Wear

Steve Roberts - Surface Engineering - Wear 1

Types of Wear

Mild Wear

Severe Wear

Material Loss after plastic flow

Material Loss with oxidation / chemical attack

Material Loss after plastic flow (metals)

Material Loss by fracture with no plastic flow (ceramics)

Abrasive Lubricated Unlubricate d Non-abrasive Abrasive

Steve Roberts - Surface Engineering - Wear

Adhesive Wear by plasticity

!

Material is lost by fracture of asperities after contact

Asperity contact and junction formation

Fracture of one side of junction and material transfer

Secondary asperity contact leads to loss of transferred material

Steve Roberts - Surface Engineering - Wear

Archard Wear Equation

W
Assume material to be lost is related to the size of the contact between asperities: e.g. V = 2/3 a3
V a 2 = Local Wear rate = 3 a

V
2a

( is fraction of contacts giving rise to a wear particle) - adding up contributions from all asperity contacts (H = hardness of the softer of the asperities) - adding up contributions from all asperity contacts ...; the Archard Wear Equation, with K, the Archard Wear Co-efficientt with k = K / H: units: m2 N-1, or, often, mm3 m-1 N-1

Q, Total wear rate = Also So

a 2 3

W = H a2
W = H a 2 W W Q= =K 3H H

or...

Q=kW

Steve Roberts - Surface Engineering - Wear

Predictions of the Archard Model

!

Loss of material through wear should be proportional to sliding length, or time.

Unsually true, but may be running-in effects

Wear rate should be proportional to applied load

Fairly true, but may be transitions to different wear mechanisms as load changes 10-1 Wear Rate (mm3 m-1) 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 10-6 0.1 1 10 Load (N) 100

Wear rate should be independent of apparent contact area (for a given load) or, for given contact stress, increases linearly with apparent contact area.
Usually true

Brass

Wear rate independent of sliding speed.

Fairly true, but high speeds may cause heating and transition to different wear mechanism.

Stainless Steel

Pin-on-disc on tool steel, unlubricated. Steve Roberts - Surface Engineering - Wear 5

Values of Wear Co-efficient, K

Disc material Mild steel l steel / brass brass Copper / beryllium Stellite Pin Material mild steel tool steel tool steel tool steel tool steel tool steel K (dimensionless)

Note:
Wear rates vary by factor of about 100000x, while friction co-efficients vary by factor about 2x, (5x at most) Wear rate not directly reated to friction co-efficient (see polymers) Wear rate can depend on load (see previous page)

7 x 10-3 1.3 x 10-4 6 x 10-4 1.7 x 10 5.5 x 10

-4

3.7 x 10-5
-5

Ferritic stainless steel tool steel PTFE PMMA Polyethylene tool steel tool steel tool steel

1.7 x 10-5 2.5 x 10-5 7 x 10-6 1.3 x 10-7

(values are for unlubricated sliding in pin-on-ring tests.

Steve Roberts - Surface Engineering - Wear

Transition between MILD and SEVERE wear

Contact resistance ()

1
Wear Rate (mm3m-1)

10 / brass on stellite (unlubricated) 1

wear rate

10-2 10-4 10-6

1 Mild Wear

0.1
resistance

0.01 0.001

10

Load (N)

100

1000 Severe Wear

K=~2x = ~0.15

10-6

K = ~ 10-4 = ~0.3 Ra = ~25 m Wear debris: large metallic particles (20-200m) Wear rate of brass >>wear rate of stellite Disastrous 7

Ra = ~0.5 m Wear debris: fine oxide particles (0.01 - 1m) Wear rate of brass wear rate of stellite Possibly tolerable (for short times) Steve Roberts - Surface Engineering - Wear

Mild Wear: oxide layers and transfer films

Mild wear is essentially wear of the oxide film on each of the contacting surfaces;
What are the properties of these films ? Composition: (for the brass / steel case) Oxide Mixture 60 Composiiton (%) Hardness (GPa) Cu 40 Zn 20 Fe 0 0 20 40 60 80 Depth below surface (m) Metal 6 (N.B. true hardness masked by convolution effects.) Hardness:

0 0 20 40 60 80 Depth below surface (m)

Formation:

Initial severe wear period in which brass layer transfers to steel; Brass hardens by work hardening and pick up of oxide; Early transfer layer back-transfers to Brass; Final state: Brass surface of mixed oxides and back-transferred brass; Steel surface of oxides. 8

Steve Roberts - Surface Engineering - Wear

Transition to Severe Wear

Balance between: wear of oxide films; formation rate of oxide films; wear of bare metal surfaces. ... at the sliding speed used. Wear of Oxide Films (see wear of ceramics) probably by action of loose oxide particles (N.B. wear of steel in mild wear against brass is >> than in severe wear) Formation Rate of Oxides depends on temperature and atmosphere

Wear of Metals depends on load, hardness, etc. (see earlier)

Wear rate (mm3m-1)

1 10-1 10-2 10-3

20C (air) 300C (air)

400C (air)

300C (O2)

10-4

10-2
Sliding Speed (m s-1)

Low Speeds / High Temperature / High pO2: Oxide film has time to form mild wear. High Speeds / High Temperature: Frictional heating enhances oxide film formation - mild wear. Intermediate conditions: Oxide film removed faster than it can form- severe wear. 9

Steve Roberts - Surface Engineering - Wear

Mild

Wear mechanism maps

(Lim, Ashby & Brunton, Acta Met. 35 1987 1343)

Severe 10
Delamination Metal / metal High

Steels

Load- and velocity- controlled transitions between wear modes (as on previous pages)

Seizure Contact pressure P/AH

0.1

Melting in metal

Heavy oxidation - plastic flow or melting in oxide Thick oxide film supported by hardened (martensitic?) substrate. Higher loadthick oxide flim penetrated

10-3

Delamination Oxide / oxide Low Thin cohesive oxide flims

10-5 10-4 10-2 1 100

Sliding velocity (m s-1)

Enhanced oxidation from asperity friction heating Thick flaky oxide films 10

Steve Roberts - Surface Engineering - Wear

Fretting
Surfaces in contact with oscillating sideways load, usually below that required for gross sliding. e.g. joints and interfaces subjected to vibration. Microslip at some asperities causing mild wear (N.B. atmosphere is important - fine oxide debris, 0.01-0.1m) no O2 means 6x drop in wear rate ) may cause: seizure if debris is trapped (usually is to some extent: distinguishing feature of fretting) loosening of joint if debris can escape ... shading into normal sliding wear (lubricated by fine oxide particles) .... or abrasive wear if the oxide is hard w.r.t. substrates (e.g. Al) fatigue in the surfaces near the contact.
100

Stainless steel, ball on flat

ck

reciprocating sliding

Wear rate (mm3m-1)

sti

Normal Load (N)

Mixed stick & slip

of sli p

Slip

Stick
10

10-14
Stick

&

M ixt

10-15

Gross slip in contact area 1 10 100 Displacement (m)

0.1

10-16 0 1 10 100 1000 Displacement (m) 11

Steve Roberts - Surface Engineering - Wear

Recip. sliding

ur e

Abrasive wear of metals

Wear as a result of hard particles (or hard asperities) contacting a surface. How hard ? Generally can get penetration of hard point into surface if Hpoint >~ 1.2 Hsurface Material Diamond SiC Al2O3 SiO2 Glass VHN 6 - 10000 2400 2000 750- 1200 ~500 Material VHN

Ferrite 70 - 200 Austenite 170 - 600 Pearlite 250 - 460 Au Al Al 2000 Brass Mo W Cr (cast) Cr plate Rh plate 30 -70 25 - 45 100 - 170 80 - 140 160 - 180 260 - 1000 100 - 170 500 - 1250 800 12

840 - 1100 Fe3C Martensite 500 - 1000 Cr3C7 1200 - 1600 Even martensite is likely to be abraded by silica.

Steve Roberts - Surface Engineering - Wear

Abrasive wear of metals- mechanisms

W = H a2 / 2 = (H / 2) (x tan)2

H is hardness of substrate. A

If the abrasive point travels through distance !:, material displaced, q: q =ax = x2 tan
2 W = H tan

!
W x a

( is fraction of track that becomes wear debris)

Summing over all contacts: Q = KW / H .... exactly the same form as the Archard Wear Equation for adhesive wear. K = ~ 5 - 50 x 10-3 for two body wear, ~ 0.5 - 5 x 10-3 for three-body wear
Steve Roberts - Surface Engineering - Wear

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Abrasive wear and substrate hardness

60
W Relative wear resistance (arb. units)

Different hardening mechanisms have different effects on abrasive wear rate: Intrinsic hardness (ease of dislocation motion) Direct correlation; best correlation is with hardness of the worn surface. Work hardening No effect, as the strains in the process zone are as high as or higher than those used in cold working. Precipitation hardening Depends on precipitate type and their repsonse to high strains: Hard, fine, ppts., as in tool steels, have some effect, as high strains do not eliminate them. Larger, soft, ppts., as in Al alloys, have little effect - they get chopped up by plastic flow to these high strains.

Be

40

Mo Ti Cr

els e t S ol o T
0.4% C Steel

20

Fe Ni Pure metal Heat - treated Cold - worked

Cu Cd Al 0 Pb

200

400

600

800 1000

Hardness (VHN, kg / mm2) Steve Roberts - Surface Engineering - Wear 14

Abrasive wear of Steels 3

Relative Wear Rate
Bainitic Austenitic These show effects of trade-offs between hardness, ductility and work-hardening rate Austenitic steels: high strain to failure, high workhardening rate and thus less of materials displaced breaks away in wear track of a given size (determined by hardness) Martensitic steels: low strain to failure, low w.h. rate: most of wear track becomes wear fragments

2
Martensitic Pearlitic

1
0

200

400

600

800 1000

Pearlite & Bainite: intermediate. [Ferrous alloys with extreme hardness and brittleness (e.g. white cast irons) may behave like brittle ceramics and have very high wear rates for their hardness]

Hardness (kg mm-2)

Alloy Content Increase

Carbon Content Increase

Workhardening Steve Roberts - Surface Engineering - Wear

Note effects of increasing carbide and alloy carbide on hardness and wear resistance.

15

Abrasive wear of metals- size effects

Note unit - dependence on load Wear rates (mm3m-1kg-1) 0.04 1.2 0.03 2 0.8 0.02 1.0 Er. 3 2.0 This effect is probably due to a genuine increase in flow stress (hardness) as the scale of contact is reduced. This can be studied using microhardness and nanoindentation. Useful effect as filtering of lubricants and gas streams can remove larger particles easily.

0.4

0.01

Copper
0 250

0 0 50 100 150 200 Abrasive particle size (m)

2 - body 3 body

Steve Roberts - Surface Engineering - Wear

Erosion rate (mg g-1)

16

Abrasive wear of metals- abrasive particle shape

100m

Cutting
Larger Higher load less ductile substrate lower E/H substrate

Abrasive SiO2 particles

100m

Ploughing

Steve Roberts - Surface Engineering - Wear

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Wear of ceramics - non abrasive

Mild wear regime - mechanisms:

Plastic flow in surface of ceramic (like metal)

Most likely at low loads, if environmental effects (e.g. H2O - enhanced plasticity), or for small abrasive particle sizes - i.e. staying below the Griffith criterion e.g. fine polishing of ceramics Plastic flow in surface oxide film or hydrated layer May be difficult to distinguish! Dissolution of surface oxide film or hydrated layer Most likely if environment tends e.g. Syton polishing of semiconductors to produce a soft oxide film. Cerium oxide polishing of optical glass

Alumina - unlubricated
1000 1000

Alumina - lubricated 10-4 Severe (i-g. fracture)

Transfer to severe wear with increasing load, etc.

Load (N)

100

10

10-3 Mild 10-4 Severe (plastic) -5 10 (i-g. fracture)

0.01 0.1 1

Load (N)

Ultra-Severe (t-g. fracture)

100

10-5

10

10-6

Mild (plastic)

1 0.001

1 0.001 0.01 0.1 1

Sliding Speed (m s-1) Steve Roberts - Surface Engineering - Wear

Sliding Speed (m s-1) 18

Abrasive wear of ceramics

What happens on putting a sharp indentation (like a Vickers indentation) is a reasonable analogue for brittle abrasive wear. The sequence of loading 1-6 is also what happens as an abrasive particle passes over a surface

Load Plastic zone

Median crack 4

500g indentation in silicon

5 Lateral cracks

Steve Roberts - Surface Engineering - Wear

19

Abrasive wear of ceramics (2)

w d Various theories: e.g.
w 4 c = KIc w 2 d= H
1 3

( is a dimensioned constant that depends on particle shape) (d is directly related to indentation size)

E, H, KIc

Q = wear rate= 2 d c per particle per unit length If N particles, and total load W (so w = W / N)
Q= N w 4
3 5 1 = N 4

W 4
3

Even if the abrasive particle is sharp, a critical load w* is needed to nucleate the lateral cracks. Typically this is a few grammes: Theoretically: w* KIc4 / H3. (Softer, tougher materials wont crack)

KIc

1 H 2

KIc

1 H 2

If particle spacing particle radius, r , then N r-2:

1 Q = r 2

W 4
1 KIc 4 H 2 3

Wear rate should go as (particle size)

Steve Roberts - Surface Engineering - Wear

20

Wear of polymers
Three basic mechanisms: Adhesive wear - similar to metals : transfer films, repeated back transfer leading to wear particles. At low loads, aligned transfer films can lead to very low wear rates (e.g. PTFE) Wear Co-efficient (mm3m-1N-1)

10

Abrasive wear - fairly similar to metals Fatigue wear not common as dominant mechanism in metals (Polymers have v low E)

1
Gradual change in dominant mechanism

0.1

0.001

0.01

0.1

10

N.B. Unlike Metals, Polymers are commonly used unlubricated against metal counterfaces in engineering.

Counterface roughness Ra (m) (PE on Steel) Steve Roberts - Surface Engineering - Wear 21

Wear of polymers - Abrasive wear

E / H is about 10x smaller for polymers than for metals:

Transfer from elastic to plastic behaviour at higher levels of roughness and load

Even when abrasive

contact, still lots of elastic deformation: For metals, abrasive wear rate proportional to 1 / H For polymers, better correlation is to 1 UTS UTS (Energy at failure)

Wear Co-efficient (mm3m-1N-1)

10-1
PMMA

10-2
PP Acetal PTFE Nylon 6,6 LDPE

PS

Fatigue processes become more

important for: Low E / H polymers Smoother counterfaces

10-3 10-4
0.01

0.1
1

10

100

UTS UTS (mm2kg-1)

22

Steve Roberts - Surface Engineering - Wear

Wear of polymers - fatigue wear

Repeated elastic contacts at asperities grow cracks normal to the surface

Crack follows Paris Law: many passes (n

n dc = A ( K )n = A n c 2 dN

1.5 - 3.5 for elastomers, 3 - 10 for hard plastics

If c at fracture is >> initial c: N at fracture, Nf

1 / n

Assume Hertzian contact (see techniques, 22)

a w1/3 r1/3 w1/3 r-2/3 q a2cf / Nf

If volume lost a2cf,, then wear rate per unit sliding length: (assume cf constant)

q r2(1-n)/3 w(2+n)/3
2a

Predicts:

Wear rate follows normal fatigue n and A. ! Wear rate strongly dependent on load ! Wear rate strongly dependent on roughness of !
counterface Cracks normal to sliding direction

!
23

Steve Roberts - Surface Engineering - Wear

Erosion

Liquid, Gas or Vacuum Solid or liquid Few m/s to few 100 m/s Angle of incidence,

Ductile or brittle material

Like abrasive wear in many ways, but: Strain rates much higher (liquid drops can cause severe erosion, especially on brittle materials) Fluid dynamics of gas or liquid flow may be important Angle of incidence is an important variable

Steve Roberts - Surface Engineering - Wear

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Erosion of ductile and brittle materials

Brittle
Ductile Erosion rate Brittle

30

60

90

Angle of incidence

Ductile

Whether brittle or ductile behaviour is obtained for a particular material may depend on particle size particle shape impact speed temperature

Steve Roberts - Surface Engineering - Wear

25

Erosion of ductile materials

Volume of the indentation: U m x A(x) density

V=

A(x) dx
0

So: mU2 V= 2H Assume some proportion (or multiple?) K of V is removed per impact, so mass removed:

Model the impact as indentation by particle giving final depth d: Work done during the impact:

mU2 M = K 2H
Erosion rate is defined as mass removed per unit mass of impacting particles:

H A(x) dx = 1 mU2
2

K U2 E= 2H

or:

K U2 f ( ) E= 2H

...like abrasive wear with U2 equivalent to load

Steve Roberts - Surface Engineering - Wear

26

Erosion of ductile materials (2)

What controls f() ?

low : machining Very low : ploughing In all case, multiple impacts probably needed to remove material. Like in abrasive wear, K will depend on the materials ductility (workhardenability) as well as hardness.... at the temperature and strain rate of the erosive process. Steve Roberts - Surface Engineering - Wear 10m Mild steel, angular SiC at 55 m/s, 30 incidence

high : indenting

50m Aluminium, glass spheres at 60 m/s, 90 incidence

27

Erosion of ductile materials (3)

Effects of strain rate
Approximate impact to that of a sphere, radius r:
3H " 1 U1/ 2 2 5r particle
1/ 4

25

Ductile metals Less ductile metals

20 Erosion resistance Mo Ni 10 Cu Al 5 Fe

Typical strain rates are 104 to 107 s-1. At these strain rates, most hardening methods are fairly ineffective. The reduction in ductility that precipitates, etc, produce may even lead to an increase in erosion rate. The (fully cold worked / eroded) hardness of the basic metal is a fairly good guide to erosion resistance, 1 / (erosion rate), within the ductile or less ductile groups.

15

Ni alloys Steels Tool Steels

Bronzes, brasses Al alloys effect of workhardening

0 0 200 400 600 800 1000

Hardness (VHN)

Steve Roberts - Surface Engineering - Wear

28

Erosion of brittle materials

5 m

1 min

Alumina, angular SiC (1mm diam) at ~2.5 m/s, 90incidence At this speed, each impact is equivalent to indenting with ~150g load - easily enough to cause lateral fracture.

10 hours

Mention Liqid Drop Erosion Steve Roberts - Surface Engineering - Wear

5 m 29

Erosion of brittle materials (2)

Models for the process are generally based
on the dynamics of a single impact, and the size of lateral cracks formed. Erosion rate (mm3 / impact) (Though there is strong evidence that multiple impacts are needed to generate much debris). Typically (for normal incidence):
n 0.7 m particle p E= Ar U H 1.3 K Ic

? MgO 10-5 Si H.P. Al2O3 H.P. SiC H.P. Si3N4 10-7 10-8 KIc H-0.1 [ Recent work shows 10-20x variation in Erosion rate with grain size in Al2O3, even though KIc and H stay the same]
-1.3

Glass

10-6

Sint. Al2O3

Where the exponents are in the ranges: m ~2.5 - 3.5 n ~ 0.2 - 0.6 p ~ -0.25 - 0.1 Strongest influences are predicted to be the impact velocity of the particles and the fracture toughness of the substrate. Also dependence on particle size - and below some critical r, not enough energy to generate fracture. "plasticity control Steve Roberts - Surface Engineering - Wear

10-7

30

Erosion of polymers

Elastomers (e.g. rubber) Particles bounce off ! V. low erosion rate

Ductile polymers (e.g. nylon, PVC) Ductile erosion high erosion rate

Glassy polymers (e.g. PMMA, PS) Brittle erosion V. high erosion rate

Increasing impact speed (Strong dependence) Increasing particle size (weak dependence) Increasing temperature (dependence v. material-sensitive)

Steve Roberts - Surface Engineering - Wear

31