Advance Heat Rate - 6.11

Advance Heat Rate analysis
Created by:K.Bhanu Prakash +919717298317 Date:06.11.2011
Coal to power
It is more convenient to express the energy content of coal, gas, oil or any fuel in MWh and not in kCal or MJ. Coal with a GCV of 4000 kCal/ kg has 4000 kCal/ 860 = 4.65 kWh per kg, or 4.65 MWh per ton. In case one ton of this coal is fired in a power plant with a system efficiency of 33%, we would generate 4.65 x 0.33 = 1.53 MWh of electricity.
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Heat Rate
Heat rate is defined [kWh (kJ/kWh)] the amount of heat input into a system divided by the amount of power generated by a system.
Designed heat rate and operating heat rate are different
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Operating heat rate

Operating heat rate is calculated from the heat energy consumed by a unit or station for a specified time period regardless of the operating status of the unit or station. A common utility practice is the use of an accounting heat rate which is the ratio of the total fuel consumed by the unit or station divided by the gross electrical energy produced by the generator. The fuel input into the furnace or the unit, is the fuel consumed by the unit, multiplied by the fuels heating value. The total fuel consumed is considered in the heat rate calculation including fuel used during light-off and start-up.
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Reasons for deviation

Differences between "as-designed" and operating" conditions are because of the following factors 1. Extraction line pressure drops 2. Re-heater pressure drops 3. Turbine design deficiencies 4. HP, IP, and LP efficiencies 5. Boiler design deficiencies 6. Superheat and Reheat spray flow 7. Excess air requirement 8. Pre-heater efficiency 9. Fuel quality
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Factors not included in as designed

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Heater vents Pump seal and leakoff flows Steam traps Plant auxiliary steam usage Cycle leakages Soot blowers steam usage Coal handling power consumption Steam coils Different fuel characteristics (grindability, HHV, moisture, ash)
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Best achievable heat rate

The best achievable heat rate is a realistic value because it was once attained and can be achieved again if cost justified. To exceed the best achievable heat rate equipment modification and/or enhanced operating practices will have to occur. Many times during the course of a unit's operating life it is modified in a manner which directly affects heat rate performance.
Heat rate curves
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Cost of Heat Rate Deviation

Calculating the annual fuel cost associated with slight deviations from the plants target heat rate can be enlightening since small changes have a more profound impact than one might expect. If a plants target heat rate is 2300 Kcal/KWh and the actual value is 2350Kcal/kWh, what is the increase in annual fuel cost?
Change in Annual Fuel Cost (Rs/year) = HRD/BE FC CF UGC T Where: HRD Heat Rate Deviation (net unit or turbine cycle heat rate) BE FC CF UGC T=
Boiler Efficiency = 0.88 Fuel Cost/1,000,Kcal Unit Capacity Factor = 0.85 Unit Gross Capacity = 500,000 kW 8760 hrs/year
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Losses in power plant
Source EPRI
Uncontrollable conditions
Conditions which affect unit performance that are not controllable are
air inlet temperature, cooling water temperature, and fuel quality.
The expected design net heat rate and best achievable net heat rate have to be adjusted for these conditions. Once adjusted for these uncontrollable conditions then a comparison can be made between actual and expected (design and/or best achievable) heat rates.
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Obstacles for accurate unit heat rate
The obstacles to calculating an accurate heat rate for a coal-fired unit using this method are: The difficulty of accurately assessing the quantity of coal which has been diverted to the stockpile. The inaccuracies of the as-received coal scales and the large uncertainty associated with measurements made over long periods of time. The use of an average heating value for a fuel whose heating value may vary widely with different fuel suppliers.
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Basic Thermodynamics
CYCLE ANALYSIS
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Carnot Cycle efficiency

Thermal efficiency The thermal efficiency of any power cycle is maximized if the heat supplied to the cycle is supplied at the highest possible temperature and the heat rejected from the cycle is rejected at the lowest possible temperature = [Tmax- Tmin]/ Tmax
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Carnot cycle
Rankine Cycle
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Improvements in cycle efficiency

Superheating
thermal efficiency of a power cycle is increased if the heat supplied to the cycle is supplied at a higher temperature. One way to increase the temperature at which heat is supplied is to superheat the steam above the saturation temperature.
The increase in cycle efficiency can be seen by noting that the ratio of areas 3 - 3 ' - 4 ' -4 to b - 4 - 4'-b' is larger than the ratio of net work to heat rejected for the original cycle (l-2-3-4/a-l-4-b). Also, the quality of steam improves by superheating
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Effects of cycle parameters Increasing Pressure

Increasing the pressure at which the boiler evaporates steam increases the saturation temperature which results in an increase in the average temperature of heat addition. This increase in temperature results in an increase in thermal efficiency
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Lowering exhaust pressure
The increase in cycle efficiency as a result of lowering the pressure (and the temperature) at which the steam is condensed can be seen in The shaded area 1'2'2144' represents the increase in available work from the cycle. This area also represents a decrease in the total cycle heat rejection
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reheating
Increasing the average temperature of heat addition increases the cycle efficiency. Reheating the steam after it has partially expanded through the turbine increases the average temperature of heat addition. Additional reheating will continue to increase the cycle efficiency; however, the incremental gain for each additional reheat will decrease. It should be noted that an additional benefit of reheating is to provide drier steam in the last stages of the turbine, point 4 compared
to 4'.
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Feed water heating

A portion of the steam is extracted and sent to a feedwater heater operating. The remainder of the steam expands through the steam turbine. Heat is rejected as the turbine exhaust steam is condensed in process 7-1. The condensate is pumped to the feedwater heater and mixed with the turbine extraction steam to become saturated liquid at state 3. The feedwater is pumped to the boiler pressure (state 4), heated to saturation, and evaporated in the boiler to reenter the turbine at state 5. The low temperature heat addition into the cycle (2-3) is avoided and the improvement in efficiency comes from the increase in the average temperature of heat addition.
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Feed water heaters

Reversible heat transfer and an infinite number of feedwater heaters would result in a cycle efficiency equal to the Carnot cycle efficiency. The greater the number of feedwater heaters used, the better the cycle efficiency additional heater results in lower incremental heat rate improvement because of the decreasing benefit of approaching an ideal regenerative feedwater heating cycle. Because of the diminishing improvement in cycle efficiency, increasing capital costs, and turbine physical arrangement limitations, the economic benefit of additional heaters is limited.
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Turbine Performance Test code
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Background
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Test code usefulness
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PTC 6
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Full scale test
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Alternate test
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Timing of tests
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List of isolations
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Duplicate test runs
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Permissible variations
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Test duration
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Turbine heat consumption tests
Plant should be in a good condition Ensure no tube leakage in feed heaters Test instruments should be of test accuracy The instruments should be calibrated immediately before the tests The unit should be kept at a steady loading The tests should be of one hour duration Efforts should be made to keep the fluctuations minimum {[Ms( H1-hf) +Mr(H3 H2) + Mis(hf- his)+ Mir(H3-hir)] / Pg } X 3600
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Cylinder efficiency tests

Cylinder efficiency = actual heat drop /isentropic heat drop Typical values of cylinder efficiencies of 500MW out put machines are HP cylinder 89%: this is because, the HP blades are short, consequently high tip losses IP cylinder efficiency 92% larger blade losses with reduced tip losses LP cylinder 80% blades are long , velocities are high, there is a wetness in steam, steam flow path is flared Typical losses in heat rate for 1% point change in cylinder efficiency are as follows
HP cylinder IP cylinder IP/LP cylinder LP cylinder
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0.2% heat rate 0.25% heat rate 0.75% heat rate 0.5% heat rate
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Corrections to heat rate
Corrections to heat rate and output may be made for ASME PTC-6 group 1 and 2 corrections such as: 1. Absolute condenser back pressure 2. Main steam or throttle pressure 3. Main steam or throttle temperature 4. Reheat steam temperature 5. Reheater pressure drop 6. Feedwater heater performance 7. Make-up flow rate 8. Generator conditions 9. Condenser - Condensate temperature depression
Effect of Throttle temperature

1. For a fixed throttle value position, throttle flow is inversely proportional to throttle temperature as shown in this equation: W= KAP 1/sqrt[T] where: W = steam flow (kg/hr) K = constant A = area, (m2) P = steam pressure, (kPa) T = steam temperature, ( C) Therefore, if the throttle temperature rises the flow will decrease. 2. An increase in throttle temperature will increase the available energy in the main steam. 3. A decrease in throttle flow decreases the total exhaust loss in the low pressure turbine which results in an increase in low pressure turbine efficiency and Fuzeilentext an increase in unit load. Donnerstag, 10. November
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Effect of throttle steam pressure

As with main steam temperature a change in main steam pressure can affect the unit load in three ways. 1. From equation 3-35 a 5% increase in initial pressure will result in a 5% increase in steam flow which will in turn cause a 5% unit load increase. 2. The increase in flow will cause an increase in steam velocity leaving the last stage, increasing the total exhaust loss. An increase in exhaust loss results in poorer low pressure turbine efficiency. 3. The throttle available energy increases as the pressure increases. The net result is a load increase of 4.9% at rated load. The increase in output would be greater at lower loads because turbine exhaust losses improve with increased pressure at loads less than 50%. With increased energy in the steam it can be seen from equation 3-36 that the turbine heat rate will improve. Donnerstag, 10. November Fuzeilentext
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Effects of pressure drops
Pressure drops occur in various components without doing any work. Component Pressure Drop 1. Turbine stop valves 2% 2. Control valves (VWO) 2% 3. Boiler reheater 7-10% 4. Reheat stop and intercept valves 2% Turbine crossover 3% As a general rule a 1% pressure drop can cause about .1% effect on the unit heat rate. The pressure losses listed above could affect the heat rate as much as 1.9%.
Efficiency drop test[HP]

Using the inlet and outlet conditions on each turbine section, turbine section efficiencies are calculated. Turbine efficiency is defined as the actual enthalpy drop (or used energy) divided by the isentropic enthalpy drop (or available energy). The actual enthalpy drop is the inlet enthalpy minus the exit enthalpy at test conditions. Example: Throttle Conditions HP Exhaust Conditions Pressure 2345.1 psi (16169 kPa) 556.7 psi (3838.3 kPa) Temperature 1049.1 qF (565 qC) 680.5 qF (360 qC) Enthalpy 1495 btu/lb (3477 kJ/kg) 1343.1 btu/lb (3124 kJ/kg) Enthalpy at 556.7 psia (3838.3 kPa) with no change in entropy = 1309 btu/lb (3044.7 kJ/kg) EFFHP = (1495 1343) / (1495 1309) 100= 82 %
Throttle pressure
Utility Average: Percent change in heat rate= 0.036%/100 Kpa Possible Causes of Deviation x Feedwater flow too low (once-through units) x Firing rate inadequate x Instrument x Start-up/Silica x Inadequate BFP/BFPT problems x Recirculation valves leaking x Pump problems Possible Corrections Operator controllable: x Increase feedwater flow x Increase firing rate (manual control only) x Increase blowdown rate x Instrument calibration Maintenance Correctable: x Pumps x Valves
Reheat temperature
Utility Average: Percent change in heat rate= 0.27%/10 C Possible Causes of Deviation x Reheat attemperation control problems x Reheat attemperation control valve leakage x Fouling of the reheater (low temperature) x Fouling of the boiler waterwall (high temperature) x Fouling of the superheater x High excess air x Burner tilts mispositioned/broken x Bypass dampers mispositioned/if applicable x Reheater tube leaks x Incorrect amount of reheater heat transfer surface x Mill out of service/mill biasing x Improper biasing of secondary air Possible Corrections Operator Controllable: x Blow soot/selective x Adjust burner tilts x Adjust bypass damper settings
Condenser pressure
Utility Average: Percent change in heat rate= +.25%/.1 Absolute Back Pressure Possible Causes of Deviation x Air inleakage x Excess condenser load x Tube fouling CW flow low ASME PTC 12.2 Performance Test Code for Steam Surface Condensers
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Possible reasons and corrections

Tube bundle x Design problem caused air binding and excessive pressure drop x Steam by-pass into air cooling section x Low circulating water flow Continuous priming system Vacuum breakers Correct number of CW pumps Clogged traveling water screen Increases in circulating water inlet temperature caused by: Changes in ambient conditions Problems with cooling tower performance x Proper condenser setup (LP and HP condensers) and bundle design x Poor performance from steam-jet air ejector (SJAE) and vacuum pumps x Fouled water boxes and tube sheet Possible Corrections Operator Controllable: x Increase circulating water flow/additional CW pump x Add an additional vacuum pump x Check cycle isolation x Place additional cooling tower cells in service x Maintain proper LP and HP service water x Proper operation of Amertap tap systems Donnerstag, 10. November x Clean out Fuzeilentext water boxes 2011
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Equipment performance Testing
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Feed water heaters testing
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Feed water heaters
In shell and tube or closed type feedwater heaters the feedwater flows through the tubes and the extracted steam condenses on the shell side. The condensed steam from each feedwater heater drains successively to the next lower pressure heater and is returned to the feedwater through a heater drain pump or through the condenser. A drain cooling zone can be designed into the feedwater heater which cools the condensed steam to within a few degrees of the feedwater inlet. If the extracted steam is superheated additional improvement in performance can be obtained by designing a desuperheating zone in the heater. This allows the outlet feedwater to approach the saturation temperature of the shell side pressure.
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Feedwater Heater Construction Arrangements

There are three typical feedwater heater construction arrangements: (1) single zone in which steam entering the shell is condensed in the (Condensing Zone) and leaves the heater at its saturation temperature, (2) two zone constructions in where the steam surrenders its superheat and latent heat to the feedwater in the Condensing Zone before it enters an enclosed region (Subcooling Zone) where it gives up some sensible heat to the feedwater flowing through the tubes, and (3) three zone construction in which superheated extraction steam enters a Desuperheating Zone where the steam surrenders most of its superheat to the outgoing feedwater, exits into the Condensing Zone where it surrenders any remaining superheat and its latent heat to the feedwater and the condensate enters the Subcooling one where the condensate at approximately its saturation temperature surrenders some sensible heat to the incoming feedwater and leaves at a lower temperature.
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Types of heaters
Heaters that receive extraction steam from the lowest pressure end of the turbine are usually single zone, condensing only heaters. If the plant operates at low loads, the extraction pressure may be so low that there is insufficient hydraulic head for a Subcooler to function. Steam in fossil- fueled plants leaves the boiler with so much superheat that even after it has been partially expanded through the high pressure stages of the turbine there is considerable superheat - 100 F to as much as 400 F. When the extraction steam has enough superheat under all operating loads, including a Desuperheater reduces the amount of steam extracted from the turbine that is required to raise the feedwater temperature. The Desuperheater further improves the Heat Rate.
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Zones of heater
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Parameters for Measuring Thermal Performance

Industry practice is to use two parameters to measure the thermal performance of closed feedwater heaters (CFHs). These are Terminal Temperature Difference (TTD) and Drains Cooler Approach (DCA). The Heat Exchange Institutes Standards for Closed Feedwater Heaters defines TTD as the difference between saturation temperature corresponding to the entering extraction steam pressure and the outlet feedwater temperature. It defines DCA as the temperature difference between the drains leaving the shell side of the heater and the entering feedwater on the tube side
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TTD and DCA
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TTD Guidelines
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Effects of TTD and DCA on Cycle Performance

Most Drain Cooler (DC) designs follow the recommendations in the HEI Closed Feedwater Heater Standards. The HEI recommends that DCA not be less than +10 F. Except for the highest pressure heater, a decrease in TTD of a particular heater primarily affects two heaters. As TTD in a heater below the top heater decreases, the rise in feedwater
temperature increases. The increase in duty extracts more steam from the turbine. The lower steam flow through the next turbine stage tends to decrease power output. The hotter exit feedwater becomes the new inlet temperature to the next higherpressure heater. This decreases extraction flow to the heater which results in increasing the amount of steam available between the two extraction points.
The expansion of this additional steam at higher pressure and temperature
produces a net improvement in cycle efficiency, with no change in cycle heat input.
Condenser testing
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Condenser performance
Load
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Actual pressure mbar Sat steam temp CW inlet temp CW outlet temp Exhaust steam temp Condensate temp Air suction temp CW valve position Target back pressure Optimum CW rise Optimum TTD Back pressure due to CW inlet [3+10+11] Back pressure due to CW flow[ 4+11] Variation due to CW inlet temp[12-9] Variation due to air ingress/dirty tubes[113]
52.3 33.7 17.9 26.8 33.7 34.9 24.9 55 48.4 9.0 5.2 47.8 47.5 -0.6 4.8 -0.3
variation due to CW flow[13-12]

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BP variation[1-12]
Cooling water flow to condenser
Condenser heat balance The cooling waterflow is derived from the following equation P = q Cp(T1-T2) P is the condenser heat load P=Pg(HR/3600)-(10^4/m g) Cp= 4.188 Kj/Kg DegC
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Heat transfer coefficient

P = U A lmtd For a typical condenser, the following data P=588430 KW A=27871.9 sqM Lmtd=8.92 U = 2.367 Kw/SqM K [design heat transfer coefficient] The reference Ur attainable is calculated by the following expression Ur = 2.52 (Vd)^0.4 f(T1) Fm Where Vd= cw flow velocity=1.82 m/s F(T1)=0.716+0.0236T1-0.00031(T1)^2 Fm=1 for 70 cu,30 zn T1= CW inlet temp
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Cooling towers testing
Cooling towers are rated in terms of approach and range, where the approach is the difference in temperature between the cooled-water temperature and the entering-air wet bulb - twb - temperature the range is the temperature difference between the water inlet and exit states Since a cooling tower is based on evaporative cooling the maximum cooling tower efficiency is limited by the wet bulb temperature - twb - of the cooling air.
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Cooling tower efficiency
The cooling tower efficiency can be expressed as = (ti - to) 100 / (ti - twb) where = cooling tower efficiency - common range between 70 - 75% ti = inlet temperature of water to the tower (oC, oF) to = outlet temperature of water from the tower (oC, oF) twb = wet bulb temperature of air (oC, oF) The temperature difference between inlet and outlet water (ti - to) is normally in the range 10 - 15 oF. (1)
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Common Causes of Cooling Towers Poor Performance

Scale Deposits When water evaporates from the cooling tower, it leaves scale deposits on the surface of the fill from the minerals that were dissolved in the water. Scale build-up acts as a barrier to heat transfer from the water to the air. Excessive scale build-up is a sign of water treatment problems. Clogged Spray Nozzles Algae and sediment that collect in the water basin as well as excessive solids that get into the cooling water can clog the spray nozzles. This causes uneven water distribution over the fill, resulting in uneven air flow through the fill and reduced heat transfer surface area. This problem is a sign of water treatment problems and clogged strainers. Poor Air Flow Poor air flow through the tower reduces the amount of heat transfer from the water to the air. Poor air flow can be caused by debris at the inlets or outlets of the tower or in the fill. Other causes of poor air flow are loose fan and motor mountings, poor motor and fan alignment, poor gear box maintenance, improper fan pitch, damage to fan blades, or excessive vibration. Reduced air flow due to poor fan performance can ultimately lead to motor or fan failure. Poor Pump Performance An indirect cooling tower uses a cooling tower pump. Proper water flow is important to achieve optimum heat transfer. Loose connections, failing bearings, cavitation,clogged strainers, excessive vibration, and non-design operating conditions result in reduced water flow, reduced efficiency, and premature equipment failure
Errors in measurement
The
precision of a measuring instrument

is determined by the smallest unit to which it can measure. The precision is said to be the same as the smallest fractional or decimal division on the scale of the measuring instrument.
Accuracy is a measure of
how close the result of the measurement comes to the "true", "actual", or "accepted" value.
(How close is your answer to the accepted value?)
Any measurement made with a measuring device is approximate. If you measure the same object two different times, the two measurements may not be exactly the same. The difference between two measurements is called a variation in the measurements. Another word for this variation - or uncertainty in measurement - is "error." This "error" is not the same as a "mistake." It does not mean that you got the wrong answer. The error in measurement is a mathematical way to show the uncertainty in the measurement. It is the difference between the result of the measurement and the true value of what you were measuring.
Instrument Induced Errors & Heat Rate

Following are two primary sources of instrument-induced errors. Drift (mechanical or electronic) associated with aging instrumentation, moving parts or intrinsic to the design: Torque Tube/Displacers. Calibration between shutdowns are a must to achieve reasonable accuracy and prevent nuisance deviation alarms between multiple level transmitters. Measurement Technology vulnerable to process conditions, e.g., shifts in specific gravity and/or the dielectric constant of the media related to variations in process pressures and temperatures. Certain technologies cannot provide accurate level from startup to operational temperatures without applying external correction factors or the specified accuracy is only realized at operational temperatures: Differential Pressure, Magnetostrictive, RF Capacitance and Torque Tube/Displacers.
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Tolerance intervals
Tolerance intervals: Error in measurement may be represented by a tolerance interval (margin of error). To determine the tolerance interval in a measurement, add and subtract one-half of the precision of the measuring instrument to the measurement.
Absolute Error and Relative Error: Error in measurement may be represented by the actual amount of error, or by a ratio comparing the error to the size of the measurement. The absolute error of the measurement shows how large the error actually is, while the relative error of the measurement shows how large the error is in relation to the correct value. Absolute errors do not always give an indication of how important the error may be. If you are measuring a football field and the absolute error is 1 cm, the error is virtually irrelevant. But, if you are measuring a small machine part (< 3cm), an absolute error of 1 cm is very significant. While both situations show an absolute error of 1 cm., the relevance of the error is very different. For this reason, it is more useful to express error as a relative error.
Errors
For example, if you know a length is 3.535 m + 0.004 m, then 0.004 m is an absolute error. Absolute error is positive. In plain English: The absolute error is the difference between the measured value and the actual value. (The absolute error will have the same unit label as the measured quantity.)
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Uncertainty of test code
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Uncertainties
The measured value of coal flow rate required by this method can be obtained from gravimetric feeders, which, if they have just been properly calibrated, are capable of accuracies of 1 percent or better. Laboratory analyses of coal heating value have typical uncertainties of about 1 percent. The electrical quantities can be measured relatively accurately with uncertainties ranging from 0.1 to 0.5 percent. The uncertainty in the measured heat rate can be given as
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Efficiency improvements in Power plants
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Factors for efficiency improvement

Following factors were identified as fundamental for efficiency improvement: - Organizing & analyzing the historal maintenance information. - Monitoring & analyzing the operating information. -Integrating the above information ^ developing long term O&M progress.
A common recognition of importance of day to day operational management was developed through the peer review. The importance of day to day operational management in energy and cost saving and reduction in emissions and sharing of best practices through Peer Review.
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Improvements in Power Plant Efficiency
There are a number of specific improvements in power plants that can be investigated relatively quickly. These include, for example: Cleaning tubes and boilers maintaining instrumentation restoring seals removing deposits on turbine blades condenser maintenance programs decreasing excess oxygen to the boiler Installing variable speed drives for motors Pursuing opportunities for waste heat utilization for coal drying and using solar energy for feed water heating
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Modifications for improving heat rates

Some typical modifications include: conversion from constant speed to variable speed fans, addition of cooling towers, changes in fuel used, and the retrofit of electrostatic precipitators or flue gas desulphurization. Other modifications could include: Addition or removal of heat transfer surface or the replacement of heat transfer surfaces with more efficient design, replacement of turbine nozzles or blading with designs which may improve unit performance, replacement of feed water heaters, or replacement of the condenser tubing with a more efficient design.
Performance Trending
The key idea of performance trending is that much of the equipment installed in our facilities is already provided with instrumentation that can be used to assist in determination of the health/condition of the related component. Where the instruments are not present, installation of a pressure-sensing or temperaturesensing device is generally easily performed and inexpensive. Many times this information is already being logged at some pre-defined interval but not being utilized. log and trend important parametric information related to the health of equipment. This information is then used to define when a maintenance is required. Logging and trending temperature data can monitor the performance of many heat exchangers. This information can be used to assist in the scheduling of tube cleaning. It may also serve as an indication that flow control valves are not working properly or chemical control measures are inadequate. An increase in boiler stack temperature might be an indication of tube scaling. We may need to perform tube cleaning and adjust our chemistry control measures. Changes in combustion efficiency may be indicative of improperly operating oxygen trim control, fuel flow control, air box leakage, or tube scaling
Best Practices
Reduce excess air Action Required Determine the combustion efficiency using dedicated or portable combustion analysis equipment. Adjustments for better burning Cleaning Swirl at burner inlet New tips/orifices Atomizing pressure Damper repair Fuel temperature Control repair Burner position Refractory repair Bed thickness Fuel pressure Ratio under/overfire air Furnace pressure Undergrate air distribution Install waste heat recovery The magnitude of the stack loss for boilers without recovery is about 18% on gas-fired and about 12% for oil- and coal-fired boilers. A major problem with heat recovery in flue gas is corrosion
Best practices contd;

Reduce scale and soot deposits Scale or deposits serve as an insulator, resulting in more heat from the flame going up the stack rather than to the water due to these deposits. Any scale formation has a tremendous potential to decrease the heat transfer. - Symptom The best indirect indicator for scale or deposit build-up is the flue gas temperature. If at the same load and excess air the flue gas temperature rises with time, the effect is probably due to scale or deposits Reduce blowdown Blowdown results in the energy in the hot water being lost to the sewer unless energy recovery equipment is used. -Symptom Observe the closeness of the various water quality parameters to the tolerances stipulated for the boiler per manufacturer specifications and check a sample of mud blowdown to ensure blowdown is only used for that purpose. -Check the water quality in the boiler using standards chemical tests
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Best practices
Reduce line pressure Line pressure sets the steam temperature for saturated steam. - Symptom and Action Required Any steam line that is being operated at a pressure higher than the process requirements offers a potential to save energy by reducing steam line pressure to a minimum required pressure determined by engineering studies of the systems for different seasons of the year. Switch from steam to air atomization The energy to produce the air is a tiny fraction of the energy in the fuel, while the energy in the steam is usually 1% or more of the energy in the fuel. - Symptom Any steam-atomized burner is a candidate for retrofit
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Best practices world over

Recent Plant improvements include Excess air reduction, ESP Power Reduction, Turbine upgrades, Condenser Refit, Replacement of low duty pumps and motors. Reduction in Oxygen level from 2.8% to 1.8% has been shown to be feasible. It can increase the efficiency by about 1%, Reduction in Aux Power consumption of the order of 1 MW and 35 Kt/Annum Based on operational history, the load of ESP was reduced to 20% of design which resulted in power saving of about 9 GWh/year. Pulse energization is being investigated to reduce the ESP load further. Turbine cylinders and condensers replacement in old plants can increase the efficiency and out put of the plant considerably. For example in Loy Yang power plant HP and IP cylinders were replaced and condenser was replace by new Titanium condenser. It resulted in MCR improvement from 520 MW to 565 MW and efficiency improvements. Many auxiliaries are conservatively designed and actual operation is well below the design point. Air compressors were replaced and fire service pumps were augmented with low duty pumps.
Best practices in NTPC

a host of IT enabled services for standardization of system and latest diagnostic tools for major equipments. The company is focusing on improvement of availability through Reliability based Maintenance and Risk Evaluation and Prioritization in its existing power stations. Well defined guidelines for plant O&M, efficiency monitoring and recommissioning have ensured high availability of stations even ater long periods of operation. Specific efforts have been taken for monitoring and lowering the plants auxiliary power consumption by use of VFD, equipment wise monitoring etc. Formation of knowledge teams in functional areas and specialized training programs have helped in wider dissemination of best practices.
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Advance technologies
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Energy Efficiency as a function of temperature and pressure
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Strength of materials
pressure
Boiler materials
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Investment for improving efficiency

How many rupees could we invest per MW installed power to improve the system efficiency of a thermal power plant from as is to new:
PLF = plant load factor as a fraction as is = the actual system efficiency new = the envisioned improved system efficiency CMWh = Fuel costs in Rs/MWh where MWh1 refers to energy in the fuel. Take as an interesting first example a 3 x 210 power plant that operates at as is = 33%, PLF = 0.85 and uses coal costing2 Rs. 473/ MWh. Furthermore assume this power plant unit should be replaced by a supercritical one with new = 42%. Assume a life time of 20 years and q = 1.16.
Investment
Assume a power plant operator has the objective to improve the as is efficiency by 1 percentage point from 0.32 to 0.33. Calculate the investment limit Imax per MW if coal cost are 350 Rs/ MWh, q = 1.16 and 10 years pay back is desired.
It is quite feasible to improve from 32% to 33% for this Imax by better housekeeping measures, and more advanced instrumentation control as well as analysis of performance, without replacing major hardware components How large could be the investment cost difference between a 500 MW supercritical and 500 MW subcritical if system efficiency improves from 0.38% to 0.42%. Assume coal cost of 600 Rs./ MWh, n = 25 years and q = 1.16
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References
COAL-FIRED POWER PLANT HEAT RATE REDUCTIONS SL-009597,FINAL REPORT Quick analysis of financial attractiveness of system efficiency gains Dr. A. Kaupp, November 2005
Manual on Best practices in power plants-CII G8 Cleaner Fossil Fuels Workshop-EPRI Heat Rate Improvement Reference Manual TR-109546-EPRI
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Turbo generator efficiency and heat rate
Heat rate:It is defined as the quantity of the heat supplied to the turbine to give 1 kWh output at a specified loading. Heat rate = 3600/[actual efficiency] Actual efficiency = 3600/heat rate If a 500 MW turbine has a guaranteed heat rate of 7940 kJ/kWh of heat rate, then the actual efficiency is 3600/7940 = 45.3%
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Advance Heat Rate - 6.11

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Advance Heat Rate - 6.11

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Advance Heat Rate analysis

Created by:K.Bhanu Prakash +919717298317 Date:06.11.2011

Donnerstag, 10. November 2011

Designed heat rate and operating heat rate are different

Donnerstag, 10. November 2011

Operating heat rate

Reasons for deviation

Factors not included in as designed

Donnerstag, 10. November 2011

Best achievable heat rate

Heat rate curves

Donnerstag, 10. November 2011

Cost of Heat Rate Deviation

Losses in power plant

Donnerstag, 10. November 2011

Obstacles for accurate unit heat rate

Donnerstag, 10. November 2011

Donnerstag, 10. November 2011

Carnot Cycle efficiency

Donnerstag, 10. November 2011

Donnerstag, 10. November 2011

Improvements in cycle efficiency

Donnerstag, 10. November 2011

Effects of cycle parameters Increasing Pressure

Donnerstag, 10. November 2011

Lowering exhaust pressure

Donnerstag, 10. November 2011

Feed water heating

Donnerstag, 10. November 2011

Feed water heaters

Donnerstag, 10. November 2011

Turbine Performance Test code

Donnerstag, 10. November 2011

Donnerstag, 10. November 2011

Test code usefulness

Donnerstag, 10. November 2011

Donnerstag, 10. November 2011

Full scale test

Donnerstag, 10. November 2011

Donnerstag, 10. November 2011

Donnerstag, 10. November 2011

Donnerstag, 10. November 2011

Duplicate test runs

Donnerstag, 10. November 2011

Donnerstag, 10. November 2011

Donnerstag, 10. November 2011

Turbine heat consumption tests

Donnerstag, 10. November 2011

Cylinder efficiency tests

Corrections to heat rate

Effect of Throttle temperature

Effect of throttle steam pressure

Effects of pressure drops

Efficiency drop test[HP]

Donnerstag, 10. November 2011

Possible reasons and corrections

Equipment performance Testing

Donnerstag, 10. November 2011

Feed water heaters testing

Donnerstag, 10. November 2011

Feed water heaters

Donnerstag, 10. November 2011

Feedwater Heater Construction Arrangements