna
    l
    ftr,}'ansion can occur, one end will be
    fixed, with the other end using slotted holes to allow for aial tbeunal growth. As
    with vertical vessels, the vessels tfmmsckoes IR designed for p;;esswe loads and
    would be eJqI'"rt"" to perfwm well in ecthquakes. The following concems have
    been noted for b", j wEllal pzessurc v sIs
    a. Pm which IR UDUsnaUy tan may not be capable of JJP!Sjstjng traDSverse or
    kmgitncfina1loads.
    ..
    b:. Namrw pim:s may haw c:ast-in-place """"'or bolts with edge distance
    pmblems
    Co Walkdown teams should be paItic:olarly IlW8le of field modifications in the
    SUPPOdS, such as cutouts to modify alignlllent of the bolts and bolt holes.
    c: For stacked horizPntaJ heat exchangezs. the walkdown team should cbeck
    COPld tion bolts between the exchangers. It is common that the nuts or bolts
    IR not IepJaced after mainllmllDce or a t\l:rJIaIOUI1d.
    f. Actual condition of a ftsIidingft suppott. While the suppoltS may be designed
    such that the nfi:xedft end is intended to take all of tile longitudinal load, actual
    such as a corroded and fused slide may cause the sJiding support
    to resist half of the IoDgitudinal load, even though it may not be designed for
    that load.
    Prtssutized spheres are typically supported on several legs eveDly spaced around
    the clrcumfercnce of the sphere. The legs may or may not be braced. typically with
    X-braciag between adjacent legs. Pailums that hPc been obsened in past
    earthquakes have been c
    a1l
    sed by failure of the support SJSWIL In the 1952 Kern
    County Earthquake, faDu:re of the support legs led. to breaking of attached piping.
    The butane that escaped the spherical taDk CVCDmaUy igrritM, causing explosions and
    fires.. The strw:tural adequacy of the legs and bracing should be the primary focus in
    evabu!fjng spherical taDks. Drawings should be mviewed to ensure that legs are tied
    togetherwitb grade beams
    Small tanks and pressnre vessels on legs me found throughout petrochemical
    faC"1jtjes The taDks and vessels themselves have not been obset ved to be sigrrificant
    problems in earthquakes. The following areas should be emphasized
    L The strw:tural adequacy of the support legs to msist OVClIiii IIj"g must be
    cxmsidered. These have failed. in DIlDY inctances in earthquakes.
    b. Flexibility of attached piping should be clw:ked 'l1Iis is especiaUy true if the
    piping is connected to unanc:hoIed eqniljl"e.Dt or vessels that can move.
    6.5.3.6 Fmfans
    FiDfans are air cooleIs which are typically mounted em top of pipeways. The
    following cODsiderations should be given to the seismic evaluation of these units:
    a. The structural adequacy of the support flaming IIIIIi the attac:bmant to the
    pipeway should be evah'ated Further investigadon is wammted if the
    lialll;ng shows signs of distress, such as 1mckfms or bowing of members.
    lJIIder operating conditions. Attadliients should be investigated whete they
    are eccentric. or do not frame into primary stntctnml nv=mbers.
    b. CoD buDdies are removed at iDtervaIs for mpjntemmce purposes.
    These units may be positively attached to the suppcm frame at one location or
    on one end only. Reinstallation of the coDs may l:e iuwDililete, with missing
    bolts, mjsaligumeuts of struetural flaming, etc. The waIkdown team should
    iDYesrigate those iDtetfaces.
    6-22

    6.5.3.7 Heaten
    Boiler aDd heater sttuctures are generally thick walled steel vessels. supported on
    scverallow concrete piers. They may also be cylindrical, supported on skirts siro
    i1a
    r
    to other horizontal pressure vessels. Horizcmtal heaters are almost always fixed at
    one pier with slotted bolt holes at other piers to allow for tbenn
    a
    ! expansion.
    The main focus on a boiler structure will be the support system. Reinforced concrete
    piers should be cbrdced for adequate strength and stiffuess, so that they do not create
    a soft story" effect
    The walkdowu team should be aware of the possible presMCC of refractory brick
    inside a heater or boiler structure. ThIs will add weight to the equipment ami may be
    an additicmal SOIIlCe of intemal damage to the cquipmMt
    6.5.3.8 Support Frames and Pedestals
    Many cquqilie
    nt
    items will be located above grade, supported on reiDforced
    concrete or steel frmes. These frames may be ineguJar aDd are typically opeD at one
    end to allow forjnsraJJarion ami xeqwval of the """""'S
    The faihues offreeway structmes in the 1989 Loma Prieta ami 1994 Nonhridge
    Earthquakes DIDsnale tile potential for c:alMliophic coDapsc of older .einfo.ced
    concrete struc:tIIIes without adequate shear reinfotrelltm' ami confinement. A
    Common configumtion in mlj"cries is to iDstaIllarge vessels, emvated high above the
    ground on pedestal SUPPOdS (FipR 6.9). ThD support s,stem typically bas no
    redundancy. Reinforced CODClcte fia"..,. ami pedestals should be care1iJIly evabJatcd,
    especially if C01ISt1UCtcd prior to the mid 197Os, wI:eD cbaDges in btrilding codes
    added ductile detpt1jng uquinme
    iil
    ' ThD walkdown team should review available
    structural drawiDgs to verify adequacy of COlLlete strUdUies. In many cases, some
    form of 'Qh'CjC::aJ eva1uatioD may be De essary to cfete""i"e adequacy of the
    reinforced com:mta stnzclUleS. "
    The waIkdoWD team shonk' also be em. tim lookout for damaged ami c:.mcked
    concrete, espo:iaDy whm:e reiufau elle
    nl
    is CIpOrd StD:lxeinforCZ!lieil' in cracked
    concrete could be susceptible to lD"jstnre ami coausioJ1, with subsequent loss of
    strength.
    6.5.3.9 Steel Frames
    Steel fiames have traditionaDy pedihiint well ciminI earthquakes. However,
    thme have bc:en a number of swptises noted in the 1994 Nortbtidge Earthquake
    (EERI, 1996). Over 100 stcel1i:lllm builK. were damapd as a result of that
    eanhquakc. The damage has been on moment resisting fraw:s ami has been, for the
    most pan, ccmi!Clliliatcd in beam to cohmm CO""tc:tions (cracks have been found in
    6-23

    welded beam flanges to the coJun:m) and in some cases. in fracture of coJun:m base
    plates.
    Tbis is ofparticular conc:eotn to the strUCtUral COIiIliIiIii;ry bec:anse these types of
    structures have been thought of to be the most dm:,,1c 8IIIl becanse of the potential
    implications to the vast T1!!!1!l!er of existing steel frame stllU:nUCS. It inust be noted
    however, that DOne of the damaged structures coDapsed and most remained
    functional.
    At the tim: of this writing. there are a DUmber of studies and investigations under
    way on this issue and JIIOIC information will be known in the future. For now, the
    walkdown engineer is aJated to pay additional artmtion to the connections in steel
    frame structmes, in light of recent experience.
    ..; .
    V
    Figure 6.9: VertkaI ftSSels are often sapported OD each ead by a single
    reiDfon:ed amcrete pedata
    t
    These ftSSels may be 30 feet (9 meters) above the
    ground or mare, creating a large moment on the peel""'" Drawings may aeed
    to be re'riewed for this type of crmfigqratfcm. Special anffon should be gi1'eD to
    supports cfeslg
    lled
    priorto bgUdlng code cbange In tile mid 19'7Os.
    6-24
    The waIkdown team should be aware of sign of distress due to dead load
    conditions or corrosion. Particular attention should be given to cases where drawing
    mortifications (brace relocation/removal) may have taken place subsequent to the
    original design of the structure. Tbese modifications may be related to piping
    clearances. ere.. and may have taken place without the CODSultation of a structural
    engineer. Brace relocation and removal can result in load paths being different than
    originally designed and potential struc:tuml inadcqIw:y.
    Most oftcu. the weakest links. where failmcs can be c'tJ'CCrcd. 8J:C in the
    colDlCCtions. The counecrions should be looked at for sips of insufficient stiffening.
    imtirect load path. potential prying action. etc.
    Finally, in cases where non-structural cJements 8J:C attached to stmctura1 frames
    (platfozms. gaard rails. etc.), tbc walkdown engjnrer should c:hec:k: that tbesc do not
    act to signiR. aurly alter the dynamic RSpotISC of the st .... hne in an earthquake. or to
    change the p,imary load path.
    6.5.3.10 BgfIdings
    This c:1oc:
    n
    uent will not detail the evab1arion of Cljdjng bm1dings. That topic is
    covered in peat derail elsewhere.
    The engineer should be cognizant of the typeS ofbm1rfing construction whk:h may
    bave a higher potential for complete or partial S'tXUI::tiltiIl collapse. While minor
    damage or even collapse of some buildings may be acc:eptable, suspect buDdiDgs
    should be identified to the process safety group. 'J.'be following items 8J:C not
    unc:nmm
    OTl
    in pea .... hcrnjca1 facilities and should be eva1nated by the walkdown team:
    a. Umeiaforced masonry bJn1dings IIIC SUII tp'ihk to partial or complete
    collapse.
    b. Masonry iDfiD. in waDs 8J:C susceptible to coDapse
    Co Tilt-up lmildinp IIIC susceptible to partial coBapse if they IIIC poorly tied
    togedlcr.
    d. Stnn:uues haviDg vertical or plan kregn!8!j
    '
    i may pedoan poorly in an
    canhquake.
    e. ReiPfon:ed concrete fi:amc bnildhlgs which lack ductiIc cJetv1s may be
    suscc:p1ibIe to failure.
    Attcntkm should be given to the level of fi",,:rioDaJity required of specific
    buDdings following an earthquake. For example, wIICI1 evabJating a firehouse. tbe
    6-25
    ",."
    ~ .
    ,
    ..
    walkdown t'Jgincer should make an cva1l1
    atio
    n to ensw:e that the operability of the
    . facility remains intact, such as the ability to open doms forme engines to exit.
    6.5.3.11 Stacks
    Although umeiuibtced concrete stacks and Ch;ililieys have faD.ed in earthquakes
    and tall steel stacks have buckled. stacks generally pmfonn ade.quately in
    earthquakes The walkdown engineer should be aware of signffic:mt changes in
    b
    u
    i1ding codes over the years relative to tall, fIexibIe strudIJreS, such as stacks. For
    example. the 1991 UBC would require a !IIinimum lateml force of O.20g in ZcnIe 4.
    However. the same structure may have been designed. to 113 that load in the early
    1960s. This discrepancy may be a special concem in evalnating a spread footing for
    overtImIing. as the footing may appear to be UIlderdesigncd. However, because of
    the cycJic uatute of dynamic loading, foundations have nut been observed to suffer
    gross overloading such that a stack could tip over in an cartfIquake. This should not
    be a concem unless soils are liquefiable or very weak.
    It should be noted that past experience has shown that other structures IIftat:bed
    to fumace stacks may be overstressed, such as tmsses supporting ducts feeding to
    cfrimneys high above the ground. The waIkdown team shtmld be alerted to look for
    situations where 1le:xible. or sliding type conn .... :d .... s are not peseut, as tbese
    coDllCCtions would tend to preclude significant interaction between stacks and other
    structares.
    6.5.3.12 Gas Cylinders
    Chemical releases have oc:cmred in earthquakes due to gas cylinders toppling and
    rolling. Toppling of cyIindcr.; also has the potential to creme a missile bazard. The
    following gaidance applies to gas storage cyliDdcrs:
    a. Gas c:yIiDders are often chained to prevent falling duriDg nmmal opctations.
    Single c:bajns do not lid essarily pOYen! faJftng CJnrins suppottiug both the
    upper and lower portion of the cylinder are lid as "1 to pICVCnt the cylinders
    from falling and sliding or rolling.
    b. The er.gi"Cers should ensure that cyJillders tbat appear to be secure are. in
    fact. seemed to strucmral members. This is particuIady true inside buildings.
    where straps may be tied to non-structural eJmliMS
    c. HOliz .. "ta) cyBnders should be secwed so tbat they cannot ron and fall of! of
    suppoxts. An example of a good detaB is show in Figure 6.10, where
    lewovable hold down bohs are used to secme chlorine cyIiaders. Where
    hold-down devices are present. but appear to be ignoxcd or incoxrectly used.
    the waIkdown engineers should question operators regilding typical
    poc:edmes for restraining cylinders.
    6-26
    6.5.3.13 Chemical Storage Areas
    CbenricPls have fallen from shelves, reacted with other spilled chemicals. and
    cansed fires in past earthquakes. as wen as concem for explosions (Reference 4).
    The following concerns should be investigated by walkdown enginem:
    a. The engi"eers should deter.mine whether cabinets arc seemed to prevent
    faDing
    b. Engineas should determine w'llether resttaiDts prevent contents from being
    spilledoff of shelves.
    c. When: a potential for cbemjt:aJ spill is icJrm1ified, the engineer should question
    the opetatolS as to the poteDtial cODSeqnences of spills. Note that seveIal
    mitigation methods may be available, such as physical resaaints or separation
    of me. iW}taUole c:bemjc:aJs
    Figure 6.l0: CylInders that are removed when empty often sit 1JII1"eStraine on
    vertical saddle sbaped supports. In this photo, a simple hold-dOWD bolt
    prevents moIion whfIe the eylinder Is in use. The pres 1:'1 of a ...... hanlsm like
    this C8D be judged to reasonably prevent ota twub&g or sliding of the cylinder.
    6.5.3.14 PipiDg
    Process piping nms throughout pettOchemjt:aJ fact
    1iti
    es, rmming directly between
    pieces of equip"""', or often supported on overiJead pipcways. In many situations.,
    6-27
    the piping of httercst will be panicular lines CMTaining specified quantities of
    ,hazardous materia!, There are several difficulties in evaluating individual piping runs:
    a. With severalliues on congested overilead racks it becomes extxem:ly difficult
    to initially locate and then to follow 5pC" mc piping nms.
    b. Piping may be difficult to locate, even with P&:IDs or flow diagrams. These
    drawings do nat adeqwttely repzese.nt physieallocations or distances of piping
    runs. Layout drawings are usually not available.
    Co It may be dff!iCllit for the walkdown engineer to jdentify the boundaries of
    coneem. especially considering bypass IiDcs. iujec:tioD liDcs. valves, etc.
    Given these difficulties, it is often DIORl pmctieal ami efficient to evaluate an
    piping in a given area. That method does RqUhe acfdjtjonaJ iDteraetion with the
    process safety engineers to determine the consequcuces of postulated damav_
    In evab1ating process piping, stresses due to iDertialloads are 'not the p'imary
    c;onsideration. except in cettain circumstanees. Rather, dID ibcus is 'on wh!erable
    details. fi:agile anac:brrent
    s
    , and connections which may expexicnce severe
    displacc:lI'ents. The following observations should be CODSidt:red when performing
    the evaluation:
    a. Welded steel pipiug geueraUy performs weIlln eadbquakes ami is typicaDy not
    sasmplibJtl to damage from inertial loading. I=rdaIloads may be a concem
    for DOIHhu:tiIe materials such as east iIon or PVc. Note that materials such ,
    as east iIon are probably used because oftbdr I1OJloCOD'Osive pIopelties. ami
    changing the male' jaJ on the pipe'futc is not a r ,"able optioD. In these
    eases sass IIIIaI,sis may be aec"" Pry. "
    b. Lack oflateral sappads will not necess"iIy lead to iIi11:n of the pipe. Piping
    often spIIDS very long did,n "S without lateral suppwts with no damaF or
    failure. Ratl=r, the emphasis should be on CUM ing that the pjping system.
    will DOt Jose wam:aI suppolt. For C""'l'1e, the walkdown engineers should
    look for sjtuatjons whae the pipe'futc is near tbD edge of the support and
    could slide off (Figure 6.11).
    Co Where there is a leck of Jatmal snppon. melciug the pipe very flexible. the
    waIkdown teem should aJso be aware of si,na';' ons wbme the pipeHn,e may be
    efJ"Pi lively ... cluned .. by a rigid connection of a lmmcb Jiae (Figure 6.12). If
    the branch Hn,e is significantly smeller than the header (less than one half the
    dipmetn). the pipe could be overstressed at the c:mmec:don.
    6-28

    FIgure 6.11: PJpes that are near the edge of a support without lateral stops may
    sUde oft'. Loss of vertical support is the primary concern in these sltnations, not
    the length of span without lateral support.
    Seismic
    Anchor
    Motion
    Vulnerable
    Joints
    FIgure 6.12: RIgid or restndned branch lines may be vulnerable to
    Ulll'eStralned motion of the header.
    ~ 2 9
    ,
    d. The walkdowu team should look for sitaations where vulnerable
    appurtt"'8/i! CiS or ponioDs of a pipeline could be impacted and damaged due
    to motion of tile pipeline or the .impacting object. Examples would include
    drain taps or sampling lines that could be jmpactcd by valve diaphragms on
    adjacent Jines. Of special concern arc sprinkler heads on fire lines that might
    impact bard sharp structural members (Figure 6.13). This has oc:curred
    several times in past earthquakes.
    FIgure 6.13: Fusible spriDkler heads are StlIIsltlve to impact.
    c. Mecbanical conpIiDgs could fail due to cxccssive dJsp]accmcmt or impact.
    Rod bung systeIm, particularly fire protection s)'Stl:i.Uii within Imiklings, caD .
    faD. ami fan when supported by short rud haugers CODfigDred such that
    mom:mts caD be dcvelopcd at the top (XInn" IiOD This is a low cycle fatigue
    failme.
    g. Burled piping could fail whem grouad failUIC caD occur.
    b. Piping attacJmd to .mnchored taDks or equi,( ..... "f can faD. if there is
    inadequate tle1ibiIity in the pipe to wjtbstand large dispJa.a:ments (Figure
    6.14).
    i In many inIot!!J!Ces. a relatively short span of large diameter (8" or more) pipe
    CO'II!Cc:ts e1evmd vessels supported by iadepcadcDt StrUCtUXal systems such as
    ",
    COJICI'Cte fraaaes. 'l'bI: stiff pipe may afl'ect tile intc:raction of tb: two
    6-30
    .... -' . ., ~
    structures and can result in OVGlSuess at the fJanges or elbow areas.
    particularly when stress concentrations ~ bIkeD into account. The
    walkdown engineer should take this into consideration. and if in doubt,
    ft'C01'!'TT1end a proper coupled analysis of the entire system.
    Figure 6.14: P1piDg damap Is O"II"'OD where It Is rigidly restrained at
    1IIIIIIlchored tauks.
    6.5.3.15 Cable Trays ami CoDdult
    Cable trays and conduit am generally wry rugged s '* :aUy. It is :il:qiorwn to
    note that damage to the trays and conduit themselves do not aec:essarily imply
    damage to the cables cc:m'aiDlorl within th=D. The mostjq>o.n:ant COJJSideration for-
    cable trays and CODdait is to ensure that w:rtk:al suppmt capacity wm be DlHinlainN
    during a seismic eveat.
    6.5.3.16 Ductwork
    DucI:iDg is o!tcD used in petrochemical faenities to ttaDspOrt hazardous gasses.
    and may be identified by the process safety enginem as tequiriag review. Duct
    coustruction caD nmge from tbin gage sheet metal to steel pipe sectious. Sheet metal
    ducring has faDed daring past earthquakes in certain c:b;qlllelp
    n
    ""41 Failure of sheet
    meW dncring generally is caused by c:m:rosion, poor connrt:rio1lS., loss of structural
    suppon, or differential displaremel conccms. Large djanx:ter. thick ducting. such as
    plate steel coDStrUCtion. should follow the geuexal cousiderations presented earlier on
    6-31
    pjpiug, especially coucentratiDg on overall support systems and adequate flexibility to
    .ac:commodare dift'enmtial motions.
    6.5.3.17 Air Tubing
    Tubing is very :rod is umaIly .insta!Jed with substantial flext
    1n1
    ity.
    However, tubing can ber
    1
    !;,j<uged by large dispJaa:rn:nt or impact. and the
    c:onseqnences of loss of ajr to b:Istnunents should be CODSideR:d.
    6.5.3.18 SubsfatfODS
    s .. hstatiOJl cqllqililtiil' '-'l especially susceptible to damage in
    Ceramic insu11lf0JS often faiL TJ'lIIISfom:Iers which are nnancbORd, or lightly
    anchom! with fdctioD clips. may slide and damage cmmccrims
    6.5.3.19 CooJfng Towers
    Wood coof,"S towczs have gene.:aIly p46:1i1lll"d wen in eaithquabs. The
    fPllowinS have been the primary causes of d ... rap:
    a. The p
    d
    i!!8
    I
    Y cause of damage to wood cooliDg toWGiS in earthquakes bas
    beeu a dderlwated c:onditiOJl prior to the earthquake.
    b. Cooling tOWGlS have also been damaged due to poor structural configuratious
    at connections. For cumple, Figures US and 6.16 show an ecc.,,,, ric joint
    which 1iIiIed during an earthquake. This figure is added to emphasize that the
    engineer should focus OD details first. rather than .strength, when peIMming
    waikdown evaluations.
    6.5.3.20 Platforms IWaIkways
    An extensive number of elevated platfOldiS and waIkwa,s can be found in a
    xcfineJy. In DIIUlY jnstam:es these pJatfozms sm:round tall.. IS'Ts IIIId are supported
    OD a structural system that may DOt be directly c:onnrtted with the vessels In cases
    like these, differential displao '""'Dt is the pi htwry com:em. with the potential for
    damage in the following ways:
    a. Pounding between the wssel and catwalks, po'adjaUy resulting in eidlcr
    lUptun:: of the vessel wall or sufficimrt damage to the pJatNIDlS themselw:s
    such that they may be macc:emb1e in an emctgency foIlowing the earthquake.
    The waikdown engineers would look for DOt 0Dly the pxoxiwity of the
    platfozms to the vessels, but also for slimp ends of supporting beams that
    could increase the pote!lrja
    l
    for damage..
    6-32

    ' ..
    b. Walkways spanning diffe.tent snactuxes without adapJate tIexibiIity, such that
    differcmial motion could cause collapse ami faUjng ufthe walkways.
    6.6 LIMITA'nONS
    Because the waIkdown reiiew is intended to be SCZ'M"i"g process, it is
    important that an conc:emcd patties uadcrstaml that it is impossible to identify an
    sources of scisn:ric risk in such a mostly visual review. lreIm identjfic:d as potential
    hazards in a walkdown may survive 3D eartbqu.alcc; liJccwisc..items which appear to be
    adequate could fail for reasons not apparent during a visual or analytical review.
    The engioeeI must always cantinn both owners ami ..,..mrms to understand that
    seismic risk can never be completely e1jmjnared BYcn witIlamore thorough review,
    some level of seismic risk will always exist. no .mller how much time. effort. and
    money arc spent evaluating and upgradmg a ficiIi1y. Tha risk can be better
    1lIIderstood and reduced, but there me never any guam!!
    Figure 6.15: Eccentric:aDy loaded COIIIlectlon In a wood c:ooIIDg tower. The
    cross member above is a retrofit.
    6-33

    ,-
    FIgure 6.16: Idenffcal joint In the same WGOIi ..... ttng tower as shan In FIgure
    6.15
    6-34
    -
    .'- ..
    Chapter 7
    DESIGN AND EVALUATION OF TANKS AT GRADE
    7.1 INTRODUCIION
    .. ,. -..
    ,::.
    The purpose of this section is to provide the user with gaidermes for designing
    new taDks and ewh.ating existing taDks for seismic loads. Emphasis is given.
    however. to evaluation of e.Jdsring taDks. -r= iDfoxmation containM I=rdn is mostly
    applicable to nnanchuxed flat-bottomed storage taDks at grade ill zones of higher
    . .. with be .. - -_ .. for'- .. S ...
    SNS!!'I!ctty, xequae'i.nts to UG-liIIGU. .wwca: SCiSM."C zones OJDB gttLance
    is also .-...IAaA for ancbOIed ct_ ..... _'- ;'c ,- r '"", '" '
    --ew IoGII.IWlk .. >. ,_, ..... _._ , _
    -.',.'- --.';-',':,' --
    . on storage taDks are tnncany designed accordiIlg, to ,the jmfnstry stmufard API
    650 (API, 1993). Seismic design ptovisionJocatecliaApp=rUx E of API 650 first
    appeared ill the 3rd revision of the 6th ecIitioDo dated . AIthough the general
    theory was developed earlier. few taDks were designed for e8Itbqaakes befoxe the
    code provisions came into effioct Sim:c tIleD, them have- been several expel h iiiital
    programs and DWJD:OIlS field observatioDa1 data. that sagcstthat API 650 Appendix
    E is consenrative ill most cases. TJm COJhSC vadsm may be 8ppiOptiate for design of
    new taDks but not necessarUy for ISsessmentof ezistingtaDks..
    .-, - -. -. '/ .. -
    Brcanse 0Dly recently c:cmstI:IlCted to resist earthquakes,
    there may be several potentiaDy damageable taDks ill any giYen: tauk popuJation. To
    limit a flIcility's exposwe to earthquake damage; J:IOteDda1ly damarb1r; taDks should
    be identified, emnatpd and, ifuquhed, 1i:trilfiued . .. ,' '
    ,_. -. 1
    SiIlcc seiS' i 1m design provisions were 0Dly intmctaI:ed into the API code ill the JaIe
    1970's (Wozniak ami M'1fCbeII, 1978), taDks that am- older dIID tbis may be
    considered wIm:rable to damage by large eattbquakes. HOWQItIl', f1 should be noted
    that DIIIDY liquid. storage taDks built before these piovisions Were inttodnced have
    been able to withstand strong ground shaking with mi"iuw
    l
    or minor damage ami
    able
    , fi . .
    were to COiiliiiuemc:ticmmg.
    The steps iIlvolYed in undertaking a Si 111m hazatd mjtiption program for
    existing umks are discnssrd ill this section and fnc:Jpdec
    a. Qnanrificaticm of the site-spe* i fie seismic hazard.
    7-1
    b-.
    .
    -
    b. Walkthrough inspection to assess piping. stairway and walkway anaclrme!!!s,
    and other potential hazards.
    c. Analytical assessment of tanks to evaluate the potential for Ovenuming and
    shell bnc:lcJing
    d.
    U;"I_': f" .. - - ~ ..... - 1 _ .. ",----.s
    .... on 0 selSilliC 1.IA<.Alu. "'" most COW"" ~ WIQO ....-." ITI1tjganon
    measures ineb'de addition of flexibility to rigid anac:Jliicllrs, rednc"Jion of safe
    opetatillg height and. as a last resort. anchorage of the taDk.
    7:1. PAST EARTHQUAKE PERFORMANCE OF PLATBOTl'OMED
    TANKS
    The foRowing discussjon on earthquake lespoDSC of taDks is ge:uwally extracted
    from material tm=S"Dte.d in ASCE (1984) and Dowling andS
    1IIIIm
    t!!S (1993).
    FJat-bo.ttom vertical liquid storage tanks have _'imes 1lUled with loss of
    contents during strong eanhquake shaking In some instances, the 1iIi1ure of sto18ge
    tanks bas brought about disastrous consequeneesSome cuml'. incIndtr fires
    C8nsing extensive damage to oil refiDeries in the 1964 Nfipta, JapaD earthquake and
    the 1991 Costa Rica earthquake; pollutecl water\VaJS in the 1978 Sendai. Japan
    eattbquake; :fires and 1iIi1ure of numerous oil5t018ge tanks in the 1964 Prince WiIBam
    . Sound earthquake in. .Alaska; and failure of I!IIUC' uus liquid storage tanks, both above
    and below ground. in the 1971 San Pel handu, the 1980 Li.YeuDule. the 1985 QiJcan,
    the 1991 Costa Rica and the 1992lan
    d
    m CII1tbquakes. ..
    The lesponse of unanebnred tanks, in pattic'llJar, cfm:ing earthquakes is highly
    nonHnear, and much more complex than implied in.awfJable design stmuf8ftJs. The
    erect of seiSli'ic gromad s1mking is to geawzate 8D ONlcu',""! tom: on the taDk.
    This. in tum. causes a portion of the IaDk bascpJ"'C to lift up fi:um tie ti:mndlltiou.
    The weight of the fluid. resting un the uplifted poitiun of the "asqWtte, together with
    the weight of the taalt shcJl ami roof, praWta the res" ab;jM 'I '" n" ilil Rpinst 1brther
    uplift. While upJii, in and of itSeI( may nut c:ause seciDus damage, it can be
    accolllJianieti by large def ... "",tlons and DJI!jor chant in tie taIIk waD. messes This
    is especially appallmt when the seImric loading iCRiSCIS and tie (lbwoly) uplifted
    saP"'t JIM)VfIS down i" '1'3' I Ing the grouml 8IId iDuu'nGiag bIgh CiOliIplession
    stresses into tile taIIk sheil TBlIk uplift during eanbqnekos has been obse:t vt:d many
    tiI1es, but tile amoUDt ofupJift bas rm:cI;y been RiC01ded. A 100 it (30.5 m) d1auerc
    r
    ,
    30 it (9.1 m) high taIIk upJifted 14 inches (3S0 mm) dming tie 1971 San Fernando
    earthquake." Duling the 1989 I.oma Prieta c:artbquaJa=, two 42 it (12.8 m) dim:!er,
    28 it (8.5 m) high tanks uplifted 6 to 8 incbes (ISO to 200 mm); 81IIi a taDk uptifted
    18 inches (4S0 mm) in tile 1964 Alaska earthquake (EElU... 1971; BElU, 1990; and
    NlItional Reseii1ch Council. 1973). WbiIc taDk uplifHs wa:y CO
    li
    "'bJ1l, sJiding oftaDks
    is ran: and genc.1Illy need not be c:onsjdered a cndIde failure mode for storage taDks
    atgmde.
    72
    I
    In gcncral. taDks. especially '1T!l!Dcbored taDks. are particularly susceptible to
    damage durl:ag carthqDakes.. This is because an of the mass contributes to the
    O\iettw:uing JIIODleIlt. bat only a small ponion of the mass coutn'bntes to the
    overturning resistance (the reason for this is that the contained fluid and the relatively
    flexible tank shell and bottom plate C8DJlot traDsfcr the latetal shear iDduccd by the
    earthquake to the foundation), Some eumples of taDk damage that has occuned in
    past earthquakes include:
    a. Buckling of the taDk wan. known as "elephant foot" lmckling FSscntiaDy,
    this occms lw:ause the Vettical coDlpiessive stzesses in the portion of the tank
    wall remaining in coDtact with the gmumi (i.e.. ctiametricaIly opposite the
    uplifted portion) are gready inclessed when uplift occms. Mote precisely.
    that portion of the tank sheJl is sabjected to a biaxjaJ state of stress., consisting
    ofhoop tension and axial CODIpies:sioJL In addiriOD, the baseplate plevents the
    radial def'o.:mation wbich would !JIll ~ l a D y occur 1D1der jntema
    J
    pressure. A$ a
    result, bending stzesses are intzoduccd into the sh=Il wan. fbrthcr iDcRasing
    the ttmdeney to bru:kle 'IbD photograph in Figure 7.1 (talam. after the 1992
    T amfers earthquake in SouthetD CalifoxDia) shows a cJassiMl example of
    elephant foot buc:lding aDd ao iiillJi8i1)'iug failuM of CMiiCOJlstzBiaed pipjng.
    TbIs buckBug mode is mil 'I...rty associated with larger cfiamrtter tanks having
    height to diameter (HID) ratios of about 1 to 105.

    ~ .. ,
    . '" ..-'
    i


    I"

    ' .

    . w.
    -"
    ' .

    -.
    . "
    ''',
    .....
    " .

    -.. -...
    ......
    FIgure 7.1: Elephant Foot Budding 8Ild FaBure of RIgId PIpIng
    County of San Beraardbm, Water Storage Tank, landers, CA.
    landers Earthquake, RIchter Magnttnde 7.4, June 28, U92
    7-3
    Another common buckling mode. nor.mally assocWed with taller tanks having
    BID ratios about 2. is "cJiamgnd sIIape" buekting. In contrast to elephant foot
    buckling. which is assocWed with an eJastopJastic state of stress, diamond
    shape Imckling is a pmely elastic 1mck
    U
    ng
    A feature of taDk.s which cxperi...,ce either ele:pba
    m
    foot or diamond shape
    Mclding is that the buckled taak often does not tuptuxe ami COllI inlles to
    fuJfiJl its tilnction of comaining 1IDid. However, all buc*led sectioDS of the
    taDk should be teplaced.
    b. Paring tank uplift, the baseplate may not be able to ccndbmI to the displaced
    shape of tbe taDk ami the weld between the baseplate and the taDk wall may
    not be able to accommodate the tension Stl snes that c1eve1op as a JeSUIt of the
    tluid hoJd-down fcm:es which me moJp1jzed to resist uplift. In this case,
    fracture at tbe jnncricm betwam the baseplate ami tile shcU wall may result.
    ThIs was observed, in patticnfar, in the Cbt1gan earthquake of 1985, where
    some taDks experienced ~ of the baseplate or of tile weld between the
    wall ami tbe baseplate (EQE, 1986a). Good welding practices may pmclnde
    sach mDures, which can lad to rapid n:Jcase oftbe taDk contents; fiu:thet, the
    differential pxessiiles created widIin the taDk by tile rapidly ewcnating fluid
    may also lead to damage to the upper shell comses and zoo
    Co Seismic sbaking c:anses the SUi lib of tile tank 1Iaid to Slosh. If insufficient
    freeboard is provided to &CCO"'1Ih odate this s1oshfng, damage to the taDk's
    floating Z'04f or fixed roof. followed by spr11age of fluid over the taDk waDs,
    may result. This type of damar is usually amsfifered cm1y minor but may be
    impwtant for some stoMd pmdns
    '"
    d. Support cobunns for fixed rooftmks have 'nu*Jr:d in past eartbquakes from
    the impact of slosbiDg fluid and their OWD iDenial force in combination with
    the vertica1loads tboy support. Co11apse of sewal coTmnns, while oileD not a
    catasuopbic faiJme, can be a significmtt ,1'""'9' item. ,.
    e. Breakage of piping coo""or,ted to the imk as a nsaIt of m1ative ~
    between the taDk and the "",'esC pipe suppcut. 'ibis is ODe of the most
    prevalent canses of loss of coUleillS fi:om stonge tIIIIks during eartbqna!ces
    FaDures of this type ate typically due to jnarfequate flexibility in the pjphlg
    ~ (tenDed "overconsttaiDed piping") between the nozzle Jocatinn at tbe
    tank shellllDd the adjacent pipe suppott. Paihues have also occum::d due to
    teIativc movement between two diffe.teut tmks a "mm,;ted by z:isid piping
    f. Tearing of tank wall or tank bottom due to OVetWDSIlaim>d stairways
    am:bored at the foundation ami taDk sheD.
    g. Tearing oftaDlc wall due to oven:oDSl:lained walkways COIIIIMihg two tanks
    . . ~ - . : - ,
    expe' '=CMg WDtiiWilAl JDO\'f4.cr.L
    74
    b. Andwled taDks. with DOD-duc:tiIc conllceticm cfet .. 1s have pedOlllled poorly in
    past eanbquakes. Non-cluctile C:"""edion dp;t;nls can lead to teng of the
    taDk's shell aud release of its contents. DetaiJs that do not allow for 1Ul1
    devdopmem of anchor bolts have led to IIDChor boh pullout aud failure of the
    taDk.
    i. TlIDk. failmes have been fouml to occur as a resuh of severe distortion of the
    tank bottom at or uear the tank side wall due to a soil failure.. This failure
    may be associated with soil liqaefac:tioa, slope in.ctabDity, cxc:essive
    diffctCDtial settle" ..,11', bearing faiIum or washout due to pipe failure. A
    failure oftbis type oc:c:uued during the Miyasi Eutbquab of 1978.
    j. TCDSiIe hoop suesses due to shalcing-inclnc:ed pressures between the fluid and
    the t8Dk. waDs canbectu:le large aud can lead to splitting aud leakage. This
    bas been obsened dmiug cartbquakes. but appeus to be a pmblem ouly fol
    boJted or riveted taDks. For welded taDka, 'I'I1l!tnja1 cJucttlity appea."S to
    ace-U.h.IMate these high hoop &11eSSeS. .
    Figwes 7.2 through 7.5 pleswt some exa"q'les of tank failures in recent
    eanhquakes iuc:JmUng OVCilil!uing ofataDk daring the 1991 Costa Rica earthquake.
    7.3 WALKTBROUGBINSPECllON
    A walkthrough is lID on-sile visual SClf#ululs whereby "as-iustaUed" components
    can be evaluated for sejsmic wh;Ierahifities Walkthrougbs in general8le discussed in
    more detail in CIapter 6 of this dMmcar TlIe p1UpOS8 of the walkthrough is to
    idImtJfy a variety of seis"li':aUy wlnemb
    1e
    detpjls In this sectioD, walkthrough
    evaluadon gnidauce is smn spec jfjcaDy fortaDks.
    The Pljl'. featme which dis'jr.pishes till .'"FIji; RSpODSe of UDanc:bored
    rauks from that of IIIChoIed taDks is the large uplift commouly
    observed arouml the edge ofnaanebmd taDks. As desl ,jlvi earlier, this uplift may
    induce large tensinll or COliIpPsskm fcm:es ami """"'hJB II ..... 'r
    s
    in the tank wall,
    baseplate, aud at the We' s ction of the two. Such foR:es may lead to severe damage
    or failure of the taaIc. Fui"'hmH'Ie, die advas eflbcts of eyrd,ive tank uplift can he
    greatly ex" mhated by a vaziety of co'''', .... ly eacuuatwed tank detaDs Walkthrough
    inspection of hIdividual rauks or tank fauas sbould focus on tile fd."'ri
    6
    .,!jon of such
    details In many cases. whfIe the tank itseIfmay be 1inmd to be StIacaaally adequate,
    retrofit of a !!""der of these seismiceDy w&aabl= detgt1s may be deC"'M u=esslly.
    The following matcriaJ, whJch cfescriies die wa1kIhtoush Pw IS, is taken from
    Dowling and Summers (1993) and SIII",mos amiBults (1994).
    7-S
    "
    ".
    -
    ":-'
    '- 7-6
    Jigare7.2: EJephantFoot
    Budding, Failure oflUgld PipIag
    aadTaIIk wan Failure at Mnho!e
    Amn
    Bfghom Desert VIew Water
    Apacy, WaterStorageTuk,
    T.pm1enr, CA
    .
    ' ........ EartIupI8ke, JlIdder
    Mag"lb". 7A, JUlIe 21, 199Z
    'Co' ' .... -..... , '
    , .;. _. .; ...... '-..
    . ' : \. "
    .'
    FIgure 7.3: Above: Tank WaD FaDure at Taak MaDhoIe Access BJghom
    Desert View w"".1I<l!:' AgeDcy, Water StonIge Taak, landers, CA
    Below: Overall Vlf\W of FaDed Water Storage Taak, l.!ll!ders, CAt County of
    San Beraardiuo, Water Storage Taak, l.anders, CA'
    Landers Richter Magnitude 7.4, JU118 28, 1m
    7-7
    FIgure 7A: Above: O,ertwned 00 Storage TaDk, DCOPE on Refinery,
    CostaBlca
    Below: SpDled 00 aud Ruptured PipiDg, DCOPE 00 Refinery, Costa Blca
    Costa Blca Earthquake, Richter Magnitgde 7A, AprfI22, 1991
    7-8

    I
    7-9
    FIgure 7.5: Above: Damaged
    Roof, Seals, and SJoshlng of on
    over Tank WaDs, RECOPE on
    Refinery, Casta RIca
    Left: Severe Elepbaut Foot
    Buckling, Trmsmezquim Tank
    Far:m, Casta Rica
    Costa Rica Earthquake, Richter
    Magnitude 7 April 22, 1991

    Poor Details Retrofit RecommeudatioDS
    (a) Add fIcxibiljty to pipe
    ..
    (e)
    (d)
    Add flexibility to pipe
    Add f1em'ity to pipe
    Reroute piping to ceutet oftaDk or
    mend hmcrwall of COl1tlete basin
    beyond pipeftaDk. Oii.,''''Qon
    FIgure 7.6: Poor DetaDs at Uaanc:bored Tailks and RetrofIt R ......... mendatious
    7-10

    Poor Details Retrofit Recommendations
    (e)
    Im:rease flexibility by providing
    -
    hor:izcmtal or vertical bends


    V=-.
    .'JP!
    -
    --
    (f)
    Anchorpipe at roof instead of along
    1=
    shell wall

    VPlPlID
    l CU.Ciliili
    DITCH
    .,.
    -
    :-

    IDc:tcasc walkway flexibility to
    acccnnmodpte relative displacements .
    -
    .--
    """'" . .. . .
    "':"""
    \
    r-'
    .Z=t""
    .

    '-.. -
    1. ..
    I
    (h) -
    Support stahwat exclusively on tank
    shell
    ::;
    =l.-"'"
    :;
    1TlU_
    .....
    ;:::
    ; na..-
    -
    F1IUIIIIITIIli
    ...:.1
    .
    (i)
    Jm:rea.se piping flexibility. attaCh
    V-SIEU.
    walkway exc1usivcly to tank shell. or
    provide :more piping cleanmce
    r=-YF
    .
    1.;.
    ......
    Figure 7.6 (Continued)
    7-11
    The most frequently encoUDtered bazardous details are listed below, together with
    applOptiate rettofit J'eCOTl!D'Iendarions. and iI1ustrated in Figures 7.6 and 7.7.
    a. A comuwn failure mode in taDks has been breakage of piping connected to a
    taDk: as a result of relative movemcm between the tank and the nearest pipe
    support. Altematively. if the piping is stronger than the tank wall or baseplate
    to which it is connected, tearing of the wan or baseplate may result. Piplng
    should not pass directly, with little or no flexibtlity, from the tank shell or taDk:
    bottom to the ground or to rigid concrete waDs, basins, pumps rigidly fixed to
    the ground, etc. Failures of the type described above are typically caused by
    the dera
    Ds
    shown in Figures 7.6(a) through 7.6(d). In the first tbree cases,
    addjtjonaJ piping fltrrlbtlity should be provided by adding horizontal or vertical.
    bends. or by instaDing a lc:ogtb of flexible piping. In the fourth case, piping
    should be rerouted to the cemer of the tank or, if the piping is flexible enough.
    the COlICiete basin may be extcDded beyond the pipeltank ccnmec:tion.
    b. Sjnn"'" failures have also OCCUIXed due to rclative movement between two
    taDks co"nected by a rigid pipe. as shown in Figu= 7.6(e). Again, additional
    piping flev'bUity should be pmvided as desm"bed above.
    . c. Partia110ss of contents may result from the type of detail shown in Figure
    7.6(f). wbexe a vertical pipe is rigidly connected to the ground or fmmdation
    aDd also supported rigidly along the wan of the tank. A detail offering a
    lesser level of risk, but plcseut in many cases, is a taDk: wan support that
    consists of a large U-boh which might appear to be capable of sliding up and
    down the pipe as the tank lifts and faDs. However, it is possible that the U-
    boh wiD. "bind." with the pipe, thereby also foxming an essentially rigid
    COD"&:! DId, and ]eading to tearing of the tank waD. Any connection along the
    taDk: sl=ll judged to be rigid should be replaced by a connection near the
    sbeDImof intetsccticm, coupled with sliding connections or "guides" along the
    sheD. wall. In many cases, simply loosening the U-bolts will suffice.
    d. Roof access is frequently faC'ljtated by waIkwa.ys sp''''';ag between the tanks.
    Typical walkway axraugeueQlS are shown in Figure 7.6(g). In both cases,
    xelative movement between taDks may lead to rupture or tearing of the tank
    wall or roof. Howeiel9 whereas the lower walkway IItXlIDgClDCltt shown in
    Fipre 7.6(g) may lead to partial loss of tank contents, the upper walkway
    aa,a'QIi'"elll w:m. at worst, lead to damage to the walkway itselfand/or to the
    roof; """,, no loss of conteuts wiD. result. The distinction between the two
    ammgeuellts is iwpoltant since the lower walkway xCplcsents a concern that
    could ICSUlt in release of product, whereas :failure of the upper walkway win
    Jikely only ]ead to a Mlease of fumes and a JXIIICh lower level of economic loss.
    In eiJ:her case. the xequhed retrofit would take the fom of increased walkway
    flCJibi6ty.
    7-12
    Elevated walkways also U;pesent :falling hazards for tanks located in plants
    with significant adjacent pedestrian traffic or sensitive equipment. Where
    necessary. walkways should be attached to the tanks by cables as a secondary
    mmlS of support to pxevcnt them from falling.
    e. Stairways should DOt be smacbed to both the tank shell and the fotmdation;
    see Figure 7.6(h). However. only in thin-shelled tanks is such a detaillik:ely
    to lead to failure of the tank wan and to loss of contenlS Again, therefore. a
    distinction should be drawn between this case and the case of a thick-shelled
    taDk, where such a detail would only resuh in damage to the stairway itself.
    In either case, the bawd may be eJjmjnatoo by attaching the stairway to the
    tank shell or by climiliHling the COmu:ctiOD which prevents the stairway from
    displacing vertically.
    f. TaDk piping is usually concattrated in one area, often with an IlCC"'$S walkway
    1iII;ug over the pipjag. as shown in FJgUIe 7.6(1). If the walkway is rigidly
    attacbed to the grouad and if in,cu!jcicnt clearance is provided between the
    piping and walkway. then tank uplift may lead to impact between the piping
    and the walkway. resuTring in damage to one or the other. However. only
    \Irith small diameter pipes ortbin sbew tanks is loss of tank contents likely to
    occur. Othmwise, damage is likely to be confined to the waIkway itself. In
    both cases, the bazatd may be mitigated by mereesi
    n
    ! the piping tlexibility.
    attacfring the walkway exclusively to the tank sheD. or pzov.idiDg more piping
    clearance. Another potentiaDy seismiraDy 'V1lh:=able detail is the case of a
    walkway attached to both the tank shell and foundation, as in Item (e) above
    for stairways.
    g. TIIDks anehored with anc:bnr bolts baving poor col!!kCtion dot,"ls may tear the
    bottom plate or taDk shell resulting in a loss of product. Poor rfeta11s (see
    Egure 7.7) incJmfe mv:ho.rs which are clipped to the bottom plate. cbaiI:s
    which are unusually short so as not to pem:dt adeqaate t:ransfm' of fotces in
    the bolt to the taDk sbeJl, or any detail which will resnlt in the tearing of the
    tank shell before the anc:hnr bolt yidds. This hazard can be mitigated by
    :placing the C" ""!fA lion with one that wID exhibit more dUl:tility.
    When petCorming walktbrough inspcctiollS, experiencrd enginr=s fawliar with
    seiswj" design and the eff'ccrs of earthquakes should be ntt1jml in order to answer the
    questions as to "how :mnch flex1"bi1jty is suf6cIcnt... The assumed value of tank uplift
    is critical to answering this question. Values oC6 to 8 im:bas (ISO to 200 mm) have
    commonly or.crl!! eel in the past. Using a value of OIl the order of 6 to 12 inches (ISO
    to 300 mm) of venical dispJacenat, and OIl the order of 4 to 8 i n r t ~ s (100 to 200
    mm) of horiwutal dispJacerre
    nl
    (at least in zones of highest sefsmicity) would be
    considered prudent and conservative. .Actual ex:pected values are a function of tank
    size. fill height, aspect ratio, and local seismicity and soil type. AdditioDaI discnssion
    of uplift is given in Section 7.4.5.
    7-13
    ."
    ANCHOR CLIPI"EJ) TO
    101 fOM PLATE
    ]
    'CHAIR' HEIGHT
    I I UNUSUAU. Y SHORT
    ~ ~ ~ I h
    .... '. ... 1.1 .- .
    <4 1 ~
    Figure 7.7: Poor Anchorage DetaDs
    7A ANALYTICAL EVALUATION
    '-4-1 Methods for AaalysJs ofUlIIIDcbored TaDks
    'I'lIem is eveasi'Ye literat:ure on the seimric aualysis of flat-bottomed tanks. The
    Jitenttwe inclndes a Dumler of mctbods avaUable for amlyziag UDaru:bored tanks.
    Some of these analysis methods am:
    a. API650 Appendix E (API. 1993) - This m:thod is the standard for design of
    new tanks for the penoc:hemil:al industry. h is simple to USC and its
    plovisioDs gcnmaIly match those of tile UDifonn Blinding Code (lCBO,
    1994).
    b. AWWA DIOO (AWWA, 1985) - This JD'!dmd is vezy sjmr1ar to the AP1650
    metbocI, and is used primarily for design of water stoJ:age tanks.
    Co :Earthquake TaDk-Wall StabiI1ty of Unanchored Tanks (Manos. 1986) -
    Geotge Manos bas developed an attC\1 !larive method of assessing tanks which
    is sipificamly diffe1ent to the previous two methods. and is based on
    observed perf", Ilia,,"" of tanks during past eatthquala:s.
    d. Serismic Design of Storage Tanks (P:riestley, et a1, 1986) - This method was
    plaposcd as the tank design code for New Zealand Presently, it bas not been
    adopted. Of an the methods listed, it is the most .involved and has the most
    deraiL
    MoI:c discussion of the above asscsS'D"'tt methodologies is given in subsequent
    sections.
    7-14
    7A.2 Methods for ADalysis of Am:hored Tanks
    Past performance of anchored tanks during eatthquakes bas jndicared tbat such
    taDks gene:rally experience very few problems. This is partially because very few
    taDks wen: anchored before the seismic provisions of API 650 were introduced in the
    )are 1970's (Wozniak ami MitcbeD. 1978). ami those that were subsequently anchored
    were designed to those very same provisiODS.
    Anchored tanks should be considered as adequate UDl=ss anchorage details are
    judged to be capable of tearing the taDk shell or bottom plate. c:ausing loss of
    contents ADchorage details should be assessed during walkthrough inspection to
    ensure that there is an adequate load path for the hold-down forces developed in the
    lIDChor bolts to be transferred from the taDk shell to the foundation.
    If an ancbnred taDk needs to be evaJpated ana1ytically. the methods in API (1993).
    ASCE (1984). or BollSDel' ami Haroun (1980) may be used.
    7.4.3 StablDty
    API EvaJnatbm Methodology
    Tbe sejsI liic design methodology for welded steel storage taDks presentrrl in API
    650 Appendix E (API. 1993) is basc:d on the simplified ptocednl'O developed by
    Baumer (1977). Details of the deveIotumDt of the API methodology are described
    in Womiak: ami MitcbcD (1978). Tbe procedure CODSiders the ovettmDiDg moment
    on the taDk to be the sum of:
    a. Tbe uvettillning lDD1iI:nt due to the taDk sbeJ1 ami root together with a
    POltiua of the """en" wbicb. moves in UDison with the shell, acted on by a
    ]u" izc"'!,] acceJeraticm. The value of the a ~ r a t i O D is u.suaIly takeD as the
    peak of the 2% dHnqed sire respDDSe spectrum, divided by a factor that
    8CCOUJItS for the duc:hlity ami reserve capacity of the taIIk. A1tt:madvely. the
    code aDows a value of O.24g to be used for the bigbest seiSiliic ZODe. 'Ibis is
    tenzzcd the impulsive CODipOliiIi11:.
    b. The o,etwuh:ig moment due to that portiOD of the taDk contents which
    moves in the 1irst sIosbiDg JJJDde ("J.e., iDdepeDdm1t1y of the taDk she11). acted
    on by a hoIiwntal acceleration equal to the 0.s1Jl dMi" Spedlal
    acceleration corresponding to the period of that mode, again divided by a
    ductility/capacity factor. A1temative1y, the code provides simpIificd formulas
    to delelJlIine the accelcratioD to be used. 'Ibis is tetmcd the coJl'VeCtive
    CC"iq.mmt
    ResIstance to the overtuming DI01J!!'lt1t is provided by the weight of tile taDk sbeJl
    ami roof ami by the weight of a portiua of the tank contents adjacent to the sheIL
    The stlUCtImIl adequacy of the taDk Is deu I iiiilled by a "stability ratio." which is a
    7-1S
    measure of the ratio of the overturning moment to the resisting moment. The
    stability ratio is defined as the quantity M![Dl(w
    t
    + wJ,)l where M is the overtunUng
    moment at the bottom of the tank shell (ft - lbs); D is the nominal tankl'Jiameter (ft);
    wi. is the mad",n", weight of tank contents that may be used to resist sbell
    OVCltm nhag (lhs per ft of chi lill!fmencc); and Wt is the weight of the taDk sbell and
    the portiml of tile fixed roof supported by the shell (lbs per ft of chcawfaten.:e). The
    value of the stamuty ratio must not exceed 1.57 (no mcttic equivalent is provided).
    Further. API 6SO provides a methodology for caIcuJating the compressive stress at
    the bottom of the tank shell together with the maximum aDowable value of shell
    C01Dpxes
    s
    jnD; tile latter coxresponds to appxoxiaately oa-thixd to oa-half of the
    theoretical bmting stxess of a uniformly complesseci perfect cylinder. If the stability
    ratio e . ~ 1.57 or the C011ip13 ive stress exceeds the aDowable value. retrofit of
    the tank. orrecfnction of the liquid height is necessmy.
    Exteasive e'le+j'iif!liI81 studies ami obserYatioDs cfrning past earthquakes bave
    demor.sh8
    l
    nJ tbat tile radialleDgth of uplifted bottom plate. and hcuce. the actual
    liquid "<Ii pt lesist81!!!C which is mobilizcd during an earthquake is substantially
    undcres1i""'M by tile API upDft model The teasuUil for tbis are that the API model
    does not accolJllt eitber for the in-plane stress in the bottom plate. or for the dYJWDic
    natnxe of the tank tesl"''''se The model also c:alculates an uareaf.ujcally narrow
    ccmij; .. essiwt ZODiC at the toe of the tank. thus leading to large compxessivc ~ in
    the tank. sIJell formlalively low overtuming [llDme"ts FiDalIy. the API approach does
    not 8CCOlJIIt far the mrect of foundation fteUbjliry on the tank. wall axial membrane
    sttess diS!ft1mtjrm
    Ahhongh the API methodology is kDown to be somewhat conservative and
    CC'ndemning tiljs'i .. , taaks for faDing to meet the API c:ritcria may not be deemod
    mapmpx
    m
    olt11pnate,m Ib!. the crjlh. are the basis of the CWlCiilt seismic design practice and serve
    as a goodtfu"J",w,' Large acT danee ofsperi6" pmv.isioDs should be taken as an
    iDdicaticm dlatn:uufi1s may be necess.'y.
    UnIb the &:Ilnid developed by Geoxge Manos. plese!!!"" next. the API 650
    criterion is teJatively jm;ensjrive to the tank's waD. thirlmess 'l'Ids is because tanks
    usually fail by ft. ediDg the "'stabw'ity ratio" and not by exc:e.edjng th= shell's
    &Dowable Sti API6S0 then becomes DIDIe of an ovetnnning check rather tban a
    sttess cbrck Thus. wbiIe API 6SO is conservative for tan tanks. it may be
    lINOPSi i vatiw for broad taIIks with very tbin sbeIIs due to the use of high strerIgth
    S1Cels. Cme sbnnJd be 1IibD when esse'sing these tanks.
    AIteraative Me"gdoloey
    "I'IlI= are Sb'Ietai aIlematives to the API methodology described above; one that
    might be coDSidered for use in evaluation of ex is! iilg tanks is a modified version
    (DowliDg ami S""."ers, 1993) of a zn:tbod deve10ped by Gecnge Manos (Manos.
    1986) pttlle
    n
    = he.D:in. Manos' method is based on experi"":m.
    J
    stUdies. as well as
    7-16
    on observed behavior of unanchored tanks during past earthquakes. Instead of trying
    to model the complex uplifting plate behavior. Manos ass"" es a stress distribution at
    which the sbell wiIl1mck1e and solves for the resisting moment produced by the sum
    of the sttesses. This resisting 1l1ODIeIIt can then be ccllnpau:d to the overtuming
    moment and the resisting acceleration solved for.
    TIle ,ss"ned cawptessive stress is muC;"""fI at the toe (opposite the point of
    maxillll"" uplift). ami dccrease.s to zero at an cwpidcally determined distslDce from
    the toe. The umai"""" eowpressive stress is funited to 7S9O of the c:ririca1 buckling
    stress of a uniformly c""q"essed perfeet cytiDder. The model ignores the effect of
    hoop stress on fmckliog stress. but correlation of the method with actual test results
    validates the results obtai"ed. Integration of the ass""rd uia1 stress yields a
    resultant cc.mptessive force which 11iIlSt be bala,nced by an equal tensile force due to
    the weight of tile fluid n:sting on the uplifted portion of the bottOm plate. Using an
    ewpidcal fommIa for tile lever ann between these two 1brces. an expression for the
    rcsistiog moment apinst uplift of tile tank is developed. AdditioDal resistance
    provided by tile weight of the tank sbell, the bending 1iiO"ent distribution in the tank
    wall. and other sowteS a= ignored. .
    The ovmbU "illg IIICIment on the tank is caJmlated in a nil ""er sfnn1ar to that used
    in the API methodology. except that the convective component of the oVettUmiDg
    mo11iClll is neglected. in the htterests of simplicity. This is felt to be apptopdate since,
    becanse of pbase diffetem.:es between the ;wp"Isjve and convcctive components, the
    convective portion is not believed to contribute :much to the peak tank wan stress
    response. esprciaDy for very tall tanks. This a
    raissg
    'b is balanced somewhat by
    ignoring some portion of the oVetturDing resjstmce, as dee ,j! cd above. and by the
    use of an expzession for the height of the CCDtet of mass of the fluid which is slightly
    conservative.
    The tank is d .... na' to be stable if the reaM;',! J1iOJWiit, Mus. is greater than the
    ovenuming JIlDJJISt jndnced by the earthquake. Mar. &pressed a1temately. the
    tank is stable if the funit impDlsive acc:eletation. Ceq. Cl1mlated by equating MoT with
    Mus. is greater than the earthquake-jndnced peak specual acceleration at 290 of
    c:rilieal damping
    The m=thod for evaluation of uMnc:bored stonge tanks included het'ein is based
    on that of Manos. but inclndes some important w,iar;cms. The most notable of these
    are:
    a. TaDk anchorage is recornrnrmded in zones of high seismicity whenever the
    ratio of safe operating height to tank d;!!!'!!etft1 exceeds two (Dowling and
    S!jjj"'Ci5, 1993). Based on the data presented in Manos (1986). and the
    higher level of risk for taller tanks. this is believed to be tile upper limit of
    appJicabiJity of the Manos method.
    7-17
    b. The allowable CODip1essive stress in the taJIk shell should not exceed 75% of
    the tbec"tlicaJ 1mc
    k
    ling stress, as prcsem
    ed
    in Manos (1986), nor should it
    exceed tile DIIItmial ~ strength. This last requirement is signffiratt for
    thicker-walled taIIks. Note that under certain circumstances an increase in the
    allowable compressive stress beyond 75.., of the theoretical buckling stress
    may be jusrified (Dowling and SlIiII" ea, 1993). Rumination of the
    cxpm jiiWilaJ ami observational data Pi "led by Manos indicates that an
    increase may be jlls!j6ed for the types of taDks encountered at petrochemicaJ
    fal:l'Htjes In any event. the compxessive stress should never exceed the
    material JiDld strcDgtb.
    c. The COUipltssive force in the tank shell should not exceed the total weight of
    the bid MllkM, (Dowling and SlIlI",*,1'5, 1993). This has the effect of
    jm}It)SI"1 an upper boUDd on the resisting moment
    A filial note of caution: The critical fommJa for tean Ceq (the limit impulsive
    accoleration). as Pi lied by Manos in Equation (9) ofbis paper (not shown below),
    should include tile tam (m,Im.) not (m.fmr), as ClriginaUy pn:scrtt'"d, where m. is the
    liquid impuJsive mass and DIt is the total liquid mass. Correction to this formula was
    .made in the fmm of an eaab4D to the original paper (Manos. 1986).
    The expxessiun for ovmtwuiug DlDm::nt, Mar. from Manos (1986) in F-nglisb
    1IDits is gMm bJ:
    Pw = mass deusil:y ofW8ter (=62.4/g)
    G = sp'" j6c: gravity of c:onttrined liquid
    H = taDIt JiqIIid beish'
    R = taDk mdiDs
    Ceq = Jimitirnpnlsiw accelcmtion fm g's)
    (7.1)
    and a cmve for tile raUo (m.fmr) is given in API 650. Appendix E for the ratio
    (W.IW
    T
    ), wlIme W. is the impulsive liquid weight and W
    T
    is the total liquid we.ight.
    The expmssioD farJesisting mlment. MRES, is given by:
    (
    1,,)0.1 (R)D.CI.I5
    MRES = OA8SERti t; 'i
    (7.2a)
    ls = sheIl,Jic 1 "ess
    7-18

    it = bottom plate tbickness
    n = 0.1 + 0.2 (HIR) S 0.25
    E = Young's modulus
    S = FOlmdation defoImability coefficient
    However. from Item (b) above, an upper bound on the resislj"g moment
    assuming the cump.tessive stress in the ta1Ik sheD just equals its yield stress, F)'t is
    given by:
    (7.2b)
    Also, from Item (e) above, an upper bound on the resisting moment when the
    compressive fora: in the ta1Ik shell ~ equals the weight of the fluid contents
    (assuming a lever Ball of 1.25 R(HIR)Q.1S, as expressed in Manos (1986, is given
    by:
    MRES = "rBgpwGx 1.2SR (:)0.15
    \I.2c)
    As can be seen from the above, the resisting moment. MRES, should be taken as
    the smalJe.st. of the expnwions given in Equations \I.2a), \I.2b) and \I.2c).
    An h:uportant feature of the modified Manos methodology is the use of a
    fonndation dar". mability c:oe:fficicmt (8). This should be taken as 1.0 for ta1Iks
    founded on DIOIe dgid materials, such as concrete, asphah rings or pads, and 1.2 for
    materials founded on JDOJ:C pJiabJe matcrials. such as c:rusbed rock. sand, wood planks
    or soB. 'I'he effi:ct of this is tbat the size of the compxessive suess zone is larger for a
    soft fonndarion than for a dgid folmdation. This enables the deve10pmcmt of a larger
    limit resis! ing wone'" (subject to the tirnil8tion .imposed by the total wejght of the
    fluid, as descrijxo.d above) and. ccmsequcmtly. enables the ta1Ik to witlurtand a larger
    seismic acceleratioD. This contrasts with the API methodology, whete the soB type
    has no inftnence on the resis!jn&, momextt. but wbe.rc a softer son leads to a larger
    ccmvective ecce1e:ratiDD and hence an increased. ovalol "i"1 1DJ,.nent
    A co"'i'i';51m of the results of an ewbvttiOD of a 3S ft (10.7 m)di!lT!J'lfe!', 30 ft
    (9.1 m) high tank, 1iIIed to a beigbt of 26 ft 4 in (8.0 m), using the moc:IiIicd Manos
    and API xmtbodologics. is given in Table 7.1. As caD be seeD, the API approach
    would requhe eider a rcduc'tion in fill height by about 4M> to 16 ft 6 in (S.O m) or
    ta1Ik anchorage. whereas the modified Manos JJJ:thod indicates tbat the seismic safe
    opcuating height can bemcrea.sed to 20 ft 1 in (6.1 m). Hence tho reqaired n:ducrion
    in fill height is rerJnred from 9 ft 10 in (3.0 m) to 6 ft 3 in (1.9 m).
    7-19
    TABLE 7.1: Comparison of API and Modified Manos Results
    (fmmDowling and Summers. 1993)
    Tvuical Tan!!;
    Diameter 3S' Product:
    Vmyl Acetate
    Height
    30' Fill Height: 26'4"
    RoofWeigbt: 14.2 kips
    Sbe!J PtuJS1ies: An comses - 0.18" thick
    BIlttOm l ~ 0,22" thick
    Snecific Gra.vitti 0.93
    Site Ahlhtifl. ..... igg
    1.5
    factor:
    Site-Smpific API Approach
    Instphility Ra1io:
    2.79
    Modified Manos Approach
    r' .. A _t.-.:_.
    m m n g ~ ~
    Earthquake-Tndg"'"
    AcceImaticm::
    The:tefoxc.um;table.
    0.741
    1.29g
    Seismic Safe Opea j .. , Height 16' 6- Seismic Safe OIetating Height 20' 1-
    Note: MeEric UDirs .. pi ntd, since bath API (1993) and Manos (1986) DDly present
    mmJrs far &gJish 1IIIiIs.
    It is possible that a sitgllfinD may be encountered wbc:re loss of colltClUS of a
    single c:ritfca! taDk (or a D1iiia,. of wca! taDks) is of COD! em In this case. the
    structural integrity of the ucarby taDks.. ccmtabring relatively harmless matedals, may
    cmly be of conccm jn SO far as their failu:re could adversely impact tile adjacent more
    criticaJ. taDk(s). WbDe aD e'lqlbam foot bnckoog type of failure of ODe of tbe
    surI'Onndblg taDks would DOt pose a threat to the integrity of tile critical tank. a gross
    failw:c. such as ovetliiilii .. g, could lead to aD irnp1JCt with the critical taDIt, possibly
    leading to xaptwe of the taDk wall and xeIcasc of its contcmts. In such cases. the
    SUlXOllllcfistg taDks need to be evabJatrd to ensure that tbey have an adequate :margin
    of safety agaIDst ovmtwnjnB or collapse (but not necessarilyagajDsl buck'Jiug). For
    such a sjrnatiOJl, the D'l)djfied Manos criteria could be relaxed still further (Dowling
    and SUI!iiIC!s, 1993), RU"'ination of the data on which the Manos methodology is
    7-20

    - .,,'.
    based (Manos, 1986) suggests that failmeIcollapsc may be less likely in cases where
    the ratio of ovettwuing mometit to restoring moment is less than two. Further, since
    local buckling of the tank wall is Jess a com:em, it may be appropriate to incIease the
    allowable compressive stresS in the tank sbeIl by 33% from that presented earlier, ie.,
    up to the theoretical bllCkting stress, with the caveat to remain that the compressive
    stress should not exceed the material yield stretJgth. Again, however, the compressive
    weight in the taDk sbell should not exceed the total weight of the fluid contents.
    These recollliiendariolJS are based on ijmired data and should be used with care
    (Dowling and 5""11
    1
    ""15, 1993) but are supported (in principle) by research presented
    by Peek. and El-Bkaily (1990), whicb suggests that the rjltimare seismic overtmning
    moment which was resisted by a subject 100 ft (30.s m) diameter by 40 ft (122 m)
    high taDk was 31% higher than the overalTDing IIIODImIt at which elephant's foot
    buckling began.
    7.4.4 Freeboard Jtequheme:nts
    Tanks with insnffic:jent freeboard may have their fixed or floating roofs damaged
    by slosbing fluid. In fixed roof tanks, the sloshing fIDid can impact and damage
    raftets. as well as buckle the tank sheD. Floating roofs can tilt with the slosbing wave
    and, if insnffic:jent 1iecboard emu, the roofs seal can be damaged or the roof may
    impact the access platform. In order to prevent thls damage. sufficient freeboard may
    be provided to accommodate fluid sloshing. The height of the sloshing wave can be
    calrnuated using methods described by Wozniak 8IId Mitc
    beD
    (1978) and Beusner
    and Haroun (1980).
    7 A.5 Uplift CalmiaffnDS
    When assessing the whlerabiJity of a taDk's piping. walkway ami staitway
    attacbUY:llts (as sbown in figw:e 7.6>, one should consider that the tank may be
    subject to uplift. Using a value on the order of 6 to 12 inches (lS0 to 300 mm) of
    uplift in the zones of bighest seismicity can be coDSidercd pmdent ami conservative.
    Actual expected values are a 1imction of tank size, aspect xatio. fill height, and local
    seismicity and son type. In lieu of.fusti1Ying other wIues. a value of 12 inches (300
    mm) is proposed in the lalest NEHRP provisioDs for eettaia taDk:s. If explicit
    calculation of tank. uplift is required, the only aualytical method known to this
    committee is foundinPrlestley, et al (1986).
    It should be pointed out tbat AWWA Dl00-84 (AWWA, 1985) indicates that
    uplift does not occurwben the + wIll is less or equal to 0.785. This
    coIIQllinee feels that tbis criterion should not be used for assessing piping ami other
    attacbmetrts. One of the rca50ns for tbis, aside from. the ever-present risk that an
    unanchored tank will uplift. is that the term wLt which is the rcsistiIIg liquid
    component, 0IIly occurs when there is uplift and, thelefure, should not be used to
    detemUne whether uplift occurs.
    7-21
    The method in Priestley. et al (1986) was proposed by a study group for the
    . cJesign of storage taDks. 'I'he group did an extensive review of the available literature
    at the time to come up with thejr proposed methodology. It includes provisions for
    rectangular and concrete tanks. Some diff'erences between tbis and other methods
    iru:.lude:
    L The hDpuJsive ami ccmvective components are comhinM by the SRSS method
    jnstead of algMraicaUy.
    b. The taDk bottom uplift is based on a model tbat incorporates both the bending
    and the m.phme fo.rces in the bottom plate.
    c. The method is itetarive. equating the o"eJtwning moment with the resjstjng
    mcn'eu'
    d. The analysis is based upon ultimate loads rather than wo.ddDg loads.
    As nenl;IWiW earlier. this method is more involved than either API6S0 or the
    method developed by Mmms As stated in Priestley et al (1986). the calculated
    displs hl'e,"s bema'll: Jess accwate as the displacemcius iacrc:ase. Good engineering
    jUdgrmmt sbonJd be used in I:hese cases.
    7.4.6 lUveteil aad Bolted Taaks
    Riveted and bolted taDks have the additional failure mode of tank sheJl splitting,
    which does not occur in welded tanks. TIIDk shell splitting is believed to occur from
    eJ'Ce!lllive hoop tellsiou ami poorly proportioned joints. A quick asseSSjiC'm of this
    failure mode would be to co"'l'&!': the cross-sectioDal strexJgth of the bolts or rivets
    to the steel plate. If the bolts or rivets are stronger than the surrounding plate. the
    shell sbould bebaYe with cJncrility. If addiriml8l analysis is requhed. the boltedlriveted
    sectionstreagthcanbemiiiced to the hoop tension pmiicrtd by AWWA (1987) or
    Priestley, et al (1986). Capacjtjes ofriveted sections are provided inAP1653 (API,
    1991).
    7:.4.7 FIber ReiDforad Plastic (FIberglass) Taaks
    FihergIass does not have the dw:tt
    1
    ity typically associaIed with tile steel.
    Fibexghiss ptoperties are aIlIo anisotmpic, tbat is, the strength in a direc:tion parallel to
    the grain is diffczeut to tbat i'G}OCndicular to it. Presently, there is no standa1"J. for
    d
    . -"""- __ t- for . . loadin .... --:.:a
    'Milgnmg or assessmg DDCl...- IoCIIIIII..Ii SC'SlliII: gs. Ull'Uance OD noD-SCIS""t:
    design is fowul in ASME (1992) and ASTM (1988). Many variables are involved in
    derc",,;'';''g the sneugrh ami clm:r,1ity of the fiberglass composite material, incbtding
    the pxopenies of the a:siD watdx ami the angle of winding of the fibezs. Seismic
    loads should be dele' milled from API 650 (API, 1993). with due considexation given
    to expet:led taDk petfi .... wi!Ce and ductility, and allowables obtained from
    manufactuftD
    1
    reo Ij""pe"datjons or test results.
    7-22
    7.5 MlTIGATION OF SEISMIC EFFECTS .
    Mitigating a wsnd!: hazard can be quite involved or relatively simple. For
    overcollSnaiued piping. addidolllll bends or a fIexibIc section of piping may be added.
    Stairs and waIk:ways can be solely supponed by the tank shell TBDk waD stabi1ity can
    be more difficu1t to COllect. No one method will work all the time and ope1ating as
    well as c:onstn1ction economics should be considered.
    Where the tank is found to be structurally inadequate (as determined by
    excecdance of the modified Manos criteria or gross exceedance of the API criteria).
    any of the follow.ing reuofits may be implemented
    a. Reduction of tile fill height; this is tile and most commonly
    rect'T!'ITIW1ded lebofit, and should also be considered in cases Wheze the
    awn'able :fnleboard is foUJlll to be inadequate. Note tbat reduction of fill
    beight can have a significant effect on the economics of tank stm:age.
    b. Im:rease the sbell thickness and/or the bottom p1ate or !!J!J!l1lar ring tbicknc
    ss

    Co Anchor the tankm accordance with the provisions specified mAPI650.
    d. In lieu of ancbcnage, pzevent uplift of the tank by 51 ifJ'''''ing the tank base
    tblOugh the instaDarioD of a concrete slab within the tank sbdl, or by other
    methods. This method is relatively 111m ied bnt may have the same effect as
    anchorlng the tank.
    7.6 CONSJDERA'IIONS FOR FOTURE INVFSI'lGATION
    'Ibis CCi!iiwi'tco did not review all aspects of sei5
    m
    ;! tank pmfwmance, 1'bzee
    II1C8S which would wauaat fmtbcr evalmttion jnch1dc
    a.. Investigation as to appJica"'"Hty of New ZeaJpnd code (Priestley. et a1, 1986)
    for usc m the U.s.
    b. Develop""",t of amctbod to pIcdi.ct tank uplift.
    Co DcvclopJmmt of seismic design and evaIuaI:ion procedmes for fibczgIass tanks.
    DESIGN OF NEW TANKS
    Seisnric design of new tanks is covered in API 650 Appendix E (API, 1993)
    wbicb, usuaI1y being conservative, is a good candidate for design. As discussed in
    Section 7.4.3. API 650 may be unconservtive for very broad tanks with thin sheDs
    when using high stmJgth steel and/or thickened annular rings. 1'be following
    modifications or additions am proposed to address other sboncomings.
    7-23
    . Eartbquakes cause the upper portion of the contajned fluid to slosh. The height
    of the sloshing fluid can be by an equation found in Wozniak and MrtcbeD
    (1978). This beig:bt should be used for fIeeboard requirements if the owner is
    CODa" ""') with floating roof damage or with spillage of product in floating roof or
    open roof tanks. The sloshing fIIIid. can also impact and damage rafters and
    supportiDg columns of fixed roofs. Wozniak and Mitchell (1978) also shows how to
    calcnIate this wave force.
    Overtundng Moment on the F01JI!da
    ti
    oD
    The hJdrodyuawic forces which c=ate the o\'ettDDling moment on the tank: waDs
    also act on the taDk bottom and, bence, also on the fo11!!
    d
    a
    ri
    on. ThIs additional
    ovell'" "ing nallle
    nl
    (ASCE, 1984) should be inchvied wbml designing the structural
    pmtion of the foundation and piles.
    TBDk Mo, .... a"
    . Tank upBft dnring earthquakes can damage attac:hM p!plDg and other
    appUfle"a
    il
    CIS The same provisions cfivnssed in Section 7.4.s may be used in
    cfesign Additionally, ancb.orcd taDk appw'enances may be c!esfgned for SOlD: level of
    ancbnr bolt saetch. A value of 2 inches (SO mm) is proposed in tile laI:est NEHRP
    (1994) pmvisions.
    API6S0 states that piping attached to tile taDk bottom that is not free to move
    'YC%tically sban be plared a radial cfistance from the shelJJbouom col"'liI In of 12
    inches (300 mm) greater thaD. the upDft length predicted by the API 650 uplift model
    The API 650 uplift trode!, however. may underpredict the amount of mdial uplift
    (Manos. 1986; Dowling and Shil"'e'&' 1993). It may be prudent to consider
    c:banging this JeqUireucm to that predicted by Priestley et al (1986), twice the API
    650 model, or an interaction of allowable vertical movement with the c:fistam: placed
    radially from the shell.
    Walkways between. tanks should be designed to 8CCODIIDOdate relative JDI:IVCDJC!Dt
    of the tanks. 'l'1=:e js no rcfeteuce known to this committee which calculates the
    pteJicred JDD'Ye"eM In lieu of a more rigorous analysis, a walkway should be
    designed to 8CCOhl
    iiloo
    are a total of 12 to 18 inches (300 to 4SO mm) of JIID\'M'C
    nI
    ,
    '--' ..... f high . .. ThIs based t:-:._" . data
    at ......... m "'" zones a $C1Sliii
    cil
    y. JS upon WIIU ..... expcnem:c
    from past eatthquakes and is thought to be conservative for tanks with small height-
    to-dianreter ratios. Par anchored tanks. this movement should be redm:ed further.
    7-24
    Anc:hored Taaks
    API 650 or other methods may be used for design Attached rlngwaDs should be
    desjgned appropriately. Auc:horing a tank to a small ringwall and not developing the
    forces into the soil by the weight of the rlngwall or with piles should be viewed with
    caution. Anchor bolts need to be designed such that they behave in a ductile manner,
    both in terms of the force transfer to the shell and pullout from the concrete
    folmdarion.
    7-25
    ChapterS
    EARTHQUAKE CONTINGENCY PLANNING
    8.1 INTRODUC'l10N
    Although not explicitly a part of petrochemical faci1IIy design, a section on
    contingency plamring was iucluded due to the importance of the topic. This section
    does not give JpeCific gnmute on how to author contingency plaus, rather it merely
    outlines some geuIIDIl points that should be addft:sscd by in-place cont;ingeDcy plaDs.
    8.2 PURPOSE
    . .
    h is expected that every flIci1ity in a seismic mgion should have its own
    contingency plan in place. It is iwpe.'Btivc that an patties involved in the response to
    a seismic evcDt be mnmar with the response plan in order to utilize it to its fullest
    potential This section mmely offers suggestions that such a plan should inclnde.
    The primaxy pmposc for assemb'fing an earthquake emetgenc;y contingency pJan is
    to have a rapid, rati0Jl81 and stntctured response to a seismic event. A contingeuc:y
    plan will allow the following do be done in an efficient and safe manner:
    a. Emergcucy rtiSpODSe to majntain public. pers ...... aJ. and plant safety
    b. Organized iuspe':tion of m1iries for eartbquake sttucnual damage and
    of
    -'... . . . r.._o 0
    conveya.nce to managemeat so as to """",,,", LH"'ness iDtellDpllon
    Co Focnsing of critical resources for teCOVerY effort
    8.3 SCOPE OF RESPONSE PLAN
    This gnmeJine is iatetlded to cover the wg8lli
    zat
    ion of personnel and resources
    for pe1fOlwing suuctural damage assessment ami damage control after a seismic
    event. An effec:tive respouse plan shonld cover ell of the foDowiDg elements:
    8-1
    .',
    b. Event RecogniriDD
    C. Qmunand &. Comrol System I MobillzatiDD of InspectiDD Team
    cL Roles &. ResplllSjbtljries of Team Persmmel
    Co Tnspt"C'ion Methodology
    f. Assetnb1ing lDspectiDD Dalal Reponing Results
    This section wID toDcen"ate maiIIly on Items a-d., with e and f covered in more
    detail in Qaaptcr,9 oftbis doc:l!liMnl
    SA PBE-EARTHQUAKE PREPARATION
    The key to MSpottSe to any disaster situation is organization and
    plaaning befo.te tile e\'IIIlt ac:tnaDy occurs. As likely scenarios could entail loss of
    water. loss of colliliii!!liretiov.s. Joss of firefighting ability. bmb11ity to reach site,
    of bazardous liw'er iaIs, h is .impetative to take a proactive role in
    ; .. ::nning for any ewe&gew:.y.,_ of tile most cdricaJ III:C8S to address would be:
    . ..... 'lC:b!t; '.
    L e
    A key CGmpouent in planning response to an eartllquab eu:els=cY is
    baviDg insight into what type of damage may be A}et:!ed ami where h may
    occur. Pedbnuing a, ni' eswsmeut of a &ciIity is an ideal way to assess
    b ,iDheraIt fIicmty. Another beneOI of pedi""'i"g a sejsmic:
    assHSuwmt is that.h allJ!'!S suuctm:es to be pxioxirized accoufiug to risk. This
    Dsk hiet8lcby can be impJemcrttra4 Jnto tlm lespouse plan and allow tlm
    hjgbest Dsk stl'UCUIreS to be iIISpected first. This Dsk himatc:hy Jist needs to
    be a &liv.iDg' dwhiiN" IIIIlmusthaw an ownc:rto maintain it.
    ", '''!Io ..,. "- .:"
    :10", ':\lr.'1""a! a'ot ""
    b. _,.:
    -, Another by_ COlli-'" of efIQ live lespouse to a disaster is a written
    Iesptmse pJ.m wIdch 0
    ,
    ,6'4'5
    :";1" "to \0{. ,....
    . eo: Orgainzm.m +cd"Tii'IlC'tiOD Teams
    CC' ...... and Stnidme of Teams
    e I Isdng of Key fm"BdS ...
    RiskPrlJdUbedTistbrgofSImdUreS
    The RISpODSe plan must cffectively outline the team's O1ganization,
    CO',,,,.,'" Sbiidliie, aDJI.mJe m the aSWSi'e
    nt
    process in order to be useful
    Its conumts must be cffa:tively COJI!D!!wicated to and 111Idets!ood by
    perscmnel who wID be Dmdved in tlm assessment effon. Drills are an exceDcut
    !!UItbocI to help impI.........,the intents of the dm""cnt.
    B-2
    It is often usefill to set up sranding agreen .. "ts with support resources
    sac:h as local eng;"eedug firms, local eJIICigency re5pODSe agcncie!;, and
    professional organizations such as ASCE. HaviDg sranding assistance
    agreements in place can help streamline the rcspouse process.
    Co Pre-Earthquake TnUning
    In order for iDspection personnel to perform effectively, they IlIIlSt be
    trained in post-earthquake d""",p ISselS'" ""' h is suggested that all
    inspection personnel undergo ATC-20 or similar training for lu
    n1
    ding
    well
    ... eazed ---" f :.. .. _--'-,
    assess". lit as as S1DJ1Jar bammg I towuu. mspecIlPD 0 .lLwwU.UG.l
    stlUctares.
    For quick ftISPOnse. inspection mptt:rjaJs (i.e.. paper, pen""'s, clipboards,
    film. etc.) as well as sttucta:ra1 prlorlty iDfonnatinn 8IId posting materials
    should be kept in a secwe 101 a.jclD that is to be IICCr""'"" ODly.in the event of
    aD eattbquake. The post-ewmt 51 e "rio is inb=ntly coll1hsing without
    bav.ing the problems of finding inspecticm !I1!Itr:rials h may be desirable to
    iDcln
    de
    search and rescue eq"q ... .,." Water and food. supplies should be kept
    in the seemed locaEion additionally, as shelter in place conditions may occur.
    8.S INCIDENT RECOGNI'OON
    Befmc any lCSpoDSe or aues jim efIbrt can begin, thenI must be some formal
    recognition of the eveut that has oo:JW1ed. Recognition of the cmmt will allow
    rtspODSe plaD:s to be put into efli:ct h Js advisable to set up a 11181 i il or classfficarioD.
    S)steD1 to deswibe the extent of the cmmt (Le..low, moderate, setae). This manix:
    could be based on the extent of the 0_ Wid damage. By doiDg this, each level of
    a1ert can then be paired with BIl apptopxiale J4vel of respuuse. The obvious hinc.fjt is
    that the apptopriate IIDIDUDt of respoDSe Js employed for tile size of CWIIt that bas
    occmrccL For additional iDfonnatjOJl, please refer to a,,'Iu 9.
    U COMMAND" CONTROL/MOBRTZt\T10NSts1'BM
    In order to effecti\'ely laspoDd to aD cwe:rgcmqt, a clear coliimand aDd COIiUol
    structure must be lnainrainrd Key CODtaCtS and e'isjon l'IIkm must be c:learly
    ic!entified, and a hielaxchy of authority must be clearly UDdcrstood. The ftISPOn&e
    plan should specifically designate key c:ontacts 8IId d ... jsjun makCis, as well as
    backups in case the pziwaty CODtacts are unavailable. It should also describe how and
    to where inspection results should be comrmmirated to the decision makm. Finally,
    the emagency openuions center (EOC) should be located in a safe area. pxefetably
    on the perimeter of the site.
    8-3

    ... ,
    After an earthquake, tbr:rc will be a short tr:tm (rapid assesgxnent) and a longer-
    term (cfetai!cd auebnult) JCS{-!Dse "Cf 'II ary. 'lmmedjately following an event, rapid
    'UesII ..... ' teams will n=d to be SCIIl out to identify obvious or hili I edjate problems.
    These problems: migbt include failures. eI1'Yironrncnra
    l
    releases, fires, etc.
    Concurrent:ly, the iDc:jdem ,uhillAnder will need to start mobilizing structural
    expertise to: a) advise plant persoJlllCl OD die comse of action to st..m1izr: jmmedjate
    failmes or c.rlses; aDd b) begin peden wing a detailed inspection.
    Once the rapid ass '5
    11
    tllll teams have reported to the incident co
    lll
    lll8
    n
    der aDd
    die seDn
    min
    e8S of die iDcidem lias been detelllljued, the appIopriate level of response
    must be IIIOm1fzed 'I'I= im:idcDt C'lhhillander must have trained persmmcl available to
    III8b decjsjo,. ldplding short-_ stairiliza! it tU of failures or crises. Exa'mples may
    b de _... ---':"-':-- of Iti,, ,tfl._.
    mcu .... VlSlDg on temp-lUll, ... __ ....... _ """................ DItL 1SC1p_.1
    problems, advising on plant shutdowu, ell:.
    Tllemsponsc planimJst Chlllaih iDsa:uctiuus for the team lI!Idea cmce the level
    of !'PSI- h'Sf! needed has been cfete ,0; .. 01 These iDstnzcticms must fnryhJde where and
    whtm to lepWtt' AddjtjrmaUf. dt"'. iusttucdug tile teamm:mhcl!'S who to zepoit to
    cmce they baW rea' hod tile &ciIity ueed to be mcJuded Some comiugencies =cd to
    , be add! 5 t' II IIIX:oUDt, for tile inahBity of team JDmI""," to s to the site. difficulty
    in comllllmjcatiOns, ere. or.aD.y IGi - I nble cfjfficuIrics that may be encondlmcd.
    :.;, . '.
    . ,'- ::;r"' . -", -. -.
    &7 ROLFS AND RESPONSIBII J tiES OF 'l"EAM PERSONNEL
    After the mspCction team bas been a_bled, it is hDpeiative that they know
    what is -e'l"*cted of tbrm,81Id. what mspons;hiJity each of thmn wm be held
    accountable fot.. A DmdeJ.team SIIIICt1Be should be Jafd out witbiD the respcmse plan
    to shoW whitmle each will play. 'I'I= desiR:d quam ali .. lIs for each role in the
    iDslectiml efIbzt ahouIdbe O'III1"M in die msponse plan, with the maHzatioD that
    .... .- allow II' ... ad":"_J..I-
    enc''"'''''' es may DOt a p#i<e' mptc:bjng of skills to posmons It JS ,YDiI&IBi
    to ba've an op..athig lept "!alive as part ofdle iDSJldioD team. 'I1Ie plan should
    also clearlY oudiDe Jiaes of cc"i",,,,,.k:a'i')u and ambnrity witbiD the team strucatre as
    well See a.Rprer 9 fOr adcfiLi ;"fi h" ,,' jnn,
    &8 lNSi'ECi'JONMEl'BODOIDGY
    Ids Iiesirab1e'that tbe leaphM plan address tile methodology to be employed for
    sbcJnld be spec jRed include:
    . ..:?!1':-'Jap :w,.:.:. . . .
    L iDiipi: c:iicm oiiima to Use (ATC-20 I Other)
    b. Posdrig c.it..ria for Bm1ctings I StlUCtUtes
    Au.'uuily
    do Dealing With AftersJurInt .. .
    e. Repair Authority
    This item is addressed in more detail in Q!apter 9.
    U ASSEMBLING OF INSPECTION DATAl REPORTING:RESULTS
    After pezfo.t:lllins the field inspections. posting buildings. and making
    structural evainatiollS, data and results must be assembled in order to report it to the
    incident COTT!T!'ll!!!der. h is desirable to bave pre-designcd forms to help standardize
    the data collected and make it easier to assemble after the mspectioDS. These forms
    should be stored in a secared c:abinet. such as the ODe discnsser.l in Secdon 8.4. h
    also allows d""IIicntation of damage to be kept for filture review 8!IdIor aoalysis.
    Using the mmdard forJm makes the task. of awmbling and transliljlfjug the
    iDfoImation to the apptopJate decision maker much more cfijcient. Also. these forms
    should int:lnde some method of int:orporatiDg secondary iDspccti.oDS after the
    incvilable laIgc aftersbncks Additional infotmation is ccmrajned in Chapter 9.
    s-s
    Chapter 9
    POSTEARmQUAKE DAMAGEASSFSSMENT
    U INTRODUCl'ION
    This section provides gnidance with lCS} = to post-eanhqua1cc damage
    assess" If!Jrt of those fm1iries considered to be m ueed of sttuctural investigation after
    the oa:mrence of an earthquake. After every signifhalf seimic event. an i""'- djare
    ami CMIplete walkdown of the petmebemieal facility m question would be the
    0p'i
    rnilTD
    respouse. However, although such action is stnmgly advised, it is also
    rcaJimi that this is imp1'actical due to cost ami manpower CODsttaints. For these
    reasons, two factors ueed to be considered with regmds to the scope of, &lid =cessity
    for, post-eartl1quae damage assesi!ieuts: (1) prlD,jljza!jOll of items to be assessed
    after an ca:rthquake; ami (2) detemdilatbm as to what RsizeR of an event wammts an
    assessmeD1-
    9.1.1 AsSesSld"llt Priorities
    The major safety/operatioD81 concerns of operators of pettorbmrica
    t
    DC't1itjes :fall
    UDder the following three priorities: .
    Fnst Priority: H .... lth &lid tmma
    n
    safety.
    Second Prlorlt.y: Damage to the envhOiillient.
    Third Prlorlt.y: Other items with signjfjcant economic bnpact.
    Under the first priority item, the major risks to health and bmmn safety associateD
    with eatthquakes (in no pmticolat otdet) an: the following:
    a.. FimI.
    b. Explosions.
    c. CoJlapsed and damaged slnU:tilteS.
    d. Release of hazardous materials
    9-1
    UDder the seccmd priwity item, the major risk to the environment associated with
    earthquakes is the release of environ" !e!!tally sensitive products. Such releases are
    mJared to the following OCUiUCUces:
    a. Storage tank: failme.
    h. Pip:line luptUte or failmc..
    Note that 1iIiIare in the above djsMlssjon also rd'ers to sjgrrifica
    rrt
    leakage of
    tanks. pipelines, and v Is, sad is DOt limited to comp1cte coDapse
    UDdCT the tbirdpdOiit) iteiD; the mqor add
    iti
    DJl81 cause of significant economic
    ;
    i1i
    I'act to a 1BciIity ope.atOr 15 it Joss of production capamT1Jy. 0cClmcnces that
    COllI! ihutC to lOss of pUcmcticiJi apebility (m additinu to those listed in the first two
    priority itemsl!R the "
    -., t! .... - ". .
    . Jj,'{S"'of-."''',.,,.....J!O ,,-- '':'. . ..
    a. ..
    -.;' -"":.. ... .on;', .. .J.;o ... t .. _ .... t -
    b. LaSS ofCOl'iiiFiittfcafinas --',.
    Co' SImt-dcnrn pt' ceol
    m
    e5 activated by earthqnake.
    -...... Ii"'" &3 U .
    a. UtilitY. systeIDS.tbat would be teqaited to operate following an eanhquake to
    maintain the fiu:iliijrma sam condition, e.g., :tirew .. and 6J1ii1geacy power
    S,SlHiI'S
    b. Adjacent s)s'ews, 'sUGCtUtes, or components whose stt'IlCtUrlIl milure or
    displaceheur couUnesull m the milure of systems that pose a risk to beaJth
    . ,,"".t',,-,," ....... '
    ami b;'".'" Safety, CXJid';" hazatdaus materials or CDliUO",,",rally sensitive
    PJducts. or !I!" patliaJ)arJy valuable from an opemtions point of view
    UJ.it: ... .... J !If;o!-l ....
    . - . ' .
    " . , .. J '., " \ " ..
    Co ADy sttuctures, systems, or components that, from an opexator
    i'equbed to mwai" functicmal during and after a major earthquake.
    9.1.2 Ass I wept Triggen
    No absolnte IJhamha1jve masnre of eartbquake severity can be given as a
    gui
    d
    e1jne as to when a post-earthquake d!!1!18p assc '1It"'1 should be perfumed.
    Much depends on whether there bas been any n:ported significam damage at the
    faciJity. and wbetbcr the eartbquake event was serious or damaging. Ideally. a post-
    earthquake cfamage 8 "!1IC\!!l sbould be UIIClenaken after a seismic eWDt of any
    signffiamt magnitude. The following examp1.es (either occnrring at the tiIciIity or in
    the jniiiedjate viciDity of the facility) should trigger the DCCd for a post-cartbquakc
    response:
    a. Injuly to pcrsozmcl
    b. Stnu:tural coDapsc
    c. Release ofhazardous materials or cnwOIIDlenraJly sensitive products
    eLm
    Co RxpJosion
    f. Automa1ic system slmt-down
    Loss f
    if

    g. a power. utUtles, or CIlIIiIllllDtcattons.
    Any of the abcm oc:cuneuces may jndlcate more serious problems, aDd a post-
    earthquake damage assesment should be injripted jiiiiiediately. In addition to the
    stmcturaI. investigation, medl!nrical ami systems assessments may also be rcquin:d.
    9.2 PRE-INVFSTlGATlON ACl'IVl11ES
    The perfbrllwnce of a post-earthquab d"""'P 8S
    S
    ess
    ll
    nil should be pxeceded by
    the foD.owiDg safety-related actions, which should take place jmuMiately after a
    sipffieant seismic event:
    a. Accounting for the safety aDd weIfiu:e of an pe:rsons on the site (employees.,
    contractors. ami visitors)
    b. Control of an jlhmediate dangers, such as fizes. mJ1apsed S1:r&JCtUR:s, etc.
    c. DetczmiDation of safety for JICIII-CIXIcrpD ICSpODSe trai=i pmsoJUlCl,ic.,
    the engM"Cl'S petfuxmiug the post<arthquake d!lJ!'!!lP asses5'l eut , to enter the
    facility.
    Pre-plllDlring of IDspecdon activities is esfMllial, ami should jm:Iude a nretjng with
    plaDt peISOJUlOl figm1iar with the faC''ljtjes UDder ,e,je",. To help eJISIII1' that an
    perrinent topics IR addressc:d, a Jist of questions should be pxepau:d before this
    1m ,dn, o.ue individual should be appointed to WIite DOleS for a recotd of
    conversation. or instead, it is petmjlled, a tape recotder may be used. Topics to be
    discussed with plant pmsonnel include the foDow:iDg:
    a. Plant operating history befme and after the earthquab.
    b. COllective acdon taken by the opemt01'S during or after the eartbquake.
    c. Maintcmance orrepai:m that may have been made before the iDSpection.
    eL AsJy problems experienced with operability aDd fnnc:rionaljty.
    Co Any equipment failmes during or after the eartbquake.
    f. Bquq'l .... nt accessWlity.
    g.; Hazardous areas.
    9-3
    h. SafetypmcautiOJlL
    L Existence of any iDstnll"corarion on site that recorded the eartbquake motion.
    PailiCiilar anmrinn should be given to correc:tive actious. JDlrintenance. and other
    repairs made at the facility due to seismic acti.v:ity. T'he adequacy of such repairs
    should be c:bec:!r"', and the location of these comct:ive activit:ies may jndicate
    additional areas of concem .. :: C::"
    . -
    During pre-investiptinn actMties, the inspection team should also diC!Mlss and
    dete.tmine what areas of the p1ant, eqDipment, or componcIItS will be inspected and in
    what order. PJam m::nmgement dmwings should be obtaiaed and markcd with the
    location of spe' i'i" c:c '" 'l"'mmts v!tw:tcd for evalnation. If more than one inspectiDn
    team is mYolved, __ of lOlwmsDdJity should be divided as Deeded
    ..... , .. ;c", _ op .
    ,-' t,:.. . ...
    A pradeDt mzn!nder for an those invoJ:vcd with. the :inspection is that the plant has
    cxperie.uzd a eeis.,.j,: e'VeDt. Before begi''''i'. iDspccdoDs, pJam pcrscqmel should
    visually .iuspect the plant for any_mds'ing hazaxdous ccmdition (for example, areas
    cmtta .. ;j;wteril by c
    be
    neira1 spills). If any hazauioUs condition is foDlld, this area
    should be- noied team a ... oh"'ll advised accmdingly. ..lDSPeCtiOn of
    these-8ieaS Sbnn'd be pei
    6
    1iiie.cL only if precantions to protect the safety of the
    in.'IpCCtiaD team members can be and have been taken. . . - __
    Oneal __ . iinpoltaAt fjlllctijlDS of the pre-i:avcstiprion phase is to
    thorougb1Jqaestion ope.taMis as to the CXlCDt of the damage. UsuaDy. the Ope18W1S
    will have akaaiy pe1Conuac1 a quick :inspecticni of the facility and will be able to
    pmv.ide eiiIct .:plj",1S ofkaown damage. Such areas should be the:6mt priority of
    the imP" 'inn team. If a sei.mic haza:rd. mitigation program has already been
    undettakm at thefacili1y the stluctwes known to be seisildraDy wlnerab1e, and
    their week Iirdc:s, should be the StCODd priwhy of mspel I;'m. If 110 such program has
    been pxeviuusly UDdertaken, thm the wlneJ:able structwes will not be known a prlori,
    and the ElSS' team should sweep tI= emin: facility in a systematic 'IAi'U,
    wbile'w,';"'iaiting em dID ass=''''N'' pric .. jrirs as discmsm' pieviously in SectioD.
    9.1.1. AAM'ftin should be given to types ofitems that have pexfw"'''d poorly duriDg
    past earthqmm: Such as older structures. In any eve:at, p1aDt 0pe1atcm1 will be the
    key to I"jcnj1izingthe _Sihd'"
    ... ...
    .. .. I!_ . ... ,;..s \lglC.l ,
    , ... . " . .
    9.3 PEltFORMING FIELD JNSPECI10NS .
    Inspc ti
    OT
    ,;", of tile faciBty should be-- doc"neated widl 1iekl notes and
    acCc;mpimyiDg photr.gtaphs. .. Oecklist-styJe fomIs may be used; see Chapter 6 for
    exampleS' AItbough j"SJIfii 1m team.OIC"mers may prefer taking DOtes to fil1ing out
    usiDg tbese fm:ms c:aD. provide a greater mep'I'te of cc,,'s;stency
    .
    M.s'''e""e-''ts shauld be made with a tape measure as much as is pla:rj
    c
    :e1 For
    coDlpOllmltl tbet axe ineceessfWc, a visual estimate of dimensions slmuld be made
    I
    When visual ctimensious are used. the doCIIii entation provided should reflect this fact.
    For some items. an as-found sketch may be needed to identify all of the parameters
    invesdgate:d. Complete iDformation, as required, should be provided on the sketch
    regardiDg dimensions, sizes. component types. etc:. Atlcast one photograph of each
    sttuc:ture or C01OpODCiIt investigated should be taken. A labcJing system should be
    .implemented to match the photographs to the .inspection notes. If peu"jssihle. a
    video c:amem am be used. The video camera will gcneraDyprovide a better visual aid
    for bistorical data, and the voice recording unit of"the c:amera am be used to nar.rate
    condition and type of equipment being inspected
    Above aD. any damage which resulred 1i:om the seismic evem should be described
    in detail. Damage should be.,.. ssd jliiliediately at each indMduallocation, and
    some engineedug basis to explain tile failure should be provided and noted, if
    possible. The inspdion team should tty to c:om= to a consenms as to any remedial
    mea""niS that may be IequiIed.
    9.4 EVALUATION OFLOAD-CAllRYlNG SYSTEMS

    Of paxamoGllt importance wI= perIinmins a post-earthquake damage
    a"SC'suent is tile ability to detei:miue wbat exactly COIIstiliiles a given struc:ture's
    gravity and lateral force resisting S}'SteDIS. A strw:tme whose gravity system has been
    dllD'lllgcd. and its ability to conUnne to c:any veuica1 (dead) loads is in question, is a
    wry hazaDlous condition since coDapse may be i"" .. j"e
    llt
    This becomes even more
    critical when tile likelihood of aftershocks is inchJdcd, Such a structure should be
    ihiiiMiately flagged. and suitable Dasmes taken, such as banicadcs, evacuation,
    'ni, .. eiljare Sl2NHzariOD, drmmJitfma. ere.
    StructIUtS tbrit ba'We intact g&avity sj'SlelOS. but ha'Ve substantial damage to their
    lateral force resisling system, e.g.. buddr4 or clamagecl braces. sbould also be
    regarded as potential hazirds. due to the possDWtty offiJture aftershocks. Although
    such stntctures are gencraDy not as signfficmtt a hazatd as those with damaged
    grav.ity systems. jliiuediate steps sbould be tabn to testate the integrity of the
    oxiginalla1c:ral force resisting systmU.
    lD cfeciding whether a structure bas a damaged .... Ii!!lll 8DdIor Jatera1 force
    resisting s)'ii1tCim. tile questicm as to the ahi1ir.y of the stl\icbae to withc;taud aD
    aftmbodc of equal or greater magnitude is often 's1rcd If an eXlMrieaced damage
    esscsSjje
    ut
    team does not bc:Jil:ve the sttuctme is capeN .. of surviving such an event.
    rI - ...... uld ....... At._......... . the rI
    """" 'ate steps ZUlU uw WIA.Iii.I&, iIIIU eatermg structure or itS ii""#rlate VlCiDt1Y
    should only be done OD a 1jmjted as-needed basis. OmtiJrncd opetation should be
    justifieD on a case--by-case basis. Soa items of particuJar c:cmcem im:lnde the
    following:
    L Loss of ilaltglity of vmtica1 and/or lateral force resisting systems
    9-5
    .'
    b. Steel stu" faits - yielding, Mnging (top and bottom of columus), web
    1mekling aDd crippHng. mace l\1Jckling, weld cracks, etc.
    ..
    c. Concrete stluctwes - cracking, spaIliDg, exposed rebar, d'""",ged
    rebar, hinging, CI1'Sbjng. etc.
    d. Anc:bor; 8DII fimndatic"'s - am:bms and/or bohs pulled out of footings, large
    depx ssims annmd cobnnn bases, etc.
    e. EquqmC!!I - visible PIIJIClWes, leaks, cracks. toppled items, loose fittings and
    valves;. cmdeJllS UDder high pressure. weld cracks, cm:loscd amas where
    buDd-up of exp1nsm pscs may occur (confined spaces), etc.
    f. .... " .r"-
    .-..., t..iU.Ic:L... r . -!-.
    ". . ......
    f. RoadwayS":- clear oflarp debris, dowud power lines, "CODtiuuous SllTfiICC"
    (no fanIting), etc.
    g. EvidmcO Of 1Ici
    iimi
    tiOia, fimlt rupture, signffic:ant scttJement, hmdsHdes, and
    tsnnamj/seicb=
    "-;:.--!lK'!f. It .. ... '
    ,..,... .
    U mENTlFlCA.TlON OF DAMAGED STKUCTDRES
    ,.' . .' ... ' .. A: . ,_
    . It is RC:Oliii
    tietprlfd
    diat'a fadIicy-spo:iBc "ragging" S)stem be CODSidmed in order
    to idenrify' s;;.u.u.; stuaCcw .... or cowpolleJltS judged as being by the
    DISpcc:tion t=l Ks)itian ifevdoped for post-eartbquako ewlnptiou oflmilctings and
    usee! RlatiYelf 518 ': fiwJly folIowhlg -=t major earthquakes is desl 'i1 oJ in ATe-
    20. That s,stem en II;alIy hwolves placing green (safe). ,mIow (eJItC:r with c:amion
    for restricted use). aDd:=l (do not enter) tags on iDspeeted bnildings Such a system
    , r..... - far' . 1 #oo_"tlh. .1- ......
    may JeqUZte "".wc:s'"n use m a pouor-benDca ......... 3 setting, WIIOOi to ua;
    congestiOJf8m1 (cdieDtimes) imlistinpisba1l11ity of diffcrezn st:ructmes., and it should
    be UDderstood diii mnlrip1e tap or tape may be requhed to rope off those sections
    d=Uied unsare bJ. the !"'ellt team.
    . - . ' Oi $d L.
    9.6 DOCCMENrATlON,
    'I'hD objeCtive Of tbe insprl 'jCJn team's effort at each facility should be to coll=t an
    iufin".j'iCni "Dlcdd-to dOO"'w equillllftI! 8Dd stn1ClDr8l pcufolii"nce dnring dID
    can&qQakii. . epm 9.1 shows, in the form of a ltCO"'''cn!led tabla of c:cnttents, the
    O1ga
    n
    jzaljriD'ami conleJd of a leport that can be produced for each facility visited
    (EQB, 1986b). Note that tbe CODlezns of this IqIOrt can be sepamred between those
    sectionS that sbmiJd be substantially completed dllTing the 1i=ld imlec&ioD and those
    that c:an be c.!iiq' tCd Iatcr.;: ';:'
    The fiDal RpOlt should .efi:zcuce pnhlisbNl Infol"w'ion on the earthquake
    severity m m.msh'iiS oltbe grouDd mDUoD at each facility, &1''''''w.jm iufo.llaari"D
    of the _pc cted equq""ent ami structures at each facility, djsc:uss generally the
    ,

    performam" of each type of iDspected equip" e
    ot
    , and desCl"ib': in detail any damage
    that was noted during the inspections, along with any required or recommended
    retrofits.
    TABLE OF CONTENTS
    1. lNTRODucnoN AND PURPOSE. Gmaic: descriptioD of purpose of report,
    wbich is to d,OliWnl post-eartIIquab iDspeclioD of facility after c:anhquak:II
    evan. ThIs secrion c:aD be completed after iDspecIiDD.
    2. FAClUI'Y DESCRIPTION. A brief overview of facility. iIIcIudiDg faDcdon.
    DescriptiDD of major strUClImS, age, exac:t harlem, opaaring bistory. ere.
    Duriag the plaDt visit. c:oIlect infot 'lM'iDD nec:essuy to incInd: ill this .nDD
    pJam IiterilUle, dmwings, tape na:o.tdiugs of interview with pei'Sw
    lll
    e1. ere.
    3. GROUND MOTION AT FAClLlTY. UJIIas records during the pJam visit c:aD
    be oblaiDed, expect to write this .ee lian JaIer usiDg pnh1isb..t tepOIlS of n:cords
    throughout the mea (e.g., those pubHshed by USGS).
    4. OPBRA'IIONAL 1MPAc:r OF EAR'IHQUAKB ON FACLrl'Y. Jmehiews
    with pIaDt peiSDDDCl will form the basis for this srcriDD If possible, ob!aiD
    copies of opaatm logs during the plant visit.
    S. EARTHQUAKE PERFORMANCE. This sectiDD will form the maiD body of
    the report, and should be completed during the fie!d inspec::rion This secriDD
    should im="ufeRQiI.ii'rivlatjrnur forJtIHwliatjQD, ifrequhecL Resp.msjbifity for
    originating various mbscctioDs sbouId be dividec:I up IIJDDDS waIkdown team
    6. CONCLUSJONSlRECOMMENDA'IlONS. Briefly sQwD.lim the primwy
    findjngs of the team. jm:!ndjng lO"hiiiliu dec! PeriODS. This srt:tiDD may be
    wriuea larcr.
    7. APPENDIX A. Tho IIJIpeiIdix sbouId mnraill photograpbs, pllms, drawings, ere..
    which IIJC .eii:teucc:d within the body of the sepmt.
    FIgure 9.1: Example Report Table of Contentc
    '.7 INSPECl'ION TEAM
    Bach iDspection gmDp should c:onsist of a "'illi""'''' or two (2) individuals with
    the following qualifications:
    9-7

    b. Expel! ien'l: in seismic: derign and 8Dalysis of equipment, systems. and
    SII:1lClmeS mmUn peI1lC;herrrical facilities.
    Inspection team 'ID!!I1!bers should have undergone training in post-earthquakc
    damage &"'"0,1 and in the procedures to document such assessiilents at the
    facility in qnesmm , -- -'. .
    The strucumil portion of a post-earthquake damage assessment should be
    con"",=,, by 6Kp!lienred qin=rs fatmlj!!J' with seismic derign and the cff'ects of
    eatthquak:es. 'I'het should be able to readily identify areas ofwerlmess, and priotitize
    remedial ",,"'es to awect sevCle damage and to euswe ccmtjnned safe operation
    of the facility. .
    -': . ... 1f'
    ...... .... ; ...
    ,.. RECOMMENDED;EQUIPMENT
    . - --' ..... _ . __ ,;... JS... -
    ass
    ," .. , .. -..:..... . -' . -.. ..
    . ... ....... ,,-
    The folIowiDg items' aie DCOmhendcd while pezfQ1ming post-earthquake damage
    c. 0",'1 '5S
    f. Safety gJ S
    '.::: C. .... '

    b. Safety mask (partWil1arly afier a JIllIjor seismic event 8IIdIor in areas ofknoWll
    bazardo1Js ".'el jal or -",cilhiiffiwly sensitive pmduct release)
    . \!''''. : , ...
    L Cousb:UCIiuD boots
    _'' __ '.'V_
    k. Photo C8!!lera (Polaroid or 3Smm)
    n. Hand-held video camera (optional)
    o. Tape recorder (optional)
    Note: Cbrdc camet&, flash, video, and tape recorder use with facility operators
    prior to their use at the facilhy. This should be done not only for confidentiality
    purposes, but also becanse some camera equq"'ent is considered an ignition source
    in certain hazardous areas or could trigger certain fire detection systemS.
    Chapter 10
    BETROFITDmGN
    lo.J INTRODUC'110N
    The gnirfeJbn pest ,'ed in this sectinD are intendNJ to assist an engj'ftI in
    pedilt. ___ J....-J.. -- of .,
    mwg M"'I"': .... iIIIU J"N'M8!IDD CD'''''e stmctu:res.
    'I'hese guit!eljneo; me nat intendeD to p:rfim:n as a code cioe1
    m
    e
    nl
    : mthI:r. they me
    jntended ODlyto give gnidmc:e to the cngin=r fiIccd with a task cciM'';' ally
    defi. rid strucaDes.

    1It.2 UPGRADESII'UA'110NS
    Geat:rally. SUilL1UteS m:cd sr:jswil: upgradiqg ami JJ!C'I!6fU alinu for OIIC or IIIOIC of the
    1bJIowiDg rcasous: ... .
    L ExiS\1ing structures may be jde:lllj!lHl to be potentiaUy hazardous to public sa1Cty
    after a waIktbmugh ami an iDitial suee:uing evaJnation pxoc:ess (see Ompter 6)
    ........ :..:.:.., __ 1.--:- .to' of ., .. ..
    IIIILIAl gYAllMll.l.UII pil- "Are IS a WlSOiy J:e\"&\V exmmg 95
    iil
    C ib'S' "'I
    hming S1lUUUitS, S)'!4eWi. ami ecpdlhl<!'d. to dett"'';'e if*,>, me c:ategorlzed
    to be "sa1i:", "uasafe" or "D=cl fiIrther study". For sttuctun:s and s,stems that are
    c1assifieil as "sa1i:". no fiu:ther action-is mquiI:cd. However. for those that me
    classified as "uusa1i:" or "D=d fiIrther study". a IIIOIC DgOlOI1S ewhmtion should
    b:peafinntd
    b. Addjrjrms to ami Jmdjficalh !!IS of exisriug sttacbII'eS ohD tdggez the Deed to
    upgrade :I1UittI4eS to aweut code teCJ.1ihC"e
    lilS
    Upgmdi:ag may be to the code
    of recmd if appxoved by the local bm1tf'ttg ofIiciaL However the CiIIdm SIrIJCtDle
    may DOt u=d to be dreW against the cwxeut seiwi: code; for CiampI!! if the
    4:..1I __ w I'
    6\N&Wft'M16 C a .. - "" lOS cxJSt
    1. Addition is cfesigncd to the aweut code.
    10-1
    2. Acfditirm docs DOt :iIIW seisiilic forces. strtsses. ami dispJarenmts in the
    entire DlJdi!le.f structare by DlDle thaD a set of the design values
    from the code of record. Values of 5% to 25% have been used by local
    buDding oficials
    3. Dd ,l,ga'w'O"",ljrjJ .. nsdo notreducc the capacity aftbc existing stmc:tm:e by
    :mOle tban a set petc:entagc.
    4. Addjrkm docs DOl deaase the seismi:: resistanrc of any structural em
    n
    'Cprs of
    ezisring sttuctutes uaIcss the 1M hi" Is equal to or gn:atr:r tba:il tbat
    u;quiIedforJIDW i!iIlUCtWtS.
    .
    .. .
    c. Ownss o1hm will UJIIIIIdc exis!;,,! Dc
    i1
    jries to mduce the rlsk of hJSjness
    inteaupliua 10 .
    '::-.:": !Jj .
    10.3 Ckl"lERfA IOKVOLlJNTARY SEISMIC UPGRADJNG
    '. ' . '.,
    - -. ' - "'
    'I'hD iab:at of"'ltilllilj 5 is"" _ upgradiDg and modiNa,M,u of e1jsrjng suuc:tares is
    not to brias them up to the caucut codes. Rattler, tbe goal Is to p.rovide .. ma
    naMe
    IISSU1'aDCe to the pnb1ir. owam, IIIIIl stare bnikfing aflicials tbat stI:UCtIJzeS aDd systems
    will sarviw=. a JD9Ir eaztbquake without catastrophic fjriIntr, though they DIlY S1JfI'm'
    eJ'eDSiYc damage_ a,s' OWi&tS may desire to n=trofit to ahigJzrpea fi.ii.d'C
    .. .. '.
    aneffmtto iiiini"- hiS;' _inteauptionlosscs. AdrfitiJ.naDy, tb:rearesjrmttjoaswla'e
    zeguIatDJy age'" jes set the lettofi1 standard. Sec 0Japu:r 2 for adem, !pal "harlcg.oDUd.
    10.4 GtlIDEL1NIS/PKOCEDURFS
    ". !I,.... .
    Criteria fOr desip'o{1Iew. sttuctUttS aad sysiems arr: well ""fined in bnlding codes
    such as time dig . J in "*prw L Bowew:r. aiteria for 8S l"g audlor upgrading
    eAt;";"1 61Hii"i
    e
    es am puody defiled. 0Im:atly. tb:re am DO c::ode dOO'ii.ns that
    51'" i&:aDj onr1&'ielloit stpzvIards. Suggested gnideHms far piC =tbquake r;"',,:
    upgradizIg"aad lu'.a,ians are J4 "ed in tbe faD.owiag:
    .'
    1. O'btaiDanllJH"H'* potft J,,,; all sei
    Si

    i
    .logicalrepmt.
    ; '" r,:':;;o ....t1$l ... "(' ,.
    e""'- ,_ .... !
    2.. bel;;'ii. desip rabtlgtigns aDd drawiogs.
    .'. :. J
    3
    ft_"":"'.L; :u...... "=-=- _ ......... -:..... _.I '--I ": 4:.-
    u.::;: IWUiII __ ,.-. .. ytiilll.M3 UG 'Hill"""" GIIU Aill'AAi IUJ,..--
    ,"hi;''' i)51t'" aDdideutiyanyspecialloads fordetdi,.;..j,c die potemjaJ weak
    Jiaks in the stli
    b
    1,,,.1 S)SttIDS.
    . ?a::---:T, :..'
    4. Use FEMA.-178 It fi1ct ..... ( in lieu ofR.1ictors fiOm the USC) for P"ldings mad
    Q f!v ''1m fnml the RMPP Qbelia (see Appendix 4F) for pIIIIIt struc:tmes in
    mlc:nJaringthe iii;' 1brc:es for IID8iysIs.
    10-2
    s. Whc:n dyDamic lIDIIlysis is Jequhcd, use either of the following design respouse
    spa:aa:
    L Par bntldings, use tile FEMA-l7B sejsmic acceJem.tion spectntl shape or a site
    spc:cim: spectrum. if avaU,ble, Jmdified per FEMA-l7B.
    b. Par plant stwenues, use a siJ:c.specitic acccbation iCSponSC spectLwn based
    on DaD N'i' I.tes of 0CCUDCDCe for lepz setj1i1tg the mean values of spec:.ual
    ea:e1mtioas. These values should amsider the iii!iwilling li1i: of the SIi\lCbl[C
    IIJId the coasequc'" cs offailule. - .
    -
    7. Use in sim ne
    ml
    ..,. Stlengtbs for cU:nJating the .. euiber Mlp'ciries Non-
    destructi.e testiDg may be requhed to obtain tile as-built sueagth of SttUCtUrel
    'Ie,lets.
    L ClIck the eyRjng +;"";: calG' bi'S ( C ) of stractara1'"e.
    iJ
    etS. billib tjJ,DS,
    aad eqtFiI"'c'" suppca1S waas tID 1'. "'i; dtmpnd (D). IfC > D. DO fartb:r
    action is Jajl'hed. Otbaiwise, a;S3iij: upgradiDg aad ."."..rJficarinD sbmJJd be
    f inffietec! It is Ii ... liiiilridM tbat sttcagth design metbnds be used to calmlpte
    9. When defomwtioDs aud drlft JimiIs need to be c:bec:kM against tile allowable, they
    s"auld be (;III 'lit with tbosc diw " din CIIIpter S.
    10. Alternate lined'" cs usiag 19' H .. ad IIIIIIlyIes besed on well estabJisbcd aualysis
    maybe IJ!Ied. Methods IUellas non-liDear ineJastic DB histmy IIIIlIl.yses
    wouldbo
    a
    '1 fl'Iable .-
    10.5 S'l'RENGI'BENlNG CRll'ElUA
    'Ii tbat
    0 0 _ dO o. _"'_
    o cnsme plop" wnecttve e"dI, me nap "e"'PL m. semmc ....
    programs. engin =xs sbDukl be fWly of tile latest develot'II!iI$ in earthquake
    17ngDw. ing The Applied Tecimology Couacil (ATe) is CWleutly fina!jzjng a gnideJjm
    51'0 i&aIIy addrcssiDg tiM',; 1CtrOfiniDg. A 7SCJiI CMlpwe draft of -GnideHnes for dID
    Seismic R""""'Dtarinp of Dm1dings" (ATe 33JB) has bam issued for xcvew, aad is
    CApCCted to be c:ompIetrd SOlle DB in 1996. 1bis dm'Jl'"tt is tile fi:st codc-like
    guide1ine to address so., ,ie lellufit woxk, aad while tix:ns ...... I" i,' wrily on bn1dings will be
    III important msomcc for petux:1e"'" at fac.1jties AddtioDaI xesoma;s would jacInde
    seveml Olp"ip'ions and pIOpum iiUilh"rG tbmugbnm tbS doc
    lli
    '"', such as the
    Am,," an CouaCie Insti!JJ1e (Ae), tile And aD Jnsritnte of Steel Consuuction (AISC),
    the Ahc,i! ali Soc:.iety of Civil Engmms (ASCE), tile Natioual EaIthquakc Huard
    Reilumm Proglatn (NEHRP (FEMA. the Earthquake Engirrtlilig R=s .,.:11 !none
    (EERI), tile Structm:al Engin rs Assoc iae iI 'n of Cali6" nia (SBAOC).
    10-3
    When lettu
    6l1
    j"g a stiuctuze, tbe main objective is to provjde reasonable assmm:e
    tbat the 1etrofitted it1NCtD1C wiIllC' ti ..... in an acceptab1e Iii" "jCr when SIlbjeet to strong
    groUJld 1II)U"n It 11IIISt bo kept in miad that tbe iIttcut of lettl'6" jllg in DOt to bring tbe
    SIiUCtUIc up to tbeleuri ofumeu1 code. However, in an sjm
    8
    'j
    C
    ms. it is nen,n uy to
    meet the iIttcut of tbe code, iL. :mm-coBapse, as a mjnimnm C:j j'm ia. It may be advisable
    to SIImgIbeD beyoDd tbese shj;Oi"''',' require """ if j.d .;. ;?"" h1siMss iDtemJpticm or
    ja1I1 S'tistbepet&"i'M'RZObjective.
    - __ .. ... ..,... .. ' _.r
    "' __ w ... ..,.Li-1..ho ...... _.
    Anotb=r jwpoUlnt point to c:cms!der wI:rCD ptii ti Ii mjllS lettotit design is the concept of
    pxupor'jcmjng widdD tbe iitU!11"'c. OvetSbeligtbetring IIlI:BS of a that me
    CWieutlyde&jej
    l1
    msbwgtlu:lJli'an:e the weakJiDk(s) to otberele'il'lUts that me ptiihaps
    ewn weakt::r or mare bxittJa. If this nccms, the impact upon the oYetall .stntt:tuml
    p:4 6 .. ii-ofteD'imrb,.dt; T.beiefbxe, care D1DSt be take:a. so that a CWiemly weak,
    but cluett", stiiu::tUie is Dot 'ni'HJfflri! such that it beo::um:s a stlucnu:e w.Id1 a bdttIe 1iIiIuIe ,
    smdc.
    ''''B' uoo issues that DD.1St be conso 'cd wb:n leanfiuing a
    ........ -... -> > > .. .!..;2.:'::...... . .. fl d m.... --' Ii iIily be
    su:u=ue.. .uIaUIiD .ii. '_mootty, Am,... -...u WDSIluti ' IIIISt
    adchCsseCL. JDscJiD, eaSiS;'p,;, -JeqWCi.MIS may be b He 'i,iniIC &ctor ill sele:riag
    aretrofitiiclii,WlrA ni"'\e is the use of 'bmw tareS as opposed to ClOSS
    1nciDg. ID ad01!jnn, tbe ",unB. DIDSt be liljd:tilmal ml DDt cn:ato IDlY addirjhllaJ
    pmbJems AD emi''\e is fila. air-cooled beat ftjIi hmgetS, or fin...fim 1io1l'iJCUlies, atop
    devaIed PP'i.P;1. TIi" "!ioils far the em 1+angers 8ft: oftm DDt designed for seiS"ijC
    loads aDd may lii:k. JUojila de! 1fiIing>. When rettofittiug, the II1mCtIire should DOt bo
    qjftP:"trl such that its DeW Arm him1 pt:rlod awl' Idr
    hes
    that of the fim motors. Dt:taffing
    is also a Jcqi'iftDside.1itIIiniasi:uutit design ODe oftbe pzimw:y Joals ofzetIotitting is to
    . -- ......... :. ',. '---.
    provide a dnc'. ADe
    S8fH
    ij,1e is leaufit ofanlyn hoJrs GIl tall pt'" L cnhunns
    Retrofit design sbonJd r:IISIIIe tbat the DIIde of iiIilmc wm bo a dnctiIe, i.e., yielding of the
    aachm bolts, and DOt bdtI:I=. i.e.. pulkmt Uom. tbe ccmcrcte or hv*1ing of the sappcn:t
    skirt. EaaJly. COlIsti"DtJihility of the lettofits Is a key CO
    nsL1e
    idlitm K:aowledge of
    whetber M!tiag or weIdiDg is preimd. stiUCtUJ'C Ii' e iIWty, poteu1ial jnlPijfi::!etees,
    t:tc.. an wm. tWriniw the _' cted JeDotit optkm.
    - ... -.... $d? it.:- ,
    -, ':":i7; .. "
    , \.., '-'i. "'f7'" __ ;:.;.,:-
    . ,:.., .... :0-' l ..... ,ji:./' - .. r. ... _ ..... :' ... _
    .:.
    10-4
    NOMENCLATURE
    C :: N1IDXlrical coefIicient representing poteDtial amplification of seismic forces
    due to resonance effects
    c:.. = I.Jmit impulsive ar=Jention (m g's)
    Cp :: N1IDXlrical coefficient representing poteDtial amplffic:arion of ground motion
    through the structure into the subsystem
    D = Dead load is the total weight of materials forming the per lIIanent part oh
    structure, jncb,cfing structural framing, pJatfol1l1S. waDs, fixed equipment,
    vessels, piping, insulation and fhepzoofing.
    D = Tank diameter
    D = ResuIvmt displacement
    De = EJasticaIJy computed displacements
    DP ::: Piping opelating load jncJndes weight of any liquids or solids within piping
    and on line eqWpment during normal operation
    DV = Vessel operating load. jncbtdjng the weight of any liquids or solids within
    the vessel, attached equiplilent, and .ping during nonna! opelati.on
    E
    =-
    Earthquake load
    E
    =
    Young's moduluS
    F, =
    Yield stress of tank shell
    g
    =
    Acceleration due to gravity
    G
    =
    Specific gravity of mmained liquid
    A-I
    '':', -.. "' _." ",' : ' ",' ,. .,. p' ' -
    H = Soil loads, includiDg the effects due to weight and lateral pressure of soil
    aDd water in soil
    H = Tauk liquid height
    I = Importance factor
    L = Live load is the weight of an movable loads such as personncl, tools, stOred
    materW. movable panitioJlS, cranes and hoists, majntenanre loads. snow
    and ire loads. Unpact. surge forces, vibration. and longitudinal aDd
    ttaDSVel'Se hnrjmataJ fences from moving equipment
    . --: ;; .
    M = O\IeJ'IiI;dngmnmmtatbottomoftaDkshell
    lilt = Uquic1 impulsive mass ., .
    p = Probabflity of m bil! e
    Q - Ductility based mu:,itm factor for evaluation of existing fac
    lTtw
    ... using the
    RMPP guidance" ... ""!eDt (RMPP.1992)
    R - Taukiadius"....::!c :'L.
    t; i'W_ .. ",_ r .
    Rw = Ductility baSed'm
    t
    " ciOn iactor for design of new fac:tl;
    ri
    es
    "' .. .. :;t ..... :'-Vi? ,. .
    S := Foundation def",,,biIity coefficient fortaDk aualysis
    . '..-
    S = Snow loads
    S := Site cocf6cient for sail c:hamcteristics
    T = Retum period
    T = 'I'henIIalloads lIB die loads caused by a change in te"'i"'atwe and may
    n:suk :from both "pe:'" iag and enviroJJJDeDtal conditioJlS, including those
    callsed by vessel. piping. and sttUCtI1rC expansjon and contracIion.
    T = Fundamental p:rind of structD%I: under consideration
    I = Number ofyem
    , .
    .It.-......
    A-2
    TE = Test loads, inchJding all loads in the empty condition and the weight of test
    fluids
    n. = Longitudinal Pipe Thermal Loads, including pipe anchor fon:e. if any
    1, = Bottom plate thickness
    t. ::. Shell thickness
    v = Base shear
    W = W"Uld loads
    W = Weight of the strUCtIU'e
    WI = Liquidimpu1siveweight
    w
    L
    = Mi"""" weight of tank contents that may be used to resist shell
    oveuDming
    Wp = Weight of subsystem
    W
    T
    = Total liquid weight
    WI = Weight of tank shen and portion of fixed roof Sappolled by tmk shell
    Z = Seismjc zone factor
    '1: = COUsraDt = 3.14159
    p. = Mass deJIsity of water = 62.4/g

    A-3
    GLOSSARY
    Acutely Hazardous Material- Material amsidered hazardous to health of general
    pubHc if released to atmosphete, defined by FedetalIStare/Local agencies
    AttenuatiOD - Decay of ground motion with distance
    BDlldfng-Uke Structures - NonbuildiDg structures whose structaral characteristics
    1= S il !hIe those of a building
    CoDvec:tive ComPODent 1bat portion of the tank c:onteDts which accelerares
    iDdepeDdeDtly of the tank shell when subjected to seimic sbaking; the CODVectivo
    componcmt of the liquid is in the upper portion of the taDk and responds in a sJosbing
    mode
    Da'rit - A small c:rane that projects over the side of a platfoml to lift small relatively
    light items, such as tools, manhole covers, etc.
    DJamODd Shape Buckling. A foml of bnckJing of the tank sfJelI, often fcnmd in the
    upper courses of sl .... der tmks, in which the shell wrinJrles in "diamond-shaped-
    patterns
    Drift - Lateral displacem .... t between floozs or segmems of a structure UDder
    earthquake loading
    Dvctilfty. Maximum deformation divided by elastic ,Mmwlltion; IODtiDely refers to
    a measure of energy absoJbiDg capability
    Dvctilfty Based Reduction Factor - A factor lepm ,,!j"g a mrasme of energy
    absoJbing capability of a structIJie
    Elephant Foot BncJdiDg A fozm of lmcIding of the tauk shell Dear ils COJmecdoD
    with the bottom plate that m mbles aD "elephant's foot, fD which the shell bulges
    outward Dear the bottom, but is coDStJaiDed at iIs base by the bottom plate
    Event Occummce of aD earthquake
    FIll Height. Height to which a taDk is filled
    FiDfaD Air cooled heat exchangers, often located on top of pipeways
    Freeboard - Verti!:al distance between the free smface of liquid contained in the tank
    and the top of the iauk shell or UDdeJside of tank!OOf
    BAZOPs Hazard aDd Operability smdies; a patticular stmctuzcd method of piO':ess
    hazatds analysis commODly used in petrochemical fa",1ities to identify piocess safety
    concem8
    B-1
    -_-r-;'. ',.-,_",_.,_v, ." ___ _. _ .. __
    Importance Factor - A factor lepxesenting the importance of a structures depending
    on usage category

    Impulsive Componeut 'lbat portion of the taDk CODteJlts which accelerates in
    UJIison with the taDk shell when subjected to seismic sbaking
    Intensity - Measure of an earthquake at a particular site
    ". :: .. ...
    IDtermedJate Mameut ReslSIiug Frame - A c:onaete moment resisting frame with
    certain design featmes to provide ductile post yield behavior. but not containing all of
    the design features of a special moment fl!Sisting:fJ:ame
    (.:", "'. ... "_-
    Magnitude - Meiaswe of released during an earthquake
    Maxlill"''' Credible EarIhqaake - Maximum earthquake potential of a source
    '.: ": '! .... ; ,zi:' .. -, ..... .
    Moment ResIstlng Frimie- A:fJ:ame in which mcmtben; and joints aIO capable of
    resisting fcm:es primarily tImriigh flexure
    . .. , "'::"!r. 3f.Jw . .'
    Near field - Area in c1pse Pi'" ;mily to active faults usually taken. as within S to 10
    kilametel:S of the faulttti........... --
    Stractans- NCIIIbuildiDg structures wlIosc stmcInral
    ,. ;,.. '.,1; ..1""";. __ " - - .... -
    c:baIac:tedstics do not I : 5 mbIe those of a building .
    OYeICjUlstralDed - PipiDg exfn"biting a lack of flexibility between the nozzle
    100000n on the taDk Shell Imt the pipe support or gI0111ld penetration
    Prying J\ctfnn Im:;rase ia.1aad on a Qiliq'Ollent or fasteD"" caused by the heDcUng
    .",,, .. -,.. . . , .
    PA EIfecta.- B!amdaty effect on shears, fcm:es. and meting 1'!!!J!I'U!J1ts in:fJ:ame
    mcmbeIs m!'n=' by the iediLa1loads acting on the lateraUy displaoed stmd:W:o
    -........ .
    ", .. .: . --: - .{ :.'!"-: t ... ;... .. ',,",_""'".'
    Redundancy Ormmonly Iefem to striidliles with multiple ftemeJ!1S and load paths
    in the IatmIl fence misting SJstaD ,
    Resonance - J\mpUficatitm of carthqnake motion due to sjnn1arl1y in iiequen.ey
    amtent of the applied JD01iaIi Bad the structure under consideration
    _J; , .
    RIDgwaIl- A circul8r Bnug- fonimmrmmeatb the taDk shell
    Seiche. Large waves generated by local sulnnarine earthquakes in enclosed bodies of
    water, such as lakes. bays, reservoUs, or estuaries
    Seismic Interaction Interaction, such as impact or differential displacement,
    between adjllCCDt structures, systems, or components during an earthquake
    Seismic We1gbt - Total weight of the structme that gets excited by an earthquake
    Seismic Zone Factor - A factor lept s::rt:ing the seveJity of earthquake motion
    depending on msmic zonation
    Slosblng Relative movement of the free smface of liquid mmained in the taDk as a
    result of seismic sbaJdug
    Soft story One in which the story stiffness is less than about 709& of that of the
    storyabove
    SoU-Stru.ctare IDteraction -1nteJactiOD effects between son and stJ11CtUrC under
    seismic Joading
    Special Moment ResistIng Frame A mmnCDt msistiDg frame 'riaBy detailed to
    provide ductile post yield behavior thJOugb membeJ piopmtioning and COJIDI"dion
    detailing
    SRSS Squaie root of the sum of the squares; a method for combining modes
    Stabillty Ratio The quantity ~ W t + wJl in the API 650, Appcmdfx B code
    check (API, 1993), as used in Chapter 7. The stahtuty ratio is a fuDcticm of
    _.-l- - - ~ ..
    ovextwwngmomeDtiWUre"sli'tgmnm
    cmt
    Subsystems - Nonstructmal elements and COiDpODCDIS
    TJme HIstory - TJDlC variation of '''''lODSe such as acce1eJation, velocity, or
    displacement
    Tsnna
    mi
    Long peJiod waves (also lefened to as "tidal waves") typically generated
    by large, sometimes cfistant, mhmarine earthquake
    Weak story - One in which the story st:reDgth is less than about 809& of that of the
    storyabove
    B-!
    REFERENCES
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    (AC! 313R-77(R83)), American Concrete IDstitnte. Oicago. n..
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    .
    Andersen, G.R., R. V. Whitman: ami J. T. Gel ""tv. 1987, wriltiug Response of
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    um
    lDstimte.
    ASCE 7. 1995. Minimum Design Loads for Buildings Il1IIl OtMr Structures.
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    C-l
    ASCE S. 1990. SpecJ,fictJliDn for the Design of Cold-Formed Stainless Steel
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    . NewYoxk.NY.
    ASeE, 1984, ftirthe Seismk Design of OU and Gas Pipeline Systems,
    American Society of CiYiI Engineen, Commit:l:ce on Gas and Liquid Fuel
    IJfelines, New Ym:li:.NewYork.
    ASME 1131.3, i993, c:hemaz Plant Petroleum Rejin.ery Piping (ASME B31.3),
    American Soc:ie!y ofMecbmric:a1 Enginem.
    .- ... -.
    ASME RTP-1-!J2.' 1992, Rldriforced Thermoset Pltutic CorrosiDn Resistant
    Equipment (ASME RTP-l-92). American Society ofMccbanjt:aJ Engineers, New
    York, NY!,;t."tl('. '";<:'1\ ': ,','
    ASME, 1992, Boiler and Prasure Vwel Code, American Soc:ie!y of Mechanical
    Bnginem. .
    ASTM D32.99-88. 1988, SttmdIml Specifir:i;ttkmfor Flltzmmt-Wound Gltm-Flber-
    Rei1forced Thermoset Rain Chemit:lll-Resistant Tania .A:aIeric:an Society for
    .--- . ---' .. ;. .. ;-..... ,.. .
    Testing amlMateri
    a
    ls. pJilade\plria, PA. ".'
    .' -W.J. .'-_" . -
    ATClO, 1988, Safety EvaCuation ofBu.i1dings
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    --- - ____ ,.,
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    . . ,,' ....... - ~ . ~ - . ".",.-..
    ,. I" .". _ .
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    "
    "
    C-S
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    C-9
    USO SEISMIO OODE
    /"/
    /'
    Inverted pendulum
    structUres (can be
    modeled &SD
    lumped mass
    lIolllpop))
    R
    w
    =3
    .:0--
    -
    \,
    ./
    _lzedsph ....
    on legs lbraced and unbraced)

    blns.nd
    "-
    walls
    continuous
    to the
    foundation
    c:ast4noplBce lelP)
    concrete silos end
    chlmn<IVI
    R
    w
    &
    signs and
    billboards
    R
    w
    =&
    distributed
    ...... cantll ......
    IItl'UctUra
    "
    oon-<:Ip .. llo.
    chlmnaya,st8Cks,and
    sklrt supported
    .-tIcal_I.
    monuments
    R
    w
    =3
    Rw=4
    Figure 37 Typical NonbuiIding Structures

    111 NONBUILDING STRUCTURES
    stl'UcturesIUI!C Sec. 2312(i)] are significant
    tsen-suOPorting structures, that are not housed within
    buUdings but, nevertheless, come within the jurisdiction
    of the local building official.
    107
    Covered by the UBC
    107 Other items specIll.eaUy not lneIuded In the UBC are ofFshore
    . platforms, electrical tra
    D
    8Dllaalon tower&, cIlmm, and highway and
    .'. railroad brldgea. These structures ..... not normally within the
    lurlsdlctlou of the JocaJ buDding of!IcIal.
    are structures that (1) have building-like structural sys-
    tems such as those described in UBC Sec. 2312( d)6,
    (2) are rigid systems, or (3) are specifically mentioned
    UBC Table 23-Q. quaIlfy B!I. a
    .like 8!/stem. strUcture must have one or
    J!lOrB leyels (fl9ors and roof) at which the mass is con-
    tlw !!:!!!li!]gNStem.must extend
    The basic base shear formula, Eq. 68, is used for non-
    building structures. The weight, W. includes the weight
    of the full contents (if any) of the structure. Values
    PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS. INO . Be1mout, CA
    'f"
    1
    . .'
    /' --------.-P'-:"'"P-'N--G-:"""""":" -s-----....................
    .'
    ..
    'Structural design of stacks
    Equations and considerations for designing stacks to resist
    wind, earthquake, operating, piping and weight lC)8ds
    0. c. Leite, T-Thermal, Inc., COlIShohocken, PCDil8ylvania
    THE' PRINCIPAL loads to be considered in the design of
    stacks are:
    Wind load
    Earthquake load
    Design press1lt'e and temperature
    Dead loads
    Piping loads:
    The most probable combination ofloads must be seleeted
    for a1l8fe and economlcal design. Only the greater ofwind or
    seismic loads is used for design.
    Wmd loads. The wind load is aft'eeted by tIi.e earth
    '
    sur-
    If i. a:nd increases v?th the height bY
    Th The standard height for WInd speed li1easUrement IS 33
    feet (10 meters) above ground, and a power liihction is used
    to detennihe, and correet wind velocitii'S at other heights.
    The basic wind speed, V, is the fastest mile per hotir wind
    velocity at 33 ft above ground of terrain expbsure "C" and
    associated With an annual probability of oc:currenceofO.02.
    Exposure "c" represents open terrain with scaItered and
    shon obstructions.
    The velocity pressure, f/Z, at height Z is calculated by the
    .ormula: '
    gz - 0.00256 Kz (IV'f, psf
    The velocity pressure exposure, Kz, can be obtained using
    the foIJowing equation, assuming exposure "0":
    Kz _ 0.3694- ZO2B>'
    Z - Stack height, ft
    Below 15 ,ft height, Kz is COnstant and eIJ.U81 to 0.8. The
    imponante factor, I, adjUBts the design wind speed with an-
    nual probability exceetfing the value 0.02. ,
    For regions between oceah and 100 mi1es iI\IaDd, the im-
    pcinaiice factor has a vaiue between 1.05 and 1.00, deter
    mined by 1inear interpolation.
    . The constI!Dt, 0.00256, reflectIl the air mass ilensity at
    lltandard conditions and dimensions a-aattd with mph of
    wUid sjieed, v. " .
    All exposed structures should be dddgned for wind forces.
    "'''' The total forct is 1he sum of the forces on all elements, ap-
    ng 0 plied at the centroids of the projeeted areas.
    The wind force, F, according with ANSI A-58.1, 1982, is
    given by the formula:
    F-qzGhCjAJ
    The guit response factor, Gh, for main wind force resisting
    systems evaluated at height z - A, can be given by the fol-,
    10wing fitting equation:
    Gh _ 1.57Z-o.GIS2 '
    The foice coeftlclent, Cf, varies with the clil'femit struc-
    tural shapes. For auicks, the most common value of CJis 0.7.
    The projeeted area. JlO1'DUIl to wind, A,f, shliuld take into ,
    consideration conneeting piping, Jadder and phitfarDIS, and
    twice bisuIation thickness of the atai:k.
    '. caged hidders can be assumed ruimhig tiom the to\) of the"
    stack to the ,gtouhd, resulting in an increase in stack diame-
    ter of approximately 12 inches. Alsci, pIatforDIS can be as
    lIIlmed to have a)lliiform distribution. '"
    The aiqjustment due to piping can be baied all the in ."
    a:- in the stack by the pipC in the top
    third of the stack nmnmg to the gi'OUnd leYel.
    Wlitd loads and moments ,....,dtsnt tiom large top over
    sized platforms should be calculated separately and added' to
    stack loading. . . .
    Eai1hquake load. The sudden horizontal shift of a tall
    stack dUring an earthquake causes the vesse1 to defleet, sinCe
    the inertia of the vessel mass restl'IIiJ?S tI!e vesse1 tiom uiqy-
    ing simllltantoJlsly with the foundation. The vibratioll ibiti-
    ated by the deflection is then reduced by damping or paniaI
    yIe1ding'in the stack.
    The stack should be designed to resist ntinimum lateral
    forceS, V, applied at the base in any horizontal dim:tion, in
    accordance with the fol"inula:
    V-ZIKCSW
    The seismic zone factor, Z, Varies with the earthquake
    zone.
    Zone. Z
    4 1
    3 'I.
    2 3fa
    1
    3lta
    0, 0
    The oCcupancy importance factor, I, is typically I - 1 for
    all refmery structures. .
    The horizontal force factor, K,. is typically K - 2 !!,r
    stacks.
    The structure period response factor, C, is determined by:
    C - 11(15 ro')
    ...
    .f .. -". '. -,oj
    .. .
    'Structural design of stacks
    Equations and considerations foi' deslgnlngstaClts to reslst-
    wind, earthquake, operating, piping and weight loads
    0. c. Lelt., T-Therma1, IDc., Conshohocken,
    THE' PlUNCIPAL loads to be coll8idered in the design of
    stacks are:
    Wmd\oad
    Earthquake load
    Design pn:ssnre and temperature
    Dead loads
    Piping loads:
    The most probable combination ofloads must be se1ected
    for a'll8feand econom!cal design. Only the greater ofwind or
    seismic loads is used for design.
    W"md The wind load is afi'ected by the earth!. sur-
    face and increases with the stack height by t'unetion.
    . n.:e staodard height for wind speed measurement: is 33
    feet (10 ineters) above ground, and a power filiu:tion is 1lsed
    to lind correct wind ve1neiriH at other heights.
    The basic wind speed, V, Is the fastest mile lJer hoUr wind
    velocity at 33 ft above ground of terrain exposure "c" and
    associated With an amiual probability ofoccurrenceOfO.02.
    Exposure "e" represents open terrain with and
    short obstruclioos.
    The velocity pressure, gz, at height Z is c:aIMuated by the
    .ormula: .
    gz - 0.00256 Kz (1V'f, psf
    The velocity pressure exposure, Kz, can be obtained using
    the foiIowing equation, assuming exposure "0":
    Kz - 0.3694 zom.
    Z - Stack height, ft
    Below 15 ft height, Kz is CIinstaot and equal to 0.8. The
    importante factor, I, adjusts the design wind speed with lin-
    nual probability exceeding the value 0.02. .
    For. regions between and 100 mi1es iti.land, the im-
    porr.ance factor has a value between 1.05 and 1.00, der.ez-
    mini:<! by 1inear interpolation.
    . The <:OIISIl!J1t, 0.00256, ref1eco the air mass ilensity at
    staodard conditions and dimensions assnC:iattd with mph of
    whiii sPeed, Yo. . ..
    All exposed structures should he designed for wind forces.
    The total fora; is sum of the forces on all elements, ap-
    plied at the centroids of the projected areas.
    The wind force, F, according with ANSI A-58.1, 1982, is
    given by the formula:
    F- gz GIl CIA!
    The guSt response l8Ctor, Ok, for main wind force resisting
    """,rbonP' r
    systems evaluated at heighc II - II, can be given by the fol-.
    lowing fitting equation: .
    GIl - 1.57Z-
    0MS2

    The fofte c:aeff'Jdent, Cj,varies with the dilrererit struc'
    tural shapes. For suicks, the most cmnmOD wiue of Cfis 0.7.
    The projected _.norma\ to wind, 4t. shciuld take into
    consideration COIlIiecting piping, ladder and pbitforms, and
    twice lrisulation thickness of the staCk.
    '. caged bidders carl be assumed ruiming from the top of the ..
    IItaCk to the .groulld, resulting in an increase in stack diame-
    ter of apprrudmately 12 inches. Alsci, platforms can be as-
    sumed to have a !lIiiform distributinn. '"
    The IiiljustmeDt due to piping can be baied on the in- ..
    c:reIise In the staek diameter by the pipe; in the top
    third of the stack running to the gtcniiJd level:
    WInd loads and moments resultant from 1arge toP over- .
    sizi:d platforms shnuld be calculated separately and added' to
    stack loading. . .
    Earthquake load. The sudden horizontal shift of a tall
    stack dUring lin earthquake causes the vesse1 to deflect, sinCe
    the inertia of the vesse1 mass mtrainS the vessel from mov-
    big aimu1tanto)ls1y with the foundation, The vibration initi-
    ated by the defJ.ecIion is then reduced by damping or partial
    yie\dingill the stack.
    The stack should be designed to resist nlinimum lateral
    forces, V, applied at the base in any horizontal direction, ill
    accordance with the formula:
    V-ZIKCSW
    The seismic zone factor, Z, Varies with the earthquake
    zone.
    Zone . Z
    4- 1
    3
    Sf4
    2 3fs
    1 Sfl6
    O.
    0
    The occupancy importance l8Ctor,l, is typically 1 - I for
    all refmery structureli.
    The horizontal force .factor, K,. is typically K - 2 !Ir
    stacks.
    The structure period response factor, C, is determined by:
    C - 11(15 ro!)

    ';, T - structure period
    I'Q8IC. -_0.12
    r1"he I!Oil prome ccelfJcient, S; mes between 1.0 and 1.5,
    nth an intermediate value of 1.2.
    \, The product, CS"need not exceed 0.14 or wheD S - 1.5 in
    1 seismic zones 3 and 4, the product need not exceed 0.11.
    The rU'St natural period of vibration, T, of a tall stack is .
    given by:
    T --1.785 (w WIg E I)U
    Substituting the modulus of elasticity, E, and gravity, g, by
    , their values and also replacing the inertia moment,I, by the
    approximate equation, the previous equation reduces to:
    T - 2.7 x 10-$ (HJd'f (w tlIl)u
    where H - height, ft
    I - average thickriess of top half, in.
    d - average diameter of top half, ft
    w ., weight per foat of top half, IbIft
    Substituting w based on bare steel materiaJ and rearrang-
    ing further, the equation becomes
    T _ 3.06 x 10-' H21d
    For a more accurate calculation of the Period, Ray!eight's
    etbod should be used.
    The total lateral force, V, at the base is:
    V - Ft +1"1 + F2 + ... +:Fi
    The' concentrated force at the top, Ft, is determined by the
    formula:
    FI - 0.07 TV
    Max FI - 0.25 V and
    if Ft - 0
    "
    The remaining portion of the total base shear, V, is dis-
    tributed over the height of the structure, according to the
    formula:
    Fx - (V - FI) lUX lucI(wl hl + w2 h2 + . + wi III)
    wi, wx are the portions of the stack weight, W, located at lev-
    els hi, hx, respectively.
    When guyed stacks are used, the total lateral force is dis-
    tributed to the masses in direct proportion to their weights
    nd applied at their centers of gravity.
    De,ign preIJure and temperature. JP:lign anri
    temperature are used to determine the minimum required
    thickness of each vessel component.
    The shell must be designed to withstand the worst condi-
    tions of pressure and temperature of the operating condi-
    tions, based on the allowable stress given by the code. Corro-
    sion allowance should be addt;d to the minimum required
    thickness of the vessel wall.
    Dead loads. These loads are due to the vessel's own
    weight and can be considerCd based on operating conditions,
    as well HI erection and shop test conditions.
    Piping load. Piping loatis acting on the vessel are due to
    the thOmtaI expansion of the pipes and the weight of the
    pipes on the vessel nozzles.
    'The average expansion pipe moment can be determined
    by the fitting equation:
    Mp - 60 (d + 3)', Ib-in.
    where d is the connecting pipe outside diameter.
    Design of self.supportlng stacks. Self-supporting
    stacks are cylindrical shells r1Xed to the concrete foundation
    b,y anchor bolts and they are designed as cantilever
    'fhe of steel stac!" is the guyed stack in which the
    external loads are taken by the stack shell and aIsothe SUy
    wires. Guyed itacb are designed as an overhang beam with
    one fixed end, with the guy wires gCnerating an axial force
    on the shell. '
    The design procedure of a selfsupporting stack requires
    calculations of the following: . . , "
    .. Staek plate thirlmea at each level. ..
    .. Anchor bolt chair, size and number of anchor bolts
    .. Vibration analysis.
    Stack plate tbick;' ... , The stack plate CorrOded thickness -
    required to resist wind or eattitquake moment, M, at each
    1evel is given by the following equarloJ!:, .
    t - 48M1(1I' d
    2
    Se) + WI(1I' d Se)
    d - I.D., in
    ",here Se is the a1lowabIe bw:kling stress determined from the
    equation: .. -.
    Se - 0.56 E (tld)/(J + 0.004 Ely), psi
    tid - 0.00425 max
    Se - 15,000 psi max.
    E and Y are the elastic:ity modulus and the yield stress,
    both at the design temperature.
    Corrosion allowance should be added to the required
    thicknea for carbon steel shells, typically lila or Ifa.in.
    Staek deI1ection ,at the tip due to static: wind should be lim
    ited to 6 inches per 100 feet of height, assuming corroded
    thickness of plate shell. . ,
    The stack weight, W, represents the uncorroded weight
    including ladder and platform at the bottom of each section.
    . . . .'.
    Anchor bolt tension in each bolt, Wh, is given ."
    by the equation:
    Wh - (48MICb - WYN,Ibs
    where Cb - bolt ciri:!e, in.
    M - moment at base, ft}b
    -,
    The number ofbolts. N, is a multiple.of four, wid. 18 to 24
    inches of bolt spacing. '
    The required bolt area at the root of the thread is deter
    miuedby:
    Ab - WhISh, in.
    2
    Sh - boll allowable stress, psi
    The required base p1ate thickness, Ib, is:
    Ib - 21 (PhIY)"', in.
    Y - yield stress, psi
    "," is the distance between the skirt outside and the outer
    edge of the base ring.
    The bearing-pressure, Ph, on the foundaticin concrete due
    , to the overturning moment, M, combined with the dead
    1oad, W. is:
    Ph - (48 MlDb + WYAr, psi
    Db - outside diameter of base skirt, in.
    Ar - area of the base ring . resting on .C!Jncrete, 'in.
    2
    Vilnaiion anal,... Stack vibration is due ui vortex shed ."
    ding from the stack circular obstruction to the flowing air
    (wind). ,
    The vortex shedding generates twO cIifl'erent types of vi- . -,
    bration: ova1ing and cantilever motion.
    Vibration analysis mUst be performCii when:
    W/d2H<20
    where d - average J.D. of the top half, ft
    HydtDcarbcm Pl'OC888Ina. November 1890 is
    : ;;:
    "

    . If !I> '/.5 YlDration analysis need not be performed.
    , The damping factor, Fd, is given by:
    . ,'. Fd - I W/d
    2
    H
    _ The logarithmic decrement, I, is the logarithm or the ratio

    . two successive amplitudes or a damped freely vibrating


    otack and is a measure of the stack's ability to diaaipate en-
    ergy during vibration. For bare steel stacks, 1 varies from
    0.035 for very ati1l' solls to 0.105 for soft solls.
    For lined stacks, 1 varies between 0.07 to 0.314.
    If Fd<0.75 inatability is expected, UDlesa critical wind ve-
    locity exceeds the maximum expected wind ve1ocity.
    0.7S<Fd<0.95 inatability is probable.
    Fd>0.95 instability is not expected.
    Fd> 0.95 instability is not expeeted.
    The critical wind velocity, V" is the wind velocity at reao-
    nance.
    V, - f DIS, ftlaec with
    S - Strouhal number - 0.2
    ..

    Where p, is. the unit wind pressure baaed on'critical veloc-
    Ity. 'the magn1fication f8.ct0z; MJ, for UDlined scaCks,' varies'
    between SO for soft soil to 90 Cor piled very atift'
    soU and rock. For Iined.stacks, MJ, yllfiea between 10 to 45.
    Substituting p, and also T, the dynamic deflectjon be-
    tomes:
    .1 - 2..8 X 10.
    1
    Mf d
    2
    11
    d - 1.0. or top half, ft'
    .
    1 - average conoded thicknesa or top half, in.
    Excessive viIInUian can be damped by the use or the fol- .
    1owinr. .
    D ...... __ linin or increase the -"--_. density
    ---'1 g. ."'!"-r
    Reducrion or the stack diameter aDcIIor increase or shell
    thickness
    Addition or beIical 8Irakea or apoiIera
    Placing external attachments, like piping, ladders 8Q.C1
    platforms, properly distributed around the atac:k
    Addition of guy cabIea.
    OvaIing vibration is the periodic flexing of the ey1indrical
    shell into an ellipse shape.
    f - fundamental frequeney or stack vibration - liT
    .. D stack C.D., ft
    V, - 3.4 DlT. mph
    For atep tapered stacks, V, must be checked for each diam-
    eter in the top half or the stack.
    . This phenomen occurs when the natura1 frequeney1lf the
    i:ircuIar "ring. Jr, coini:idea with the vortex shedding fre..'
    queney,}il.
    Maximum wind velocity, Vw, at the top or the stack is
    given by the equation: ' .
    Vw - V(H/33)'ln, mph
    V - Basic wind velocity, mph
    Jr - 0.126 1 E0.5/42
    fo - 2 Vd3.4 d
    . .
    , 'Ib avoid ovaIing vibration,Jr> fo, and the requin:d thick-
    Deal I, becomes:
    t>d Vdl,153, in.
    E - 29 x 10&, psi
    .The maximum gust velocity, Vg, is expressed by the fitting
    "'Iuation:
    Vg _ (1.57 H-o.0602) Vw, mph
    Where" d, in ft, is thj,'atac:k I.D. at the,level Under conaid-
    eration.
    If V,< Vg, the stack must be ehecked further.
    The total force on the stack caused by the aitical wind ve-
    locity, V" should not exceed 1115 of the operatiog (corroded)
    weight or the stack.
    The maximum allowable dynamic deflection,.1, at the top
    of the stack should not exceed half percent of stack height.
    .1 - 6 HI100 max., in.
    .At critical wind velocity the stack vibrates at natural fre.
    . eney, remlting in magnification of the atat!c deflection,:;s.
    This magnified deflection is the dynamic deflection,.1,
    given by:
    Ve, in mph, is the resonant wind ve1oc:ity that induces
    ovaIing, uaually 45 mph, the moat economical and safe'value .
    Cor stack vibration design. .
    Consequently, tlD>O:OO33
    D - Stack I.D., in.
    If the tbicknesa is 1eaa than required, reinforcing rings
    (stitTenera) with a n:quired section mpdu!ua can be added !!l
    the top third or the stack to prevent ovaIing. Also, a spiral
    vortex can rep1ace the rings; The atiff"1lera ahould be placed
    apart by a distance ortwo to three atac:k diameters. The stack
    thlcknesa should be 1arger than DI600 to avoid vibration or
    the shell between atift'enera.
    'y;; Mf:;s
    . ,
    " ."
    y - Mf p, H' d 12'/8 E I
    1-1rd'tl8
    E - 29 X iO&, psi
    Pc - 0.00256 (3.4 DIT)2
    The author
    LlT.EBAT1IBE CITED
    I ANSI _.1. 1182
    '1Icdotot, H. -- yon :;U""" Co., 1981 , K.. "13dl Stack N .. 8cpJ:. 1983
    '=-E. "PrcdIcdog _01-:': OiI!dc.iJ_,
    NO'I'. 1.1971
    5 .. Manual atStccl Comtntafop." A.I.8.C. .
    Olaw CUnJra.LaIIe Is a pIIJject 1IIBII8f16Tw/th To
    7I7lmnBI, formIIrIy ll'lIne Thermal. on bazBnIous
    /JquId ami f1IIS wastelnclneJator systums.
    Pti01expaleno8fnc/Udss chifII engineer, profeat
    ami eppllcatlcns for PDgdm StBsI Co., FIBre QM.
    sIon. project and epp/JcBllon eng/neeJ1IJg for
    I'BBbody Eng/mlBtIng.Co., deSIgn and_ca-
    llen ang/neaIIng for FIBrBgBs CoIp., and BIBff
    engineer for lIIe Unlvetslty of Azores. Mr.
    CUnhB-l.Blte holds 8 fiv&.yDar degnJe In me-
    chanical engIneetIng fJom lIIe 7lIchnIoa1 UnJver
    1liiy 01 Lisbon, Portugal.
    66 Hydrocarbon ProceaIng, November 1990
    .'

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