Section II Bare Aluminum Wire and Cable

Chapter 6
Operating Performance and Problems
Operating problems occurring in installations of bare
overhead conductors are of several kinds. Only those re
lated to the conductors themselves are considered herein.
Such matters as voltage drop', system regulation, transi
ents and calculation of probable short-circuit currents are
in the province of the system electrical engineer and be
yond the scope of this book. Subjects covered' in this
chapter include the ability of the conductor to withstand
short circuits and their related mechanical forces, the ex
tent that emergency overloads may be carried without
serious damage and the effects of arcing-burndown. Ref
erence is also made to aeolian vibration and conductor
galloping with a brief description of devices that reduce
their effects.
The terms used herein relating to overload matters are
as follows:
Thermal Limit (as associated with steady-state overload
conditions): The maximum temperature at which a con
ductor can operate continuously yet maintain the mini
mum tensile properties established by the manufacturer
or the user.
Arc-Current Burndown: Rapid failure caused by the heat
of an arc on the surface of the conductor, accompanied
by the heat effect of current.
Fault-Current Burndown: Failure caused by overheating
as a result of a current overload. The conductor strength
decreases sufficiently to cause tension failure.
Fault-Current Limit: The current (temperature) and
time combination which produces the maximum accep
table loss in conductor mechanical strength.
Current Values: Unless otherwise stated, all current values
used in the discussion of overload conditions are in terms
of rms symmetrical amperes.
>I< Applying to bare transmission and distribution circuits only. The
critical voltage-drop limitations of the National Electrical Code relating
to circuits under NECjurisdiction are mentioned in Sections 21O-19(a)
and 21S-2(b) of the NEe, and the methods of computing drop or
obtaining it from industry-supplied tables are described, applying to
conductor sizes used mostly for interior circuits.
Short-Circuit Performance
The ampacity data in Chapter 3, Figs. 3-11 to 3-15,
apply to steady-state normal operation for bare ACSR
and all-aluminum conductors for temperatures up to
1000C (60
0
C rise over 40
0
C ambient). This temperature
is frequently used for 1350-H19 conductors since the
strands retain approximately 90 percent of rated strength
after 10,000 hours at temperature. (See Fig. 6-3.) For
ACSR the strength is even less affected because the steel
core is essentially unaffected at these temperatures.
Short circuits in a power system can result in extremely
large currents in conductors from the time of fault initia
tion until its interruption by the protective device, such
as circuit breaker or fuse. With modern relaying, the dura
tion of the 60 Hz fault current is usually only from 3 to
20 cycles for transmission circuits but may be longer
for distribution lines. If the circuit is immediately re
established by automatic reclosure and the fault has not
cleared, the total fault-current time will be the sum of
the interrupting times.
Heating will generally be more rapid than cooling, and
loss-of-strength estimates would require integration of the
temperature-time curve for temperatures above the arbi
trary "damage" level. However, as temperature is not
measured, a useful and practical alternative is to use the
current-time product and neglect the temperature slopes.
When limits have been established, the time in which the
fault must be cleared can then be determined.
In establishing suitable fault-current limits, 340'C has
been selected as the maximum temperature for all-alumi
num conductors since momentary exposure to this tempera
ture does not result in a significant loss of strength. For
ACSR or A W AC conductors with sizeable steel content
(not the 18/1 or 36/1 strandings) an upper limit of
645'C represents the threshold of melting for aluminum
with the sleel expected to supply the needed mechanical
strength. The curves of Figs. 6-1 A, B, and C apply this
criteria using an average specific heat and assume no
heat loss from the aluminum strands during the short
duration of the fault current. Figs. 6-2 A, B, and C do
the same for ACSR conductors.
6-1
bare aluminum wire and cable
Adjustments for 6201-T81
and ACAR Conductors
Values from Fig. 6-1 may be adapted to 6201-T81 and
ACAR conductors by applying suitable multiplying fac
tors. Usually the value that is specified as the estimated
fault current is the known quantity, and the corresponding
time is found that wiU cause the upper temperature limit
to reach 340C over 40'C ambient for 61.2 percent lACS
conductor, thereby enabling the current-limiting devices
to be properly set. For other conductors, the time for
the 1350-H 19 conductor is multiplied by factors as below:
For 6201-T81 conductor, multiply by 0.903
For ACAR conductor, see the applicable portion of
the following example:
Examples: Assume 500 kernil conductor and 20,000 rIDS 60 Hz fault
current. As this conductor size is not sh.own by Fig. the time is
obtained by interpolating between values for 417 kcmil and 566.5 kcmH
to 2.80 sec for 1350 H19. Then for it will be 2.80 x 0.903, or
2 . .53 sec.
For 241 13 ACAR, the time wiJt be
(2.80 X 0.65) + (2.51 X Q.J5) 2.71 sec.
Adjustmentjor Upper Temperature Limit
Whereas the upper-limit temperatures specified in Figs.
61 and 6,2 are suitable for bare overhead conductors,
there are conditions where a lower temperature, limit is
advisable, such as when the bare cable is confined in
switchgear or in switching compartments. Other con,
dilion" such as the use of soldered, copper terminal pads;
also may warrant a lower temperature limit. Multiplying
factors for these conditions are as follows:
Multiply time from Fig. 6-1 by
For 1350-H19 6201,T81
Upper Limit
3000C 0.903 0.814
250'C 0.771 0.691
200'C 0.621 0.559
and multiply time from Fig. 6-2 by
For ACSR
Upper Limit
500'C 0.845
400"C 0.721
300C 0.556
For 6201-T81 and ACAR, apply these factors after
applying those as listed in the preceding section.
Arcing
Caution must be exercised in applying the fault-current
times, as described, for relay settings of protective devices
on distribution lines that may be subject to arcing buro
dovvn. Arcing locally cuts into the conductor quickly in
such cases. For example, a /1;0. 4/0 AWG 6/1 ACSR
under 17001b tension has arcing burndown time of 10 to
14 cycles (.167 to .233 sec.) at 15,250 amp, whereas the
jaultcurrent limit time (there being no local arcing) is
1.6 sec for that current, under assumptions applying to
Fig. 6,2. Also see Table 6,1. For the usual transmission
line, or those at the higher distribution voltages, relay
co,ordination on the basis of fault current limit time
usually is satisfactory, but for lower distribution voltages
in metropolitan environments consideration should be
given to arcing burndown.
Table 6-1 contains representative data from arcing tests
conducted with the conductor under tension.
While arcing failure times are so short that little if any
change in tension can occur prior to failure, high fault
currents can heat the entire line. The reSUlting increase
in sag can establish contact with ground or other conduc
tor, initiating an arcing problem. Clearances can, there
fore, be as sigoificant a constraint on maximum acceptable
current as is conductor strength.
Arcing Effects
Aluminum conductors resist damage by arcing better
than conductors of other metals because the arc tends to
cause less pitting and surface metal melting. When
subjected to arc currents, the aluminum conductor sUlface
frequently shows only a removal of sheen, slight roughen
ing, and change of color over a considerable area. The
effect described applies to arcs of less intensity than those
that produce arc-current burndown. However, the ad
vantage of aluminum in this respect aids measurably in
reducing operating costs, particularly for the smaller sizes
of ACSR, in the many instances where small arcs result
from flashovers, lightning, momentary contact with a tree
limb, and the like.
From one group of tests, aluminum's resistance to
surface damage from such minor arcing was evident with
arcs ranging up to about 78 cycles duration.'
Loss of Strength
The loss of conductor strength due to time at tempera
ture is a cumulative effect. Heating due to short circuit
occurrence should therefore be added to heating due to
other circumstances to estimate the condition of the con
ductor. In actual practice, however, the total time of fault
currents is usually very small relative to emergency oper
ating time and is therefore igoored as an effeet on con,
ductor strength. The temperature-time strength loss re
lationship is covered in more detail in the section on
emergency loading (Chapter 12).
.. C. A. Martens, "Power Arc-Over On Overhead Distribution
Lines and New Developed Equipment for Protection Against
Conductor Bumdown From That Cause," AlEE Technical Paper
No. 4145, 1941.
6-2
operating performance and problems
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BARE STRANDED ALUMINUM CONDUCTOR

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2 3456789 2 3456789 2 7 3 4 5 6 8 9
100 1,000 10,000 100,000
CURRENT IN AMPERES
Fig. 6-1A. Maximum fault-current operating limit for
stranded aluminum conductor. Upper temperature limit
340C, ambient temperature 40C.
3
2
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8
7
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Note 1. Time plotted is that required for a given rms
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2. Graphs asSUme there is no heat loss in the conductor.
The curve for all aluminum conductors may be applied to alloy 6201-T81 and ACAR conductors by computing the
equivalent 1350-H19 cross section. The current may then be determined by extrapolating for the computed cross
section USing Figs. 6-1, A, B, and C.
6-3
bare aluminum wire and cable
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CURRENT IN AMPERES
Fig, 6-1 B. Maximum fault-current operating limit for Note: 1. Time plolted is that required for a given rms
stranded aluminum conductor, Upper temperature limit fault current to cause conductor damage due to annealing.
340C, ambienltemperature 40C. 2. Graphs assume there is no heat loss in the conductor.
The curve for all aluminum conductors may be applied to alloy 6201-1'81 and ACAR conductors by computing the
equivalent 1350-H19 cross seclion. The current may then be determined by extrapolating for the computed cross
section using Figs. 6-1, A, B, and C.
6-4
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CURRENT IN
Fig. 6-IC. Maximum fault-current operating limit for
stranded aluminum conductor. Upper temperatllre limit
340C, ambient temperature 40C.
3
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AMPERES
Note: 1. Time plotted is that required for a given rms
fault current to cause conductor damage due to annealing.
2. Graphs assume there is no heat loss in the conductor.
The Curve for all aluminum conductors may be applied to alloy 620J-T81 and ACAR conductors by computing the
equivalent 1350-HJ9 cross section. The current may then be determined by extrapolating for the computed cross
section using Figs. 6-1, A, B, and C,
6-5
bare aluminum wire and cable
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CUR R EN T IN AMP ERE S
Fig. 6-2A. Maximum Fault-Current Operating Limit for Note: 1. Time plotted is that required for a given rms
Bare Stranded ACSR conductor. Upper temperature limit fault current to bring aluminum strands to the threshOld
645
0
C, ambient temperature4QoC. o/melting.
2. Graphs assume there is no heat loss in the conductor.
66
operating performance and problems
!IQOO
CURRENT
Fig. 62B. Maximum FaultCurrent Operating Limit for
Bare Stranded ACSR conductor. Upper temperature limit
645
0
C. temperature 400C.
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0005
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Note: 1. Time plotted is that required for a given rms
fault current to oring aluminum strands to the threshold
of melting.
2. Graphs assume there is no heat loss in the conductor.
67
bare aluminum wire and cable
3
2
10.
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7
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CURRENT IN AMPERES
Fig. 6-2C. Maximum Fault-Current Operating Limit for Note: I. Time plotted is that required for a given rms
Bare Stranded ACSR conductor. Upper temperature limit fault current to bring aluminum strands to the threshold
645
0
C, ambient temperature 400C. oJmelting.
2. Graphs assume there is no heat loss in the conductor.
68
operating performance and problems
Fault-Current Electro-Magnetic Forces Between
Parallel Bare Wires and Cables
Fault currents are more likely to cause thermal damage
to bare overhead conductors than mechanical damage.
However, the high electro-magnetic forces of fault cur
rents sometimes can be an important factor in line design
and equipment selection.
The electro-magnetic lateral force between long par
allel current-carrying conductors is proportional to the
product of the instantaneQus values of current in each con
ductor and inversely proportional to their distance apart.
See Eq. 6-1. For three-phase circuits, the vector direction
of the three forces as well as their instantaneous values
must be known.
The heat effects of short-circuit currents, as previously
mentioned, are stated in terms of root-mean-square sym
metrical amperes (I,m,) for alternating current (shown
in line CT in Fig. 6-5). However, for calculating the force
between parallel conductors under fault conditions, the
higher instantaneous value is normally used. The point of
initiation of a fault is usually referred to the voltage wave
because this is the non-variable: the current in both mag
nitude and phase angle is dependent on the load while the
voltage magnitude is practically constant and the phase
angle is fixed in time.
Transmission-line faults are practically limited in magni
tude only by the reactance of the faulted circuit. Under
this condition, with fallit current lagging nearly 90
0
, the
fault-current wave will be symmetrical if the fault is
initiated at the peak of the voltage wave, but it wi!! be
offset (similar to Fig. 6-5) if the fault is initiated at a
zero crossing of the voltage Wave.
For a fully offset wave, the instantaneous peak value,
i, approaches value OA, which for zero power factor ap
proaches 2.828 I,m. as a maximum. However, because the
inertia of the conductor prevents an instantaneous deflec
tion response to the applied force, some designers and
test authorities consider that a suitable current value for
computing maximum short--circuit force is the root-mean
square value of current in the first current loop, which
approaches the value represented by the line OR of Fig.
65 (at zero power factor = 1.732 X 1=,), designated
maximum rms asymmetrical current.
By similar analysis, equivalent values are obtained for
currents that provide electro-magnetic forces between the
conductors of a balanced three-phase circuit.
The following equation shows the relation between the
short-circuit current expressed in various ways, spacing
between conductors and lateral force.
5.4 X 1, Ie
F=G--- (Eq.61)
dlO
T
TABLE 6-1
Arc-Current Burndown Times on 60 Hz Basis
For Bare Conductors Under Tension
From Tests
I
:
!
Conductor.
I
I
!
tension Min i Min Min Min
Amp Description Ib cycles Amp cycles Amp cycles Amp cycles
!
!
,
..
i ,
2 AWG7/1 ACSR 1456 1350 3Jil
,
i
4800 10 4.5 9800 15,750 1
310 AWG6/1 ACSR 1326 4550 26 9100 14 15,500 8 18,600 7
i
410 AWG611 ACSR 1701 4450 53 8580 21 15,250 10 18,700 8
336.4 kcmil1811 1701 8425 15,200 12 25 18,800 10
ACSR
350kcmil19stt. 1076 4800 19 9600 11.3 12 15,200 18,200 8
1350
500 kcmil37 str. 1456 4800 42 8800 22.5 15,400 14 18,450 11
1350
I
:
I
!
The arC-<lUrrent burndown times are reported from tests at Baltimore Gas & Electric Co. in a paper by W. B. Goode and G. H.
Gaertner (Edison Electric Institute, Oct. 1965). These values, with those obtained from Figs. 6-1 and 6-2. show the com
parative times for burndown and normal fault"'CUrrent limit when there is no arcing to conductor sides.
6-9
bare aluminum wire and cable
where:
F = Pounds per linear foot of conductor
G = Multiplying factor, as in Table 6-2
I, and I, = Short-circuit current in each conductor
a-c symmetrical rms amp, or in d-c amp
d = Spacing between centerlines of conductors in
inches
Example: Assume a flat 3-phase circuit of 210 AWG-6/1 ACSR
on 7-ft spacing. subjected to a fault current of 20,000 amp rms
symmetrical (line CT of Fig. 6-5). What is the average lateral force
exerted on the center conductor caused by an rms symmetrical
fully inductive fault current in the first offset loop (line OR of Fig. 6-5)
without allowing for mechanical damping, caused by inertia, elasticity.
and side-sway friction?
From table 6-2(d) the applicable multiplying factor G is 4.17.
Applying Eq. 6-1, the average force F during the first current loop,
assuming zero power factor is
4.17 X 5.4 X 20,000
2
F =---------- 10.7 Ib per It
7 X 12 X !O,
Under fault conditions, the mechanical action of
stranded conductors, which usually have very long span
distances compared to separation distances, is different
from the action of more rigid bus conductors described
in Chapter 13. The conductors can slap together violent
ly-especially the subconductors of bundled conductor
lines-and traveling waves move longitudinally along the
line. Experience and testing have shown that this action is
not damaging to the mechanical strength of conductors or
insulators, but it must be carefully considered in the de
sign and selection of spacers and dampers.
Emergency Loading
Transmission and distribution conductors are oc
casionally subjected to current overloads, due to emer
gency conditions, which produce temperatures beyond the
normal thermal limit. Coincidence of peak loads with high
summer ambients, shifting of additional loads to an already
loaded conductor, and use of high loadings to prevent
icing are some reasons for such overloads.
The question of what maximum conductor tempera
tures should be permitted for emergency operation de
pends on how much loss of strength is allowable and how
long the emergency-load temperature continues. The effect
of heating is cumulative. As an example, if a conductor
is heated under emergency loading for ten hours each year
for a period of ten years, the total effect is nearly the
same as heating the conductor continuously at that tem
perature for 100 hours.
Fig. 6-3 delineates the effect of time on 1350-H19 alu
minum strand strength at three temperatures which are
of interest to power engineers. The curves permit estimates
of the change in strength of conductors which have carried
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100 90 80 70
PERCENT REMAINING OF INITIAL STRENGTH
10,000
5,000
1,000
500
100 en
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emergency overloads.
Fig. 6-3. Time-temperature percent strength remaining in
An example is cited, based on the following assumptions IJ50-HI9 wire. Tensile tests made at room temperature
which should not be considered typical. after wire exposure to the indicated temperatures.
6-10
9000
8000
7000
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6000
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3000
2000
o 100 200 300
TEMPERATURE DEGREE C
Fig. 6-4. Reduction of breaking strength of aluminum
and aluminum alloy stranded conductors of equivalent
conductance. Breaking strength tests were made at room
temperature after Vz hour exposure to elevated tempera
tures.
:
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!
(1) Emergency conditions exist for 24 hours each year.
(2) The uselullife 01 the conductor is 30 years.
operating performance and problems
( 3) Maximum temperature for emergency condition,
ISOoC (302
0
F)
(4) Conductor: 795 kcmil-37 str. 13S0-H19
At the end of 30 years, the conductor will have been
heated to 150
0
C for 720 hours. Using Fig. 6-3 as a guide
for the estimate. the strength of 13.900 Ib would be re
duced to approximately 10,600 Ib-about a 24"1. loss.
If the conductor were of the same size. but 2617 ACSR.
the strength would be reduced from 31.500 Ib to 28.200 lb.
or a 10 percent reduction. The advantage for ACSR is
due to the steel core, which is essentially unaffected by the
temperature range considered for emergency overloads.
Short time exposure to even higher temperatures can
occur, and Fig. 6-4 shows the effect of 112 hour of heat
ing on similar conductors of three different aluminum
alloys. Strength loss is rapid at temperatures above ISOoC.
For momentary exposure to elevated temperature. there
is much less reduction in strength. The cumulative effect
of a succession of short-time fault-currents during short
circuits where high temperatures are possible plus emer
gency operation at lower temperature can cause conductor
strength loss which is of concern. However, knowledge
of the actual conditions-current, time. ambient tempera
ture, wind velocity, conductor emissivity and the resulting
actual conductor temperatures is seldom very precise. The
"damage curves," Figs. 6-3 and 6-4, are also drawn from
data having inherent variability. They therefore may be
used only as a basis for a very approximate estimate of
the actual condition of the conductor.
The creep rates at l50'C of the all-aluminum and
aluminum alloy conductor are considerably higher than
those of corresponding sizes of ACSR at the same tempera
ture. As was noted in Chapter 5, the creep rate used for
predicting 10-year final sags and tensions is based on the
creep rate at 60F.
The analysis of the interaction of the thermal expansion
rates, component stress levels and differing creep rates at
elevated temperatures to determine the effect of high tem
peratures on final sags is very complex. High temperatures
for time periods w hleh may seem short in terms of the
life 01 the conductor can result in significant changes in
sag--especially for the conductor constructions which do
not have significant proportions of steel. A method of
practical calculations is presented in IEEE Paper TP
69-674-PWR by J. R. Harvey and R. E. Larson.
A t}'Pical practice is to limit emergency load tempera
tures to a maximum of 125'C.
Vibration and Fatigue of Overhead Conductors'
An unprotected or improperly protected overhead con
ductor may undergo wind-induced vibrations under cer
tain conditions to such an extent that fatigue failures of
strands will develop at points of restraint or support.
Similar failures have been observed at or near splices and
,. EPRI Handbook, "'Wind Induced Conductor Motion." contains an
excellent treatment of this subject.
611
bare aluminum wire and cable
TABLE 6-2
Multiplying Factors for Maximum Short Circuit Lateral Force Acting Upon Suspended Parallel Wires and Cables in various Arrange
ments Assuming Balanced Loading, in Terms of Direct, or of Symmetrical RMS Alternating Fault Current, Amp (Line CT,
Fig. 6-51 = I,m,
Arrangement of
circuit
Type ot circuit
and designation
of location on
currentwave of
fault-producing
current
Conductor
upon which
force is
applied
Multiplying
factor G
(al
(bl
A
0
A
0
d
d
B
0
B
0
Direct current*
'-phase a-c
symmetrical
1-phase a-<:
asymmetrical
Aor B
Aor B
Aor B
1_0
2.0
8.0
(cl
(dl
A ~
d 0
'< /A', Y
i B'
0--- -0
l - d ~ 1
l_d_l_d_1
A B C
0 0 0
I
1phase ac
rms of first loop
3-phase a-c
asymmetrical
3-phase a-<:
rms of first loop
3-phase a-c
asymmetrical
same
3-phase a-<:
rms of first loop
same
Aor B
A, B, or C
A, 8, or C
B
Aor C
B
Aor C
5.55
6.93
4.17
6.93
6.45
4.17
3.89
Although steadystate direct-current implies that a multiplying factor of 1.0 is satisfactory, the transient and overshoot at fault
initiation renders it common practice to use a factor of 2.0.
NOTES: All values assume a fully offset current wave in a fault of zero power factor without damping, or resonance effects from
support vibration.
See NEMA BU-' for adjustment factors if fault-current power factor differs from zero, as determined by XlR ratio.
This arrangement of factors differs from that of ANSI (37.32 because it is usual practice to designate fault currents of
apparatus and lines in terms of rms symmetrical amperes (I,m').
6-12
operating performance and problems
A
1\

Rr
'-,
0
DQ.
"-

S
B
B
, - i :... - I __
- - f-. r-- -===f> _-1-'
-
T__
I-J
-- ,- --
f"
-
T
,,--
/\ 1\0

-
c
\,
0
F
F
Distances represent comparative current values as follows: OS = I,,,,, asymmetrical of ac component
CT == It'lll" CB = l
lx
'lll> symmetrical EF = Minimum peak current values
OR ::: I,"" asymmetrical; limit to which value approaches
Norc: A value slated as closely approaching a designated limit
OA I""" asymmetrical; Hmit to which value approaches
is considered as cOlnciding with that limit for computation pur
OD = Peak of de component; limit to which value ap
poses. An osciJloscope trace shows that the difference is slight in
proaches
most cases,
Fig, 6-5. Typical curve 01 alternating current wave during offset short-circuit (X/ R aboUl 15).
other discontinuities, and damage may also occur to sup
porting structures and hardware.
These phenomena have been extensively studied at out
door test sites m which virtually any type of overhead
conductor operating condition can be duplicated. The
results of many years of sueh research have been made
available to the utility industry by cooperating manufac
turers and technical institutes and universities.
Conductor vibration and oscillation may be divided into
three general types;
l. Sway or side swing is the most obvious and simplest
form of conductor movement in an entire span. It
is caused by crosswinds or short-circuit forces,
2. Aeolian vibration is a resonant vibration, It is the least
readily observed and usually the most damaging type.
It is caused by steady crosswinds. The conductors vi
brate in much the same way as any string under
tension. Frequencies range from 2 to 200 Hz.
3. Gal/oping or dancing is the movement that sometimes
results when the interrelation of wind direction and
velocity. as well as of moisture and temperature, is
such that the conductor becomes eccentrically glazed
or ice-coated, A movement pattern develops in which
the entire span oscillates as a whole or in a few loops,
with amplitudes of several feet and at low frequency,
largely in a vertical direction, The envelope of mo
tion usually is an inclined ellipse, Galloping is re
ported to have been seen infrequently even with the
conductors free of ice,
Aeolian vibration and galloping present the most serious
problems, since either of them may lead to failure of eon
d uctor strands at points of support or at other discon
tinuities. The most common types of damage are actual
failures of the conductor, the hardware, or components
of the supports or towers, In addition, there might be
damage and service interruptions caused by phase-te-phase
or phase-to-ground contacts during severe galloping.
Aeolian Vibration ot Conductors
The accepted explanation of the wind-induced phe
nomenon known as aeolian vibration is as follows: When
a comparatively steady wind blows across an overhead
conductor under tension, vortices are detached at regular
intervals on die lee side of the conductor-alternately
from the top and bottom portions. The conductor is thus
repeatedly subjected to forces that are alternately im
pressed from above and below. The frequency of these
forces increases with increasing wind velocity and with
decreasing conductor diameter.
If the frequency of the forces corresponds approxi
mately to the frequency of a mode of resonant vibration
of the span, the conductor will tend to vibrate in many
loops in a vertical plane, As the amplitude of vibration
increases. the vortices tend to be detached in synchronism
613
bare aluminum wire and cable
with the vibration to increase the amplitude. The forces
impressed by the wind on the conductor produce traveling
waves that move away from the points of application of the
forces toward the ends of the span. Each wave, i.e., each
crest and trough, stores part of the energy it receives from
the wind during the course of its travel, in the form of in
creased amplitude-the crest becoming higher and the
trough deeper.
When a wave reaches the end of an undamped span
and is reflected, neither its amplitude nor the energy
stored in it is significantly diminished by the reflection.
During its subsequent travel, the wave acquires more
energy and greater amplitude until an equilibrium ampli
tude is reached where dissipation in the conductor matches
input energy. At the ends of the span the reflected traveling
waves are superimposed on incoming traveling waves,
thereby producing standing waves. The standing-wave
loops thus formed have frequencies that are multiples of
the fundamental frequency of the entire span.
The observed relative absence of vibrations at higher
wind velocities can be attributed in part to wind turbu
lence. Conductor vibration is usually not observed at wind
velocities above 15 mph, although where high tensions
are used and where there are steady winds of up to about
30 mph, conductor vibration has been observed. Another
reason why vibration of significant amplitude does not
generally occur at high wind velocities is that these cause
high vibration frequencies, and the self-damping or
internal dissipation of energy in a stranded conductor
increases rapidly with frequency.
The tendency of a conductor to vibrate increases
rapidly as conductor tension is increased. Conductor vi
bration is almost never observed at low stringing ten
sions; i.e., less than about 10 to 12 percent of ultimate
strength. Hence, even with dampers, limitations of 25
percent final tension and 33 percent of ultimate strength
initial tension with no ice or wind at the design loading
temperature were established for controlling aeolian
tion, and are nOw widely accepted.
No exact tension limit can be defined which will assure
complete self-damping protection, but only rarely has
fatigue damage been observed when tensions have been
12 percent of rated strength or less.
In certain areas where local wind turbulence caused by
broken terrain Or trees reduces the power input of wind,
somewhat higher tensions have been used on otherwise
unprotected spans without resultant vibration difficulties.
In exposed areas with steady winds, however, a few lines
with tensions as low as 11 percent of ultimate have suf
fered damage.
Fatigue of Conductor Strands
Close inspection of fatigue failures has shown that
cracks begin at fretted regions where the strands have
$: IEEE Transaction on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol.
PAS-87, No.6, June 1968, pp. 1381,1384, Fricke and Rawlins.
rubbed repeatedly against each other or against an armor
rod or clamp. Micrographic studies show that the surface
layer of a strand is severely disturbed by the fretting.
Cracks appear within the disturbed layer and-under the
vibration stresses present in the conductor-may pene
trate into the undisturbed metal below the fretted region.
The probable explanation of the phenomenon of fret
ting is as follows: Flexing of the conductor at the point of
support results in a small amount of movement between
adjacent strands in the conductor or between strands and
adjacent members. At the microscopic level, the contact
between metal surfaces is not a plane contact but rather
a contact between asperities (minute projections). The
intimate contact between asperities, aided by the wiping
action-which removes surface films-results in micro
scopic welds between the asperities. Further movement
between strands, however, breaks these welds or the
metal adjacent to the welds. When movements between
the strand surfaces are repeated a number of times, many
welds are made and broken, and a disturbed layer is
formed on the strand surface. Debris produced by the
fretting can be seen as a fine dust surroun<!jng the fretted
area. Cracks are graduallY opened in the disturbed
surface layer by the forces involved.
Vibration Dampers
Perhaps the first device of any value for reducing 'ibra
tion was the festoon damper, with one or more somewhat
loose auxiliary conductors from 4 to 12 ft. long clamped
to the tensioned conductor at each side of a suspension
point. It was not until about J930 that successful damp'
ing control was achieved by the introduction of the Stock
bridge damper, Fig. 6-7. This device consists of two
weights attached rigidly to the ends of a resilient steel
cable, which, in turn, is attached to the conductor by
means of a clamp at the midpoint. Because of the rela
tively large mass of the damper weights, the steel
porting damper cable is not stiff enough to force them
to follow accurately the motions of the cable clamp, and
this causes flexure of the damper cable, which results in
slipping between its strands with consequent dissipatior.
of mechanical energy from interstrand friction. If the
damper and conductor span can dissipate energy at a
greater rate than that at which the wind imparts it. :he
vibration of the span is suppressed to harmless prop."rj,,,lS.
The selection of damper sizes and the best placement
of them on the spans are determined by the tension,
weight, and diameter of the conductor and ,he expected
range of wind velocities. With new efficient damper de
signs and usual conductor tensions and span lengths, one
damper is installed near one span support point. For
long spans, additional dampers may be required. Tension
is normally taken as that for "final condition" at about
60'F. It has been found that protection from damaging
vibration is most evenly balanced over the range of ex
pected frequencies of line vibration when the damper is
spaced so it is approximately 70 percent of a free-loop
6-14
Fig. 6-6. Installing a 735,000-voll line of aluminum across
the St . Lawrence River.
length from the fixed end of the span for the highest ex
pected frequency, though this distance may vary with the
design of the damper. Determination of the free-loop
length is as follows:
f =3.26 V/ d
(Eq. 6-2)
and
(Tg/w) y,
FLL=-- -
(Eq. 6-3)
2f
where:
f =Frequency of conductor vibration, cycles per
sec
v = Wind velocity, mph
d = Conductor diameter, in
FLL =Free-loop length between amplitude peaks
of conductor vibration, ft
g = Acceleration of gravity, 32.2 ft/sec'
T =Conductor tension, Ib
w = Conductor weight, Ib per ft
Example: Assume a span of 795 kcmil 2617 ACSR at tension of
6250 Ib (20070 of rated strength) ("posed to a steady transverse wind
of up to 10 mph. Substituting values from the conductor tables.
From Eq . 6-2: f = 3.26 X 10/ 1.108 = 29.4 Hz. conductor vibration.
operating performance and problems
(6250 X 32.21 1.094) Vl
From EQ. 6 ) : FLL = = 7.J ft . free loop
2 X 29.4
length (from crest 10 crest on the same side of conductor), hence
the spacing would be approximately 0 .70 X 7.3 = S. ll ft from suppon .
Normally. the spacing is increased 0. 2 ft to allow fOT approximately
one half lenglh of Ihe suspension clamp Or insulalOr groove. Allhough
damper spacings usually are given (rom the center or Ihe suspension
clamp or insulalOr groove Ihe fixed end is more nearl y the point of
tangency near the end of (he clamp or groove. At dead end s. spacing
is measured from the mouth of the clamp. Precise data in this regard
should be obttti ned from the damper supplier.
Values from Eq. 6-3, modified as noted above , are plot
ted on Fig. 6-8 for a maximum steady wind velocity of
15 mph . For other maximum steady wind velocities,
factor the spacing by multiplying the JS mph di stance by
(IS/ preferred velocit y in mph). Fig. 6-9 shows a simil ar
solution where armor rods are used. Armor rods shorten
the end loop by II percent. When armor rods are used.
they should be of such length that dampers can be
mounted at proper s pacings just be yond the rod ends .
Dimensions of Stockbridge-type dampers, weights, and
recommendations as to the number to be used for various
span lengths are obtainable from the manufacturers.
Other types of vibration dampers have been used in
cluding torsional , impact, spiral, dash-pot , visco-elastic,
and variations of the Stockbridge with extra weights and
eccentric weights. The most popular system, however, is
the one described.
Spacers and Dampers for Bundled Conductors
Undamped horizontally bundled conductors used on
long-span high-voltage lines with spacers at the customary
250- to 3oo-ft intervals typically vibrate with about half
the amplitude of a single conductor of the same size under
identical conditions. It has been confirmed that the leeward
conductor of the pair usually vibrates at greater amplitude
than the windward conductor.
Stockbridge-type dampers are used on the individual
conductors of a bundled line. Spacer-dampers, designed to
dissipate vibration energy, are also used frequently. They
are popular on lines employing three or four subcon
ductors per phase. and provide vibration control as well
as the spacing function.
Figs. 6-10 and 6-11 depict typical types of spacer
dampers. The spherical configuration of the end clamps
of spacer-dampers used on EHV lines reduces surface
gradients, thereby avoiding corona.
Fig. 6-7. A Stockbridge damper.
615

bare aluminum wire and cable

l'.IotO
,.,""


'000
"'"
'"'"
(1)00
,...
lOOO
lOOO5
lOOO
CO"-iDUcrOIl: OIAMliTEIl: INCHES
(Use rhis graph when armor rods are not employed,)
T = Conductor tension Ib at average temperature.
W Conductor weight Ib/rr.
Fig. 68. Spacing between damper and tangent support
center to center or to mouth oj dead end. 15 mph maxi
mum vibration inducing wind velocity assumed.
. . . .

\

\
,
\ \1 \ \ \ \ 1\
\ \ \ \ \ \ . \
'"
l
I
\ \. \ \ i\ \ \ \ \. \
\
\
\ 1\ \ \. \
1\ \
1\
\
\ \ 1\ \
\ 1\ \ 1\
\
\
\
\\\\ \
1\ 1\
\
! I
\


1\1\, \
\
\
\


1\ \1\ I
(Use this I(raph when armor rods are employed.)
T = Conductor tension Ib at average temperature.
W = Conductor weight lb/ft.
0.2
SPACINC -INCHES
",e 1.0
CONO\J(TOP DIAMETeR - INCHES.
,
,
0000
,
"0

'"
..
"'''
"
000
,
,
Fig. 69. Spacing between damper and tangem suppOrt
center 10 center or to mouth oj dead end. 15 mph maxi
mum vibrationinducing wind velocity assumed.
Fig. 610. EHV 21e bundle/phase spacerdamper. Fig. 6-11. EHV3/e bundle/pnasespacerdamper.
6-16