IMPRESSED CURRENT CATHODIC PROTECTION FOR REINFORCED STRUCTURES: INVESTIGATION INTO THE USE OF TIN ANODES

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Mervyn George Registration Number: 091572529 Submitted for the qualification of B.Eng (Hons) Civil Engineering School of the Built Environment, Heriot-Watt University 2012-03-28

DECLARATION

I Mervyn George, confirm that this work submitted for assessment is my own and is expressed in my own words. Any uses made within it of the works of other authors in any form (e.g. ideas, equations, figures, text, tables, programmes) are properly acknowledged at the point of their use. A full list of the references employed has been included. Signed: . Date:

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28/04/2013

Acknowledgment
During the course of this dissertation I had the privilege to work with different engineering

students and professors who broadened my knowledge. I would like to thank my dissertation professor Dr. Olisanwendu Ogwuda for guiding me throughout the entire year with the

procurement of all experimental equipments. I would also like to thank Mr. Mohammad Musleh, who helped me setup my electrical schematic and guide me through the entire experiment.

Special credits goes to the suppliers for delivering the materials on time and making it this research a reality.

Finally none of this would have been possible if I dont acknowledge my sincere gratitude to Rami Mansour for tirelessly helping me throughout my four years in this university. Sincere thanks to Baraa Mohammad and Haider Abbas for doing the same. You know I love you.

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Glossary
Acid Containing an excess of hydrogen ions over hydroxyl ions. Alkaline

Anode

Anodic Area

Bond

Carbonation

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Portland cement. Cathode Cathodic Area Cathodic Protection (CP)

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Containing an excess of hydroxyl ions over hydrogen ions. The electrode through which direct current enters an electrolyte. The part of the metal surface that acts as an anode. A piece of metal conductor, either solid or flexible, usually of copper, connecting two points on the same or on different structures, to prevent any appreciable change in the potential of the one point with respect to the other. The chemical reaction between carbon dioxide and the calcium hydroxide present in The electrode through which direct current leaves an electrolyte. The part of the metal surface that acts as a cathode. A means of rendering a metal immune from corrosive attack by causing direct current to flow from its electrolytic environment into the entire metal surface.
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Cell A complete electrolytic system comprising of a cathode and an anode in electrical contact with an intervening electrolyte. Chloride Extraction (CE) It is a technique used to extract chloride to mitigate chloride-induced corrosion. Conductor

Continuity Bond

Control Sample

evaluate the accuracy of an analytical procedure. Also known as check sample. Corrosion

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electrolyte.

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its progressive degradation or destruction. Corrosion Interaction Current Density

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A substance (mainly a metal or carbon) in which electric current flows by the movement of electrons. A bond designed and installed specifically to ensure the electrical continuity of a structure. A material of known composition that is analysed along with test samples in order to The chemical or electrochemical reaction of a metal with its environment, resulting in The increase or decrease in the rate of corrosion, or tendency towards corrosion, of a buried or immersed structure caused by the interception of part of the cathodic protection current applied to another structure or current from other source. The current per unit geometrical area of the protected structure in contact with the
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Electrode A conductor of the metallic class (including carbon) by means of which current passes to or from an electrolyte.

Electronegative

Electropositive

Electrolyte

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electric current flows by movement of ions. Galvanic action corrosion of the anode. Hydration (of cement) material derives its strength.

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A liquid, or the liquid component in a composite material such as soil, in which the electric current flows by movement of ions. The state of a metallic electrode when its potential is negative with respect to another metallic electrode in the system. The state of a metallic electrode when its potential is positive with respect to another metallic electrode in the system. A liquid, or the liquid component in a composite material such as soil, in which the A spontaneous chemical reaction which occurs in a system comprising a cathode and an anode in electrical contact and with an intervening electrolyte, resulting in The chemical and physical reactions between cement and water from which the
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Electrolyte

Immunity Potential shifts on the monitoring reference cells being more negative than -720 mV on interrupting the current. This is the standard used for steel in seawater and is the value at which corrosion is thermodynamically impossible since the anode reaction cannot be supported.

Impressed Current Cathodic Protection (ICCP)

Interaction test

Ion

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Pitting

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Passivity reduced. pH value cracks, are formed in the surface.

Neutral

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The current supplied by a rectifier or other direct-current source (specifically excluding a sacrificial anode) to a protected structure in order to attain the necessary protection potential. A test to determine the severity of corrosion interaction between two buried or immersed structures. An atom, or group of atoms, carrying a positive or negative electrical charge. Containing equal concentrations of hydrogen ions and hydroxyl ions. The state of the surface of a metal or alloy susceptible to corrosion where its electrochemical behavior becomes that of a less reactive metal and its corrosion rate is A logarithmic index for the concentration of hydrogen ions in an electrolyte. A non-uniform corrosion of a metal whereby a number of cavities, not in the form of
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Polarization Change in the potential of an electrode as the result of current flow. Polarization Cell A device inserted in the earth connection of a structure that drains only a small current from the source used to provide cathodic protection for the structure, but provides a low resistance path to currents from high d.c. voltages and all a.c. voltages carried by the structure.

Primary Structure

Protected Structure

Protection Current

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effect cathodic protection of the structure. Protection Potential Protective Coating environment in order to prevent corrosion. Reaction (anodic, cathodic) an electrode in a cell.

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A buried or immersed structure cathodically protected by a system that may constitute a source of corrosion interaction with another (secondary) structure. A structure to which cathodic protection is applied. The current made to flow into a metallic structure, with respect to a specified reference electrode in an electrolytic environment, has to be depressed in order to The more negative level to which the potential of a metallic structure, with respect to a specified reference electrode in an electrolytic environment, has to be depressed in order to effect cathodic protection of the structure. A dielectric material adhering to or bonded to a structure to separate it from its A process of chemical or electrochemical change, particularly taking place at or near
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Sacrificial Anode Cathodic Protection (SACP) An anode attached to a metal object, such as a boat or underground tank, to inhibit the object's corrosion. The anode is electrolytically decomposed while the object remains free of damage.

Stray Current

Secondary Structure

Structure/Electrolyte Potential

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current flowing in the electrolyte. Unprotected Structure Source: Structural Technologies

http://structuraltechnologies.com/CathodicProtection/CathodicProtectionGlossary

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Current flowing in the soil or water environment of a structure and arising mainly from cathodic protection, electric power or traction installations, and which can pass from the environment into the structure and vice versa. A buried or immersed structure that may be subject to corrosion interaction arising from the cathodic protection of another (the primary) structure. The difference in potential between a structure and a specified reference electrode in contact with the electrolyte at a point sufficiently close to (but without actually touching) the structure to avoid error due to the voltage drop associated with any NOTE: similar terms such as metal/electrolyte potential, pipe/electrolyte potential, pipe/soil (water) potentials etc., as applicable in the particular context are used. A structure to which cathodic protection is not applied.
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Table of Contents
List of Figures and Tables............................................................................................ 12 Abstract ........................................................................................................................ 14 1. Chapter 1 - Introduction ............................................................................................... 15
1.2 Types of Corrosion ............................................................................................................ 16 1.3 Mechanism of a chloride-induced corrosion...................................................................... 17

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1.1 History ............................................................................................................................... 16 1.4 Summary ........................................................................................................................... 18

2. Chapter 2 Literature Review .................................................................................... 19

2.1 Deterioration process of reinforced concrete structures..................................................... 19

2.2 Corrosion mitigation and concrete repair strategy ............................................................. 20

2.2.1 Traditional Concrete replacement ..................................................................... 20 2.2.1 Corrosion Inhibition ........................................................................................... 21

2.2.1 Electrochemical methods of repair .................................................................... 21

2.3 Cathodic Protection - Overview......................................................................................... 22 2.4 Recent Studies on Cathodic Protection .............................................................................. 22

2.5 Steel-Concrete Bond .......................................................................................................... 23 2.6 Comparisons of Cathodic Protection with other techniques .............................................. 24 2.7 Advantages of Cathodic Protection ................................................................................... 26 2.8 Summary ............................................................................................................................ 26

3. Chapter 3 Properties of Tin ...................................................................................... 27

3.1 Physical Properties ............................................................................................................. 27 3.2 Chemical Properties .......................................................................................................... 28 3.3 Application of Tin (Sn) ..................................................................................................... 28 3.4 Use of Tin in the Built Environment ................................................................................. 28 3.5 Use of Tin as anode............................................................................................................ 29 3.6 Dissertation Work .............................................................................................................. 29 3.7 Summary .......................................................................................................................... 30

4. Methodology and Experimental Work..................................................................................... 31 4.1 Experimental Work Proposal ........................................................................................ 31

4.2 Preliminary Experiment .................................................................................................... 31 4.3 Main Experiment ............................................................................................................... 33

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4.3.1 Acceleration of Corrosion ................................................................................. 34 4.3.1.1 Methodology .................................................................................................. 36 4.3.1.2 Schematic ....................................................................................................... 37 4.4 Impressed Current Method ............................................................................................... 37 4.5 Parameter of Analysis ....................................................................................................... 38 4.6 Summary ........................................................................................................................... 40

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5.1 Corrosion behaviour and cracking behaviour Background Study .................................. 41
5.2 Mass loss measurement ..................................................................................................... 42 5.3 Analysis ............................................................................................................................ 42

5. Analysis and Results .................................................................................................... 41

6. Discussion and Conclusion .......................................................................................... 44

6.1 Interpretations ................................................................................................................... 44

6.2 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 45 6.3 Future Work ...................................................................................................................... 45

7. References .................................................................................................................... 46 8. Appendix I ................................................................................................................... 49 9. Appendix II .................................................................................................................. 50

10. Appendix III ................................................................................................................. 52 11. Appendix IV................................................................................................................. 53 12. Appendix V .................................................................................................................. 54

List of Figures and Tables

Figure Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Page Number 16 31 32 33 34 36

Illustration of Chloride-Induced Corrosion .................................................... Magnesium wound steel reinforcement (SACP) ........................................... Control Samples and Ammeter Readings (ICCP) .........................................

10 11 12

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Table Number 1 2 3

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A1 A2 A3

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Set-up for Acceleration of Corrosion.......................................... Overhead view of the acceleration setup............................................. Schematic of the acceleration corrosion test setup.................. ICCP setup with simultaneous acceleration. Tin mesh is used as the anode 37 Measured weight of steel and tin mesh 38 Current vs. Time for OPC beams 40 42 42 Corrosion Current vs. Time .. Measured weight of steel, tin mesh .... Pitting corrosion formed during acceleration of corrosion .... 43 Cube placed inside compression machine.... 52 Corrosion products formed in saline solution.... 53 Corroded beams after electrochemical acceleration .... 53 Page Number 24 26 34
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Various treatment options for chloride-induced corrosion.......................... Properties of Tin ......................................................................................... Concrete mix design specification...............................................................

4 5 T1 T2

Measured weights of reinforcement in all beams....................................... Percentage Mass losses of steel reinforcements......................................... Gantt chart highlighting the sequence of events for the Project................... Gantt chart highlighting the tasks proposed for December 2012.................

35 41 49 49

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Abstract
Thesis Title: Impressed Current Cathodic Protection: An Investigation into the use of tin anodes Degree: Year of Convocation Name Bachelors of Civil Engineering 2013

University

This report presents the result of a laboratory investigation into the use of tin anodes in an

impressed cathodic protection setup to mitigate chloride induced corrosion in reinforced concrete beams (RC). Two control samples (500 x 100 x 100 mm) were constructed which had undergone acceleration of corrosion through electrochemical methods. Simultaneously, two

reinforced concrete beams of the same dimension were embedded with a mesh made up of

60% tin and 40% lead. The beams were analysed based on the corrosion current produced during the experiment and the percentage of mass loss before and after the experiment. It was

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reinforces the concept of this dissertation.

observed that the tin mesh along with the supplementary voltage of 0.5 V provided enough electrons to dissipate chloride ions as chloride gas instead of forming corrosion products on the reinforcement. It was also noted that the tin mesh didnt deplete in the process which

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Mervyn George Heriot-Watt University

Chapter 1 Introduction
Corrosion of reinforced concrete is the primary problem affecting the durability of concrete structures around the world. More than 80% of structural damages around the world are caused due to corrosion of steel (Franciskovic, et.al 2006). The extreme heat and marine salinity in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) causes serious durability problems and the primary one being chloride induced corrosion (Hamouda, n.d).

contamination of the concrete. The main problem that affects buildings is Carbonation, as the facades for the most parts are exposed to the carbon-dioxide in the atmosphere. Chloride contamination affects structures that are exposed to de-icing salts or marine environments.

Corrosion is accompanied by loss of steel reinforcement cross-section and accumulation of corrosion products like rust. Rust occupies a large volume of the original metal which produces tensile stresses which eventually causes cracking and spalling of the concrete cover. (Glass, 2003)

more financial resources for reconstruction. Corrosion can be seen as an economical problem,

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which requires proper assessment and involvement in the appropriate time to minimize further deterioration. According to a recent conference held in the American University of Dubai, the cost of corrosion estimated for the UAE was nearly $3.6 billion (Concrete Sustainability Conference, 2010). The appropriate time is controlled by safety and economic constraints. As with time, corrosion, repair cost and failure risk are increased.

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The two primary causes of reinforced concrete corrosion are carbonation and chloride The corrosion problem significantly reduces the lifespan of structures and requires

1.1 History

Most metals exist in nature as oxides or sulphur ores and energy is expended in extracting or winning the metals from their native state. The reserve of metal winning is corrosion, in which metals revert to stable compounds similar to those found in nature. For corrosion to occur, as with any chemical reactions, two primary questions arise i.e. will a metal corrode in a given environment? (2) How fast will it corrode in the specified

environment? Thermodynamics and Kinetics are two broad subjects that can answer the former and later respectively. As these are two varied topics and out of the scope of this

research, it wont be studied into in detail (Handbook of Corrosion (2005) Corrosion. 978-0306-48624-1 US: Springer US) 1.2 Types of Corrosion

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largely the focus of the dissertation.

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a) Uniform Corrosion: As the name suggests, corrosion happens throughout the steel surface and it is often predictable. Uniform corrosion accounts for 70% of all metal failures. b) Localised Corrosion: Unlike uniform corrosion, these types of corrosion in which there is intense attack at localized sites on the surface of a component whilst the rest of the surface is corroding at a much lower rate - either because of a natural property of the component material (such as the formation of a protective oxide film) or because of some environmental effect. Indeed the main surface may be essentially unsatisfactory corrosion control. In such circumstances, if corrosion protection breaks down locally then corrosion may be initiated at these local sites. Chloride-induced corrosion causes localised corrosion. (ASTM Standard G78, 2012) As mentioned before, chloride induced corrosion is one of the primary causes of localized corrosion and this research will largely focus on this and methods to curb the corrosion. One of them being the use of Cathodic Protection Systems and specifically looking into new materials for anode material. The use of tin as an anode has not been studied upon as a suitable anode in such a system and the effectiveness of this element is
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1.3 - Mechanism of Chloride Induced Corrosion

The steel embedded in concrete is naturally protected against corrosion through passivation of steel surface due to high alkalinity of concrete (pH>12.5). As a result of passivation of steel, an oxide layer is formed during the hydration of cement (Kassir and Ghosn, 2002). This passive layer does not stop corrosion; it reduces the corrosion rate to an insignificant level. Typically the passive corrosion rate for steel in concrete is 0.1 ,

without this passive layer, steel could corrode at rates three times higher than this magnitude.

In marine structures, chloride ions are derived from de-icing salts in cold environments or from

exposure to sea water. The chloride ions get incorporated into this oxide layers creating ionic defects and permitting easy ionic movements. The chloride ions also compete with hydroxyl ions for localization of high activity of the metals, thus preventing these reaction sites from

becoming passivated (ACI-Committee 222, 2001). As a consequence it leads to active

corrosion and the corrosion deposits increases the volume of the steel reinforcement leading to

surface cracks, delamination and spalling. Figure 1, illustrates the process of corrosion with respective half-cell reaction.

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Figure 1: Illustration of chloride-induced corrosion (Cement, Concrete and Aggregates, Australia (2006)

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1.4- Summary This chapter details the major problem facing the construction sector in the United Arab Emirates i.e. Corrosion and Corrosion related consequences. It also gives the reader a brief into the history of corrosion and the mechanism of chloride-induced corrosion which mostly affects countries near the coastal line.

The ongoing research for this dissertation is on, one of the most effective ways to curb

chloride-induced corrosion i.e. Cathodic Protection of Reinforced Structures specifically looking into the effectiveness of tin to be used in an impressed cathodic protection system. The next chapter goes through an in-depth literature survey on Cathodic Protection, deterioration processes of reinforced concrete structures and the feasibility of tin as a suitable anode in an Impressed Cathodic Protection System (ICCP).

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Chapter 2 Literature Review

2.1 Deterioration processes of reinforced concrete structures A brief understanding of chloride induced corrosion has been discussed in the previous chapter. It has become of utmost priority to predict the residual life of structures and structural elements in order to make a better judgement on the structural integrity and serviceability

during the course of its design life. These predictions are very useful in enhancing the rehabilitation strategies and analysing various cost-effective options.

There are a number of models for estimating the residual life of reinforced concrete structure

and their respective elements with regard to corrosion. Tuutti (1982) proposed a prediction based on the damaged model in which the life cycle of a corrosion damaged building is described as a two-stage process

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These are briefly discussed in the next section

Sufficient understanding of corrosion and its deteriorated on process have led to the development of various reinforced corrosion mitigating techniques and concrete rehabilitation.

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1. Initiation Stage: Corrosion initiates as sufficient amount of impurities reach the
reinforcement.

2. Propagation Stage: After it penetrates into the concrete surface the damage builds up and reaches the limit state. It is during this time that the failure becomes unacceptable. The service life as proposed by Tuutti (1982) is as follows

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2.2 Corrosion mitigation and concrete repair strategy Highway and building structures are deteriorating at alarming rates worldwide. The choice of an appropriate rehabilitation and repair technique and material will be determined from full understanding of the underlying cause(s) of the problem. Corrosion of the steel reinforcement could lead to structural weakness due to loss of cross-section of the steel reinforcement or prestressing wire (Neville, 2002). These can be broadly classified into the following groups 1. Traditional Concrete Replacement 2. Electrochemical Repair Methods 3. Corrosion Inhibitors

2.2.1 Traditional Concrete Replacement

attempt to eliminate the cause of the problem. Furthermore, one of the potential problems with the patch repair using cementitious materials is to prevent subsequent ingress of pollutant,

including chloride ions. To overcome this problem the patch-repaired structure can be coated

using various surface coatings in order to prevent further ingress of aggressive ions from the environment (Zhang, 2006)

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other long term corrosion mitigating solutions.

delaminated and spalled areas. Conventional patch repair of corroded concrete structures inevitably introduces an incipient anode effect. This is caused due to different electrochemical behaviour of steel reinforcement in the new concrete repair material and the

surrounding old, but sound, concrete which may still be contaminated with chloride. The newly chloride-free patched area becomes less negatively potential and start to corrode. Conventional patch repairs treats only symptoms and not the cause and incipient anode

effect makes this a never ending process. Hence, corrosion engineers have to look into various

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Traditional concrete replacement consists of removal of defective concrete in an In summary, traditional patch repair is a short term remedy that can be carried out to

2.2.2 - Corrosion Inhibition Corrosion inhibition work by chemically raising the threshold of chloride required to initiate de-passivating the reinforcement and initiate corrosion. Corrosion inhibition have been used for many years in the automotive industry and have been demonstrated to be effective in new-build concrete, in particular the use of calcium nitrate as an admixture to fresh concrete. However, the application of corrosion inhibitors to existing chloride-contaminated concrete has been shown to be less effective (Alexander, 2006) 2.2.3 - Electrochemical methods of repair

of repair using electrochemical technique and are used to arrest chloride deposition which

leads to corrosion. Both CP and CE require an active electrical circuit to be established which forces the steel reinforcement cage to become cathodic (non-corroding) by providing an

external anode (corroding). CP can be applied in two ways: (a) by an Impressed Current Cathodic protection (ICCP) system in which CP uses a permanent external anode connected to an electrical power supply such as a transformerrectifier; or (b) the second approach, which

is known as the sacrificial anode system (SACP) and uses a metal anode (such as zinc) with a higher natural galvanic potential than that of steel to establish the necessary drive potential directly connected to the steel structure to be protected (Highways Agency, 2002).

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concrete. repair works (Chess, 1998).

the whole process; however, an anode is connected in series using a suitable electrolyte to complete the circuit. The drive voltage for CE is very much higher than CP as the aim is to draw the negative chloride ions away from the reinforcement towards the anode and out of the

actively monitored (Chess, 1998). Advances in remote monitoring technology have reduced monitoring costs significantly in recent years. The durability of repairs using CE is less well established. The efficiency of the CE to remove chlorides from around the reinforcement to establish passivity of the reinforcement can vary significantly from structure to structure. CE may be required at intervals during the life of the structure as the remaining chlorides migrate towards the steel reinforcement. The advantage of CE over CP is the short-term duration of the

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Cathodic Protection (CP) and Chloride Extraction (CE) are both classified as methods Chloride extraction is similar to ICCP in that a external DC voltage is used to drive The durability of repairs using CP has been well established, provided the systems are
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ICCP systems also generate hydroxyl ions around the reinforcement, which raise the alkalinity of the concrete surrounding the reinforcement, helping to re-establish the passivity of steel. This can give rise to an increased risk of alkali-silica reaction if reactive aggregates are present in the concrete. The higher the impressed current, the greater the risk of alkalisilica reactions. Hence ICCP systems are not suitable for short-term purposes. For long-term solution

of controlling corrosion, application of CP is considered the only technique proven to stop/mitigate ongoing corrosion of steel reinforcement. This is particularly the case for chloride-contaminated concrete.

2.3 Cathodic Protection Overview

Cathodic protection of reinforced concrete is an electrochemical method to stop or mitigate

corrosion especially chloride induced corrosion by supplying current from an external source achieved in two ways (Atkins, n.d)

to suppress an internal current flow due to the process of corrosion The external current can be

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Protection System (ICCP) 2.4 Recent Studies on Cathodic Protection voltage is relatively low (Atkins, n.d.)

current offers greater flexibility with regard to its ability to provide necessary current to the system. The sacrificial cathodic protection system is most effective if the concrete resistivity is low or the anode is placed in a very low resistivity environment like soil as the driving

in 1823 when it was first commissioned to investigate the corrosion of copper sheathing of the hulls of wooden naval ships. During this time, Davy worked on various another metals like iron and zinc to protect copper. Davy concluded that cast iron worked best because it lasted

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For long term solutions, Cathodic Protection is the only technique to mitigate corrosion. 1. Coupling the steel with active metal like zinc, magnesium etc which is termed as Sacrificial Cathodic Protection System (SACP) 2. The external current may be derived from the mains operated low voltage DC power supply (transformer or rectifier) which is termed as Impressed Current Cathodic Both SACP and ICCP are proven to be feasible protection systems but the impressed The first use of tin as an anode was experimentally performed by Sir Humphrey Davy
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longer and remained electrically more active than zinc and tin (On Corrosions of Copper Sheeting, 1824)

Separate studies were conducted by researchers from Obafemi Awolowo University on the effects of tin composition on Al-Zn-Mg alloy as sacrificial anode in seawater. The results obtained in the experiments conducted with various percentages of tin compositions showed that anode efficiency increased with the increase in tin content (Umoru, Ige, 2007). This study reinforces the theory that tin has increased efficiencies of alloys as sacrificial anodes but the effect of tin as a standalone anode for impressed current systems are yet to be studied.

the developments for new anode materials. Conductive coating anodes based on variety of carbon pigmented solvents have been researched and well documented. However the electric

and electrochemical properties depended on the graphite content. It exhibited poor mechanical properties and became porous after exposing it for 12 days (Darowicki, et.al n.d.). From 1997,

researchers have been working on thermal sprayed titanium coatings for cathodic protection of RC structures (R. Brousseau, et.al 1997). The main objective of this paper was to reduce the driving voltage of reinforced concrete samples which is the similar objective of this

dissertation but using tin mesh anodes rather than pre-coated metals. Other studies have been

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2.5 Steel-Concrete Bond Strength

conducted with mixed metal oxide coated titanium mesh, anode designs based on utilising zinc rich paints and also magnesium embedded anodes (Department of Transport, UK, 2002).

mitigate corrosion and various corrosion by-products. Another study that adds value to this dissertation is the increase in the steel-concrete bond by the use of ICCP. Hydrogen, Potassium and sodium ions migrate towards the steel-concrete interface which pays an important role against the bond loss at the interface. (Garcia, et.al, 2012) It was noted that when Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) was mixed with fly-ash the

bond strength increased. This was due to the decrease in the hydrogen-ion content. Since this is an academic research with time constraints, the control samples have to be developed with bare minimum specification in-order to analyse the effectiveness of the tin mesh anode.

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In addition, for the last 15-20 years, researchers have made considerable advances in Impressed Current Cathodic Protection (ICCP) as widely known as a technique to
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2.6 Comparisons of Cathodic Protection with other techniques Before selecting a suitable solution for corrosion damaged structures, the advantages and limitations for different methods have to be evaluated. Irrespective of the selected treatment for control or rehabilitation of damaged structures, it is most important to minimise future chloride contamination by dealing with the source of the problem. The main treatments are summarized in, Table.1,

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Treatment Solution Do Nothing

Comments It is generally acceptable if the whole structure is awaiting partial or complete repair of the damaged structure

Coatings

Silane, a toxic chemical compound is typically used for structures exposed to chlorides. However, if sufficient chloride has already penetrated into the structure, then this application may mitigate corrosion but may not completely stop it.

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Stainless Steel Bars

Table 1 : Various Treatment Options for chloride-induced corrosion (Department of Transport, UK, 2002)

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Concrete Replacements Sometimes, due to long exposure to chloride contaminated environments, it may be viable to completely replace the damaged structure. Cathodic Protection Unlike other solutions, Cathodic protection offers protection to the whole area against corrosion. It reduces the frequent concrete repairs and other maintenance requirements. It requires permanent current source to run the system and also requires periodic monitoring. Cathodic protection has an effective life of more than 100 years and is proven to be a reliable and long term solution Stainless steel looks like the most viable option as it has high resistance to corrosion. But stainless steel is a very expensive option and it has possible issues with galvanic coupling. Also stainless steel is not suitable for hot marine environment.
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2.7 Advantages of Cathodic Protection The principal advantage of CP over traditional repair is that only the damaged concrete areas (i.e. spalled, delaminated or severely cracked) need to be replaced. Concrete that is contaminated with chloride, but otherwise sound, can remain since the possibility of subsequent corrosion will be prevented by the appropriate electrochemical process. The costs involved in the installation and operation of the CP system are more than offset by the savings that result from the reduction in concrete repair quantities and shorter duration of site work. In

many cases the reduction in repair may obviate the need for temporary propping with a consequent reduction in costs. (Das, et.al, 2010)

reserves of strength then CP can provide a cost-effective solution. Even when the strength is

inadequate it is possible, in many cases, to combine CP with strengthening. With a well-

designed and installed CP system, the costs of operation and maintenance would be extremely low. It is now well recognised that in most cases CP can provide a cost-effective solution to

stop corrosion and the importance is acknowledged with codifying by a number of national and international standards (BSI, 2000; NACE, 2000).

reference electrodes and other monitoring probes. All reference electrodes could be integrated

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ICCP.

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adequate levels of protection. (Das, et.al, 2010) 2.8 Summary is part of the group 14 of the periodic table.

into a monitoring unit and could be interrogated either manually or through automatic data logging devices which could be operated locally or remotely. In addition, the monitoring reference electrodes for ICCP systems would function to control the system output to provide

critical analysis of various options of corrosion mitigation techniques as shown in Table 1. The chapter concludes on the advantage of Cathodic Protection System and consolidates on the fact that the only guaranteed method of mitigating corrosion due to chloride penetration is

The next chapter looks into the properties of anode materials focusing on the Tin (Sn) which

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Cathodic protection does not restore lost steel, but provided that the steel has sufficient The performance of the installed CP systems would be monitored using embeddable This chapter summarizes on the recent studies on Cathodic Protection and details the
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Chapter 3 Properties of Tin

Tin (chemical symbol, Sn) is a chemical element which is the main group element in group 14 of the periodic table. This metal forms part of the post transition metals which means that it cannot be oxidized easily. Tin is also an element with highest number of stable isotopes. Properties are given in table 2 3.1 Physical Properties

Table 2: Properties of Tin (CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics)

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Atomic Number 50 State at room temperature Block P Boiling Point (C) CAS Number

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Name Properties Element Classification Density (g/cc) Metal 7.31 Metal Point (K) Appearance 505.1 silvery-white, soft, malleable, ductile metal 162 Atomic Radius (pm) Solid 2586 7440-31-5

3.2 Chemical Properties Tin is relatively unaffected by both water and oxygen at room temperatures. It does not significantly corrode, rust or react in any abnormal way. At high temperatures, the metal reacts with water and oxygen to form tin oxide. Also, tin is attacked slowly by dilute acids such as hydrochloric acid and sulphuric acid. Dilute acids are mixtures that contain small amounts of acid dissolved in large amounts of water. This makes tin as a good protective covering. (Emsley, 2011) 3.3 Application of Tin (Sn)

solder wires which are widely used to join electrical components due to its weak melting point. Tin is also used as a coating to mitigate corrosion. Tin cans for example are made of tin coated steel which are used to preserve food products. Tin chlorides is used as a mordant in

dyeing textiles and for increasing the weight of silk. Stannous fluoride is used in some toothpastes. (Emsley, 2011)

3.4 Use of Tin in the Built Environment

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lifespan. (Emsley, 2011)

copper to form bronze and the coating of tin on harder metals such as iron or steel. Tin roofs,

a type of tin plate was originally used for armour but eventually as a roofing material. It is also widely used for decorative purposes such as ornamental windows and door lintels. Although tinplate is widely available today as a roofing material, but it is fairly

expensive since the initial cost is more than any other common roofing materials like asphalt or built-in roofs. Since a well maintained tinplate roof typically last several times longer than either of these types of roofing, it is more economical when cost is prorated over the longer

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Tin has a wide application in the Electrical and Electronics industries, majorly used as Tin has been principally used as an architectural element in alloying of metals such as

3.5 Use of Tin as an anode Researchers at the Toyota Research Institute developed an insertion type of tin anode material for use of a magnesium-ion battery that shows superior voltages and capacity. They confirmed the materials performance in rechargeable Mg-ion (Magnesium ion) batteries by coupling it with a Mo6S8 cathode in a conventional battery electrolytethat necessary compatibility and cyclability being an important result, they noted. The use of tin as an insertion-type anode would allow for the evaluation of future, high voltage/capacity Mg-ion battery cathodes using conventional battery electrolytes, they concluded. (Green Car Congress, 2012)

industry as an anode for cathodic protection of reinforced concrete structures. Although the purpose of this research is to prove that tin can be efficiently used to mitigate corrosion in

reinforced concrete samples, it could provide a huge breakthrough considering the cost benefits

and its long term benefits as an anode in an impressed Cathodic Protection setup. (Emsley, 2011)

3.6 Dissertation Work

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the following chapters.

act as an anode, which are embedded in concrete beam samples. The tin mesh is placed 40 mm from the casting face and separated by a distance of 30 mm from the reinforcement. The tin mesh and the reinforcement were electrically connected to each other and to a

stable source of direct current which were provided by a DC Voltage Supply. Before the start of the main experiment, a preliminary experiment was conducted to

finalise on the qualification of tin as an anode. The details of this experiment are mentioned in

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Apart from the above mentioned applications, tin has not been used in the construction In this research, solder wires (60% tin, 40% lead) have been soldered into a mesh to

3.7 Summary To summarize, tin has various applications in the field of electronics, food industry and as advanced anode in lithium batteries. This chapter aimed at providing basic physical and chemical properties of tin. The next chapter will look in detail of the experimental procedures and methodology of this research.

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Chapter 4 Methodology and Experimental Work

4.1 Experimental Work Proposal

In a study conducted by researchers from Bradford University on corrosion of steel reinforcement concrete cubes at compressive strengths of 20, 30 and 45 MPa, they concluded that concrete cubes with the least compressive strength showed early signs of corrosion after

undergoing corrosion accelerations tests. This is primarily because of loose pore structure that allows penetration of chloride and moisture to the steel/concrete interface. After exposure of

the steel bar for 1 day showed small pits and small forms of rust were infested. After the end

of the experiment (15th day), the steel reinforcement showed increased amount of rust and pits. It was also noticed that the cross-section of the reinforcement decreased because of the increase in pits (Abosrra et.al, 2011).

normal reinforced concrete specimens (control) with reinforced concrete specimens protected

with ICCP. The experiment is designed to analyse the effectiveness of Tin to act as an anode.

To understand the effectiveness of tin as a primary anode, the control samples had to be designed for lower compressive strength as described in the above research studies for quicker results. Hence the compressive strength of the control samples was designed for 28 MPa. See

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compression tests performed. 4.2 Preliminary Experiments Experiment #1

Appendix III and figure 5 and figure 6 shown further details on mix design and standard

were conducted. In one experiment, the steel rod was dipped in 200ml of sea water. The steel rod was spirally wound with magnesium strips, thus making it a SACP. Since magnesium (Mg) lies above steel (iron) in the galvanic series, it acts as a sacrificial anode to protect steel from reverting back to its natural state i.e. iron ore or ferric oxide (Fe2O3) better known as rust.

After 3 days of initiating the experiment, the magnesium due to high reactivity, tends to naturally lose its electrons to protect steel. Hence the magnesium dissipated under the saline conditions and protected the steel. This shows that sacrificial anode materials have to be

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The proposed experimental work for the upcoming semester is to compare corrosion of To understand the principle of Cathodic Protection in general, two sets of experiments
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regularly changed to keep the steel protected. In real-life conditions this could be tedious and expensive options considering offshore structures. If the anode is not changed during particular intervals, it will leave the steel exposed to and would undergo a chemical change under the saline conditions and form ferric oxide as stated above. This could seriously deteriorate the life span of the structure and could possibly cause collapse of the entire foundation if not examined5regularly. Refer to figure 2 for experimental evidence. Experiment #2

a strip of Tin (60% tin, 40% lead) acting as an anode. Since Tin lies below Steel in the galvanic series, it cannot provide enough electrons to protect the steel. Hence to provide additional electrons, the system has to be connected to an external power source. This effectively makes

the whole system into an ICCP. This experiment was conducted repetitively to determine the correct potential for tin.

During the initial phase of the experiment, a voltage of 1.0V was applied to the system. It was

noticed that after 2 days of analysis, the tin strip depleted at the seawater-anode interface as shown in figure 2. The possible explanation to this observation could be that the electrons provided by the current were in excess to what was needed to protect steel. This depleted the tin strip, hence making the circuit incomplete which would possibly lead to rusting of steel.
Figure 2- (left) Magnesium wound steel rods; (right) Magnesium strips depleted after 3 days

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Experiment5#3

Hence, the experiment 2 was repeated, this time by a decreased voltage of 0.5V. This experiment was carried out for over a month and it was noticed that the tin-strip did not deplete under this voltage. This voltage provided the perfect equilibrium for the system as it accounted for the extra electrons needed by tin to protect the steel from rusting.
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Thus, another set of experiment was conducted with steel rod acting as the cathode and

During the course of both the experiments, it was compared to a control sample. It was noticed that the impressed current method (0.5V) provided less ferrous deposits on the cathode (red colour) as opposed to the control sample which was not protected (See figure 3)
Figure 3: (top left); Control Sample (top right); Ammeter showing corresponding current reading (bottom); Comparison between the protected sample and control sample (Photos taken after 30 days)

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4.3 Main Experiment Following the drawbacks and results from all 4the preliminary experiments described in section 4.1, the main experiment was performed with an ICCP setup in concrete. Corrosion as is known today is fairly a slow process and it could take effectively years to be noticed in marine structures. If not carefully maintained, it could go un-noticed and would
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subsequently lead to failure of a structure. To recreate corrosion under real-life conditions in a lab setup would be impractical considering the time-frame of this research. Hence, the one solution would be to accelerate corrosion under special circumstances. The following sections are the list of stages that need to be accomplished in order for any meaningful analysis2to2be2undertaken. 4.3.1 Acceleration of Corrosion

The first stage that was accomplished was to accelerate corrosion in control samples as a base to compare with the impressed current system. The steel reinforcements were measured prior to start of this experiment as loss/gain of cross-sectional area could give an indication of the extent of corrosion in the control samples. Figure 4 and figure 5 shows the setup for the experiment

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Figure 4 Set-up for Acceleration of Corrosion

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Two control samples have been casted with the following mix design for a beam of volume

0.05 m3 as shown in table 3 which gives a concrete strength of approx. 25 MPa as shown in table 3

Table 3: Concrete Mix Design Specification

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Cement Water Coarse Aggregates - 20mm Fine Aggregates -10mm Fine Aggregates (Less than 10mm)

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Figure 5: Overhead view of the acceleration setup

Material

Weight ( kg)

2.92 1.05 L 4.82 3.2 2.4

All control samples were reinforced with steel rebars at the centre, 30 mm from the base of the beam. The weight of the steel before casting are as shown in Table 4
Table 4: Measured weights of reinforcements in all beams

Name Control Sample A Control Sample B Control Sample C

Weight (g) 102.5 103.0 102.5 103.0 103.0 103.0

4.3.1.1 Methodology

room temperature after 3 days of curing for 21 days. The pre-wetting allows keeping the initial D.C. to a manageable low value. Then, the exposed steel bars were connected to the positive

terminal of a constant 30 volt D.C. power supply, to make the steel bars act as anodes. This high voltage was used to accelerate the corrosion and shorten the test period. The negative

terminal of the DC power source was connected to a stainless steel mesh placed near the beams in the solution, and sat on a stainless steel plate placed beneath the beams. The stainless steel

plate and the mesh were used as the cathode, and isolated from the beams. Moreover, the steel mesh was cleaned periodically to prevent the deposition of calcium; on the surface .Each time the current intensity showed a sudden increase indicated the cracking of the beam by corrosion. In order to determine the time at which the specimen cracked (referred to as corrosion time), the intensity of the electric current was recorded at different time intervals. The beams were visually inspected daily for cracks while the current flow was continuously monitored using an ammeter. Following the weight of the steel bar was measured, and recorded for weight loss measurement before the accelerated corrosion test was started. (Reddy et.al, 2011)

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Sample with Tin Mesh A Sample with Tin Mesh B Sample with Tin Mesh C The beam specimens were partially (7.5cm) immersed into a seawater solution at
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4.3.1.2 Schematic

Figure 6: Schematic of the acceleration corrosion test setup

Figure 6 shows the schematic for the electrical arrangement. The negative terminal of the DC

Voltage is connected to the stainless steel mesh and base plate using an alligator clip. The positive terminal of the DC voltage was connected to the respective steel reinforcement of the control samples.

4.4 Impressed Current Method

The method for Cathodic Protection was be pre-dominantly based on the preliminary experiments conducted as described in section 4.2, experiment #3.

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A voltage of 0.5 V was be equally distributed over the tin mesh simultaneously when the samples are being accelerated simultaneously. Since the preliminary experiment with solder

wires should positive results in terms of reduced corrosion products on tin and non-depletion of solder wire. Figure 7 shows the detailed experimental setup
Figure 7- ICCP setup with simultaneous acceleration. Tin Mesh is used as the anode

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4.5 Parameter of Analysis The sole parameter of analysis in this research was loss in weight of the steel reinforcement. As well documented, once a steel reinforcement undergoes corrosion or accelerated corrosion, rust products form on top of the reinforcement thus increasing the overall weight of the steel. (Reddy et.al, 2011)

Therefore, the weight of the steel as mentioned before have been measured and the

comparative weight of the reinforcements between the control samples and the samples with tin mesh were analysed.

Refer to figure 8 for readings of the weight of steel and tin mesh.

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Figure 8 (top left) Measured weight of steel reinforcement (top right) Measured weight of tin mesh (bottom) completely cast beams with steel reinforcement and tin mesh.

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4.6 Summary This chapter has looked into detail the methodology to be carried out for the proposed experiments and the parameter of analysis that could then be summarized into an academic conclusion in the field of engineering and in particular reinforced concrete structures along the perimeter of the coastal lines of Dubai. Chapter 5 looks into the analysis of the extracted data.

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Chapter 5 Analysis and Results

5.1 Corrosion Current and Cracking Behaviour Background Study During the process of corrosion, the negatively charged ions (chloride) is being attracted by the steel reinforcement bars when current is applied from the electrolyte (salt solution) into the concrete and toward the positively charged steel bars. As the chloride-ion reaches the steelconcrete interface above the acceptable concentration, the steel surface begins to corrode. The cracking development, due to corrosion at the rebar, leads to increased salt water access to the

steel surface, creating a direct current path between the reinforcement and the electrodes in solution. Any sudden increase in the current flow indicated a reduction in electrical resistance.

During a study in acceleration of corrosion as described in section 4.3.1.1, the Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) beams recorded a decrease from 772 to 689 mA, for 12 hours, and

then the current started to increase from 689 to 758 mA for the next 12 hours. This is due to

the chloride solution reached the steel-concrete interface, a current path is created along with a decrease in electrical resistivity of the beam. Therefore, the significant differences in current

recordings. (Reddy et.al, 2011). Figure 9 shows the current readings for various compositions of ordinary Portland cement

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Figure 9: Current vs. Time readings for various OPC beams

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5.2 Mass Loss Measurements It is very well known that the most precise method to determine the degree of corrosion in embedded steel is the mass loss measurement (Reddy et.al, 2011). Therefore, in-order to determine the mass loss of the corroded reinforcing steel, the beams were completely broken to retrieve the entire bar. Table 3 will be used as the reference for comparison of any mass loss/gain and the percentage can be obtained for both. 5.3 Analysis

The beams were corroded as per the schematic in section 4.3.1.2, and a multimeter is used to record the readings in every 1 hour interval in a 60 hour test duration. Readings are taken

simultaneously for the three control samples and the tin mesh embedded beams. Table 5 shows

the percentage of mass loss of reinforced bars after acceleration of corrosion.

Table 5: Percentage Mass losses of Reinforced Bars after Accelerated Corrosion Exposure

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Tin Mesh B 103.0

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Specimen Initial Mass (g) 103.0 103.0 103.0 Final Mass (g) 86.8 89.8 91.4 95.4 Mass Loss (%) 16 Control Sample A Control Sample B Tin Mesh A 12.81 11.2 7.3

Figure 13 shows a graph between corrosion current and time. The readings were taken for a span of 67 hours for control samples and ICCP samples. All data values are attached in Appendix V

Control Sample - 30 V
0.005 0.0048 0.0046 0.0044 0.0042 0.004 0.0038 0.0036 0.0034 0.0032 0.003 0.0028 0.0026 0.0024 0.0022 0.002 0.0018 0.0016 0.0014 0.0012 0.001 0.0008 0.0006 0.0004

Figure 10 Corrosion Current vs. Time

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0 5

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0.0006 0.00058 0.00056 0.00054 0.00052 0.0005 0.00048 0.00046 0.00044 0.00042 0.0004 0.00038 0.00036 0.00034 0.00032 0.0003 Corrosion Current (mA) 10 15 20 25 30

Figure 11 Corrosion Current vs. Time for ICCP with Tin Mesh Anodes

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0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 Time (Hours)

Corrosion Current (mA)

Impressed Cathodic Protection - Tin Mesh Anode ( 0.5 V)

35 Time (Hours)

40

45

50

55

60

65

70

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Chapter 6 Discussion and Conclusion

6.1 Interpretation From figure 10, the control samples have been corroded according to the theory outlined in section 5.1. The rise of the corrosion current at the 10th, 19th and 40th hour indicates the peak at which cracks and delamination started to occur on the control samples.

voltage of 0.5 V, the physical cracks and delamination were very insignificant although few

could be seen as a result of excess salinity in the electrolyte. The significant change from both these graphs are the decrease in corrosion current which consolidates on the theory that Sn electrons and the excess driving voltage dissipated the chloride ions as gas rather than

collecting on the reinforcement in the form of corrosion rust products. Also concluding from

the mass loss percentages from table 5 proves that comparatively tin mesh has mitigated corrosion to some extent. Hence, the first objective for feasibility i.e. the theory of tin mesh to work as an appropriate anode in reinforced concrete has been achieved in this research.

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Figure 12: Pitting corrosion formed during acceleration of corrosion

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Comparing this with figure 11 which was embedded with tin mesh anodes with a
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6.2 Conclusion The objectives outlined during the initial stages of this dissertation have been achieved i.e. 1. The driving voltage of tin mesh has been established as 0.5 V which provided enough electrons to dissipate chloride ions as chloride gas 2. The control samples have been accelerated successfully for comparison between the two sets of beams

6.3 Future Work

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provide better results area could clarify the results. this research for steady results

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3. The mass loss of steel reinforcement for the tin mesh embedded beams are comparatively less than the control sample reinforcements 4. The corrosion current for the tin mesh embedded beams are significantly less than the corrosion current of the control sample During the course of this dissertation few alterations have been made to suit the time frame of this research and they are as follows 1. Corrosion has been accelerated to see faster results and it would be more realistic to not accelerate corrosion and to perform a salt ponding test where the beams are subjected to immersion of beams in saline solution for 90 days 2. The duration of this experiment was limited to 67 hours. The results would have been more diverse if the experiment was performed for a time frame of 100 hours and intervals of every minute could be recorded through a current data logger. 3. The driving voltage could be increased to a value between 0.5-1 V which would 4. While breaking the beams to retrieve the reinforcement it was noticed that the reinforcement decreased in length for the control samples. More research in this 5. Also, using 100% manufactured tin mesh instead of using the composition used in
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References
ASTM Standard G78, 2012, "Standard Guide for Crevice Corrosion Testing of Iron-Base and Nickel-Base Stainless Alloys in Seawater and Other Chloride-Containing Aqueous Environments," ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2003, DOI: 10.1520/C0033-03, www.astm.org.

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N/A, 129-149

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ACI Committee 222 (2001) '222R-01: Protection of Metals in Concrete Against Corrosion (Reapproved 2010).' Technical Documents 1, 41 Atkins - North America (n. d.) Atkins - Technical Journal [online] available from <http://northamerica.atkinsglobal.com/~/media/Files/A/Atkins-NorthAmerica/Attachments/careers/our-publications/technical-journals/Technical-Journal01.pdf> [24 October 2012] Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia (2009) Chloride Resistance of Concrete [online] available from <http://www.concrete.net.au/publications/pdf/ChlorideResistance.pdf> [19 Nov 2012] CONRETE.' Technical University of Gdansk, Department of Anticorrosion Technology D.V. Reddy*, J-B Edouard, K. Sobhan and S.S. Rajpathak (2011) 'DURABILITY OF REINFORCED FLY ASH-BASED GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT.' 36th Conference on Our World in Concrete & Structures -, (-) G.K Glass (2003) Advanced Concrete Technology. Oxford: Elsevier Ltd. Green Car Congress (2012) Toyota researchers show superior performance for tin anode for Mg-ion batteries with conventional electrolytes [online] available from <http://www.greencarcongress.com/2012/11/trina-20121114.html> [17 March 2013]
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H. Marchebois a, S. Touzain a, S. Joiret b, J. Bernard a, C. Savalla,. (2002) 'Zinc-rich powder coatings corrosion in sea water: influence of conductive pigments.' Progress in Organic Coatings 45, 415-421

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3915-3925 Engineering 7, 105-113

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International Concrete Sustainability Conference (n. d.) Evaluation of Service Life of Reinforced Concrete Structures in the Middle East [online] available from <http://concretetechnologyforum.org/2010CSCDubaiProceedings/documents/Nagi%20Pr esentation%2012-13-10.pdf> [19 Nov 2012] J Garcia, F Almeraya, C.Barrios, C. Gaona, R. Nunez, I.Lopez, M.Rodriguez, A. Martinez-Villafane, J.M. Bastidas (2012) 'Cement and Concrete Composities.' Effect of Cathodic Protection on Steel-Concrete bond strength using ion-migration measurements 34, 242-247 Jure Franciskovic, Boris Miksic, Ivan Rogan and Mijo Tomicic (2006) 'Protection and Repair of Reinforced Concrete Structures by means of MCI- Inhibitors and Corrosion Protective Materials.' Structural Engineering Conference on Bridges, Longus Co. Ltd. 1, K. Darowicki, J. Orlikowski, S. Cebulski*), S. Krakowiak (N/A) 'CONDUCTING COATINGS FOR CATHODIC PROTECTION OF REINFORCED L. Abosrra, A.F. Ashour ., M. Youseffi (2011) 'Corrosion of steel reinforcement in concrete of different compressive strengths.' Construction and Building Materials 25, L.E. Umoru and O.O. Ige (2007) 'Effects of Tin on Aluminum Zinc Magnesium Alloy as Sacrificial Anode in Seawater.' Journal of Minerals & Materials Characterization &
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Handbook of Corrosion (2005) Corrosion. US: Springer US

Mamdouh Hamouda (N/A) 'Durable Concrete in UAE Environment.' International Conference of Improving Concrete Performance - Dubai N/A, N/A

Mumtaz K. Kassir*, Michel Ghosn (2002) 'Chloride-induced corrosion of reinforced concrete bridge decks.' Cement and Concrete Research 32, 139-143

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On the corrosion of copper sheeting by seawater, and on methods of preventing this effect, and on their application to ships of war and other ships". Proceedings of the Royal Society, 114 (1824), pp 151-246 and 115 (1825), pp 328-346. R. Brousseau, B. Arsenault, S. Dallaire, D. Rogers, T. Mumby, and D. Dong (1997) 'Sprayed Titanium Coatings for the Cathodic Protection of Reinforced Concrete.' JTTEES ASM International 7, 193-196 Sunil C. Das; Homayoon Pouya; Eshmaiel Ganjian (2010) Corrosion Mitigation of Chloride-contaminated reinforced concrete structures: a state-of-the-art review . UK: ICE Publishing

Appendix I Project Planning Document

T1: Gantt chart highlighting the sequence of events for the Project

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T2: Gantt chart highlighting the tasks proposed for December 2012.

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Appendix II Acceleration Tests

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Appendix III Standard Laboratory Tests

BS 1881-119:2011 - Testing concrete. Method for determination of compressive strength using portions of beams broken in flexure (equivalent cube method)

The casting of sample concrete cubes (150 x 150 x 150 mm) for compression test analysis was carried out on the 20th of November 2012.

After 28 days, the concrete cubes were placed inside a compression test machine (UTest Material Testing Machine).

Figure A1 (a) Cube placed inside a compression machine (b) Cracked cube after 28days (Photos taken on 10 th December 2012)

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Appendix IV Experimental Imageries

Figure A2 (a) Corrosion products formed on the saline solution (ICCP) (b) Control Samples during Acceleration of Corrosion (Time : 24th Hour)

Figure A3 Corroded beams after electrochemical acceleration of corrosion (Hour 68)

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Appendix V Data Readings

Tin Mesh Current Time (mA) 14:00 36.3 15:00 5.82 16:00 1.14 17:00 1.1 18:00 1.09 19:00 0.93 20:00 1.15 21:00 1.22 22:00 0.98 23:00 0.98 0:00 0.88 1:00 0.81 2:00 0.81 3:00 0.78 4:00 0.79 5:00 0.78 6:00 0.78 7:00 0.8 8:00 0.99 9:00 1.15 10:00 0.98 11:00 0.99 12:00 0.98 13:00 0.96 14:00 1.15 15:00 1.17 16:00 1.24 17:00 1.14 18:00 1.01 19:00 1.02 20:00 1.02 21:00 1.05 22:00 1.01 23:00 1.01 Control Sample- 30 V ICCP - 0.5 V

Current Time Current (mA) Time (A) 14:00 38.4 14:00 0.36 15:00 30.78 15:00 0.35 16:00 1.35 16:00 0.51 17:00 1.33 17:00 0.4 18:00 1.288 18:00 0.36 19:00 1.293 19:00 0.34 20:00 1.563 20:00 0.34 21:00 1.353 21:00 0.61 22:00 1.456 22:00 0.39 23:00 2.112 23:00 0.37 0:00 1.398 0:00 0.39 1:00 1.322 1:00 0.35 2:00 1.344 2:00 0.35 3:00 1.35 3:00 0.34 4:00 1.385 4:00 0.34 5:00 1.387 5:00 0.34 6:00 1.373 6:00 0.35 7:00 1.348 7:00 0.36 8:00 1.895 8:00 0.33 9:00 1.319 9:00 0.34 10:00 1.309 10:00 0.33 11:00 1.311 11:00 0.32 12:00 1.346 12:00 0.32 13:00 1.345 13:00 0.33 14:00 1.349 14:00 0.33 15:00 1.348 15:00 0.33 16:00 1.317 16:00 0.33 17:00 1.42 17:00 0.33 18:00 1.425 18:00 0.35 19:00 1.489 19:00 0.37 20:00 1.52 20:00 0.36 21:00 1.56 21:00 0.36 22:00 1.472 22:00 0.41 23:00 1.47 23:00 0.41

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0:00 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 0:00 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00

0.88 0.69 0.67 0.63 1.02 1.1 1.2 1.29 1.04 1.04 0.71 0.71 0.7 0.7 0.83 0.85 0.91 0.82 0.9 0.91 0.82 0.82 0.851 0.861 0.893 0.93 0.9 0.89 0.83 0.82 0.81 0.81 0.68

0:00 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 0:00 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00

1.009 0.84 0.85 0.624 0.966 1.02 1.25 1.72 0.67 0.67 0.495 0.494 0.461 0.461 0.495 0.494 0.461 0.471 0.441 0.44 0.47 0.471 0.465 0.472 0.475 0.478 0.488 0.5 0.501 0.498 0.506 0.51 0.48

0:00 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 0:00 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00

0.4312 0.42 0.43 0.43 0.4413 0.4512 0.456 0.47 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.47 0.47 0.48 0.48 0.48 0.48 0.48 0.48 0.57 0.58 0.58 0.56 0.59 0.59 0.59 0.59 0.59 0.59 0.58 0.58 0.56

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