By
ADEM ALO
JUNE 2003
A STUDY OF GENDER-RELATED TRADITIONAL PRACTICES
HARMFUL TO WOMEN AND GIRLS
(THE CASE OF DODOLA DISTRICT IN BALE ZONE)
BY
ADEM ALO
JUNE 2003
Declaration
I hereby declare that the Thesis is my original work, has not been presented for a
Degree in any other University and that all sources of materials used for the Thesis have been duly
acknowledged.
Sign_________________________Date_________
Sign.___________________________ Date_________
Acknowledgment
In the course of this Thesis, I have received valuable assistance from various professionals
and friends. These give me a great pleasure to express my heart-felt gratitude to those people
who deserve my acknowledgment.
First and foremost, my deepest gratitude goes to my advisor Dr. Belay Tefera whose
invaluable advice; critical comments and constructive suggestions were the major factors for
the completion of this study. In addition to his unfailing and unreserved commitment and
meticulous comments, Dr. Belay has generously shared his precious materials through out my
writing of the thesis. I believe that this study would have been impossible without his
unreserved dedication and encouragement.
My special thanks and limitless appreciation go to my mother Bulli Wabe and my father Alo
Fatanaa for they put me in the world of education. Therefore, their persistent financial,
technical and moral support and encouragement will remain engraved in my heart. My
brothers, particularly, Abdurahim Tura and Mohamed Alo and sisters also deserve special
attention.
I am also indebted to many of my friends and relatives. Hussien Taffo; my best friend,
deserves special thanks, together with his family, for their unreserved moral and financial
support through out my life in the world of Education. My deepest thanks go to Haji-Woliyyi
Dalu and his family for their moral and technical support to this stage. I am very grateful to
Aman Muda and Teshome Segni, for their material support and moral encouragement.
My heartfelt thanks also go to Yazid Rashid, my favorite instructor while I was in high
school, and who have also been with me, heartedly, through out my life in the university.
Mamo Edris, my friend, deserves special thanks for his assistance both, in providing me with
his own Computer and, for his professional assistance, during editing this manuscript. Finally,
not the least by any means, I have no words to thank Abebaw Minaye, my classmate, for his
encouragement during undertaking this study.
Table of Contents
Acknowledgment
Table of Contents
List of Tables
Acronyms
Abstract
RECOMMENDATIONS------------------------------------------------------------------------113
Maps
Appendices (A-F)
List of Tables
Tables Page
The purpose of this study is to examine and understand the prevalence, problems and the
magnitude of some of the major gender-based Traditional Practices with special reference to
female circumcision, abduction and early marriage in the rural areas of the Dodola District in
Bale Zone. The study aimed also at exploring the ideology of the people regarding these issues.
The subjects who took part in the study include students (boys and girls), girls- out- of school,
men and women and the key informants. The major sampling techniques employed in selecting
these subjects were stratified, purposeful, availability and simple random sampling.
The major instruments used for the data Collection were the structured and semi-structured
Questionnaire and Interview. Depending on the nature of the data collected, both the
Descriptive (Percentages, Frequencies, Averages and standard deviations) and the inferential
statistics (the Chi-square and the t– test) were employed to systematize and analyze the data.
The findings have shown that both the female circumcision and abduction of girls are common
practice in the study area with the exception of the early marriage. There were statistically
significant differences between the male and female respondents with respect to these points.
However, while the act of abducting girls is gradually declining at the escalating rate, female
circumcision tends to persist, as one form of cultural exercise, in the society under discussion.
This is such a sensitive issue that a girl can never be involved in marriage without undergoing
circumcision. The findings have indicated also that circumcision of girls and marriages are the
two interdependent cultural practices and the former is regarded as a pre-requisite for the latter.
Early marriage is not common in this society and, rather it was revealed that a girl is expected to
get married after the age of twenty.
Some recommendations were made, based on the findings, towards minimizing, if not
eliminating, these practices. Integrating such issues in the school curriculum, establishing
committee at the regional, zonal and District levels and research undertakings at various academic
institutions (for instance, regional colleges, schools etc), were the major points of
recommendations to play a lion’s share. The utilization of the mass media, and the educated
women, would also contribute much to advocate the harmfulness of these practices, particularly,
the circumcision of females and, to gradually minimize and eradicate them.
Chapter One: INTRODUCTION
It might be valuable to acquaint readers, at this early stage, with the intention of this paper.
The whole essence of this study, in general, is to address the problems and prospects of some
of the major traditional practices namely female circumcision, abduction and early marriage.
Equality is the cornerstone of every democratic society, which aspires to social justice and
human rights. In virtually all societies women are subjected to inequalities. This situation is
both caused and aggravated by the existence of discrimination of women in various levels.
Besides, with respect to the equality of human rights, I would like to borrow a statement of
the ex-UN Secretary General, Boutros Boutros Ghali (cited in National Office of Population,
“… human rights are not worthy of the name if they exclude the female
half of humanity. The struggle for women’s equality is part of the
struggle for a better world for all human beings, and all societies.”
The reality should be that the concept of equality means much more than treating all persons
in the same way. In other words, equal treatment of persons in unequal situations will operate
to perpetuate rather than eradicate injustice. True equality emanates only from efforts directed
toward addressing and correcting these situational imbalances. This broader view of equality
contributes to the underlying principle and the final goal in the struggle for recognition and
1
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which is the cornerstone of the human rights
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
It protects the right to security of person and the right not to be
subjected to cruel inhuman or degrading treatment.
Through out the world there exist various forms of gender-based violence and other cultural
and traditional practices that violate the human rights of women and the girl-children. These
traditional practices reflect values and beliefs held by the community members for periods
underscores its global importance. In the years 1990s alone, valuable social policies have
emerged in this regard. The Beijing declarations of the year 1995 stressed violence against
women, as one of the major and critical areas of concern and as an obstacle to the
achievement of women’s human rights. Particularly, the world conference on Human Rights
f2002.pdf.) Stated that, “Women’s human rights are a fundamental part of all human rights
and must be protected not only in courts, prisons, and other areas of public life, but also in
their homes".
The United Nations and, Economic and Social Council (2002) revealed that cultural
relativism is often used as an excuse to permit inhumane and discriminatory practices carried
2
Taking into account the dignity and worth of the human beings and the equality of both men
and women, and considering further that, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights Stressed
the principle of non-discrimination and proclaimed that all human beings are born free, equal
in dignity and rights. Everyone deserves the right and freedoms set forth with out distinction
of any kind irrespective of their sex (United Nation, 2000). Nevertheless, the Vienna
Declaration and Programme of Action (part.1, Para. 18) (1993) asserts in its Fact sheet 22
that,
The human rights of women and of the girl child are an inalienable,
integral and indivisible part of universal human rights. The full and
equal participation of women in political, civil, economic, social and
cultural life, at the national, regional and international levels, and the
eradication of all forms of discrimination on grounds of sex are
priority objectives of the international community.
In accordance with the human rights perspectives, the rights of women and girls, to physical
and mental integrity, to freedom from discrimination and to the highest standard of health are
universal. And to this effect, culture claims can’t be invoked to justify their violation.
woman’s ability to enjoy the full range of rights and freedoms on a basis of equality with
men. Besides violating the rights of women, girls and children, its effect, one way or another,
global levels. The frequent effects include the physical and psychological suffering, with
many negative physical and health outcomes. It also has an impact on many important
reproductive health issues such as safe-motherhood, family planning, sexual health, and the
3
Many literatures revealed that particularly some of the traditional practices exert a profound
influence and disrupt the life of women and children. These practices however, are seen as
cultural practices that deserve tolerance and respect. Depending on their prevalence, these
threatening gender-related violence include female genital mutilation (FGM, then after), early
marriage, abduction, food taboos, son preference and female infanticide, and similar others
Nevertheless, Conventions and Declarations are very clear to show the equality and humanity
that ought to prevail among individuals and, in mainstreaming the possible short and long
term consequences of each of this practice (UN and Economic & Social Council, 2002).
Art. 4 of the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women state that states have
national legislation, punish acts of violence against women, whether those acts are perpetrated
4
The convention of the rights of the child (1997) obliges states to ratify and implement it
towards taking all appropriate measures to protect children from all forms of physical and
mental violence. Similarly, the 1996 resolution of the world Health Assembly declares
violence to be a public health priority and also endorsed the possible recommendations to be
made at prior international conferences, fight the problem of violence against females and, to
address its health consequences. This is mainly because the frequency and impact of gender-
based violence complicate, the significance of the public health and has adverse effects on the
population of all levels (community, national and global). The consequence would be that,
Historically, the main duty of women was to bear children, preferably boys, and the health
related issues to this process have not been recognized. Moreover, the consequences of early,
frequent and excessive child bearing were explained by fate, destiny and divine, rather than
being associated to the results of oppressive cultural and social practices. Studies reveal that,
in Ethiopia, women and children who constitute the vast majority of the population are
subjected to harmful traditional practices, which are deep-rooted in the cultures and traditions
of the ethnic groups and passed from generation to generation. Of course there are many
positive practices that are to be appreciated and encouraged. These include breast feeding of
children, postnatal care, settling quarrel, social gathering, taking care of the orphanages within
the family and so on, and they are beneficiaries for the health and psychosocial well-being of
the society as a whole and, for women and children in particular. What is more threatening is
the severe harmful traditional practices such as female genital mutilation (FGM), Early
marriage, abduction, son preference, food taboos and others, that violate the human rights of
5
The attempt of this paper, therefore, is not to deal with all of these problems. Rather, it aims at
identifying and investigating the problems and prospects of some of the major gender-based
practices that are under taken in the name of culture. To be specific, the practices of female
genital mutilation (circumcision), early marriage and abduction, will be considered as priority
areas of this study. This is mainly based on the evidences from observations of the researcher.
In light of these, an attempt will therefore, be made to focus on the cultural ideologies of the
study area, that perpetuate such practices violating the human rights of women & girls.
The study concludes with the possible recommendations on ways to minimize, if not
It is very important to aquaint the readers with the general overview, if not in detail, of the
study area with especial reference to its geographical location, climate and the people.
Oromia region is composed of twelve administrative zones, 180 Districts and 375 towns. One
of these zones is Bale administrative zone. This zone is situated in southeastern Ethiopia,
which geographically is bounded by the rivers of Ganale to the south and west and, Wabe
Shabale to the north and east. Bale zone is situated between 5022'and 808' north and, between
38052' and 42014' east latitude. Rivers, mountains and wild animals characterize it. In addition
to Wabeshabale and Ganale rivers, other rivers such as Manna, Weyib and wolmal are among
several others that are notable in this zone. However, Bale is known for its national park
6
where there is distinct wild animals such as the mountain Niyala and other varieties of
mammals and birds that are endemic to Ethiopia (Daniel, 2002 and, Oromia Planning and
The province of Bale is divided into three major altitudinal zones. These are "baddaa"
(highland) climatic zone embraces areas, which are conducive for agricultural activities. The
topography of these Districts, including the district of Dodola, is largely plain with an average
elevation of over 2,200 meters. This climatic zone has a mean annual rainfall of 800 to 1000
millimeters. Thus, the climatic conditions and its altitude largely determine the settlement and
the occupation of the zonal population. Among the total inhabitants of Bale zone, the majority
of the people reside in the highland areas with a population density of about 20 persons per
square km. The 1984 statistical report shows that, the three highland districts of Goba, Sinana
and Dodola are the most densely populated areas with a total population of more than 200,000
and, the cultivation of barley wheat and teff etc are widely practiced (Ketema, 2001).
Bale zone is divided into 17 Districts with a total area of 67,280 square kilometers. As it is
stated and reported in some literatures, the zone of Bale constitutes nearly
about18.8%(49.59% males and 50.41% females) of the total population of Oromia (Oromia
7
The District of Dodola is one of the seventeen Districts found in Bale zone. The name
"Dodola" was said to be named after one of the person who was believed to be the first settler
in the District town of Dodola (Daniel, 2002), which has a distance of 320 km south of Addis
Ababa.
It is stated in the statistical abstract for Oromia region (1996:49) that this District has a total
area of 1521 square kilometers and, has the total population of 134802. About 13.49% of the
people live in the towns and the majorities (86.51%) live in the rural areas.
The population & Housing Census of Ethiopia (1994) reveals that, among the total
population of the District, while the majorities (83% are Muslims, nearly 15% of them belong
to the Orthodox Christians and, the rest belong to Protestants, Catholic and Traditional
(90.33%) of the population are the speakers of "Afan Oromo" (Oromo language) and about
8.77% of them are Amharic speakers. Others are the speakers of Gurage, Silte, and Sidama
etc languages.
As a matter of fact, about half of our world population is women. Even in some countries it is
said that the number of women are greater than the number of men. Since the existence of
human beings on the earth, women are with men; indeed they both are intimate friends and
supporters of each other. And yet, in every known culture of the world, women are considered
to be inferior to men. Particularly in many of the traditional societies, peoples assume that
8
there exist much difference between men and women, and the subordination of women is
justified. This is contrary to the advocacy of the human rights. It is vividly argued and stated
in various international conventions that women and girls, as human beings, have every right.
Because their rights, are a human rights which are inalienable birth rights for every human
beings, irrespective of their sex, religion, race or ethnicity. The two, men and women & girls,
are the inseparable and rather, complementary entities. At this juncture, it might be
stimulating to borrow a short but pertinent and meaningful slogan of Herbert Spencer (cited in
Nelson – Jones, 2001: 460) that tells us the inevitability of the relationship between men and
The protection of their human right in the eye of the international community means, securing
their equal rights and opportunities. They have the right to be free from all sorts of violence,
In traditional Ethiopia too, females have denied for so long the opportunity to education and,
their school enrolment ratio, as compared to males, is quiet low and this is attributed to many
sociocultural beliefs, religious outlooks of parents, early marriage and other traditional bias.
The year 1990 data reveals that 48% of Ethiopian women are found between 0 and 14 years of
age, and 49% are between 15 and 64. Among the total female population of Ethiopia, 88% of
them live in rural areas and only 12% have an opportunity to live in urban areas. Total fertility
rate; the estimated number of children that a woman will have over her entire reproductive
time periods, is estimated at 7 children, on the average, and the median age for mothers’ first
birth is 17 years old. Between 19-60% of women suffer from inadequate nutrition due mainly
9
to various complex reasons. Only 5% of pregnant women have access to the trained midwives
and the rest 95% are left to traditional midwives. However the first child birth complications,
which have a direct relationship to early marriage &early childbearing, is said to be the major
cause of morbidity in Ethiopia. For instance, infant mortality rate; the probability of dying
between birth and age one per 1000 live births in a given area, is 105 per 1000 and, the
maternal mortality; the number of deaths to women due to pregnancy and child birth
complications per 100,000 live births in a given area, in the year 1995-2000 is 560-850 per
100,000. These and other factors make Ethiopia to be the top, among other thirty-seven least
developed nations, particularly, with respect to the childbirth complications and the health
situation of women (MOH, 1998 and TGE, 1993). The attempt here is, therefore, to show the
impact of traditions like early marriage and other social beliefs on the health status and human
Nevertheless, the gender based violence that is exercised by the community at large,
challenges the lives of many women & girls both during the prenatal and postnatal, and
Among several other forms of Harmful traditional practices that violate the human rights of
women and children, the nationwide survey study (1997) (NCTPE, 1998) revealed that,
female genital mutilation (FGM), Abduction and Early Marriage were observed to occur in a
high rate, and which victimizes many girls. FGM is examined to be practiced by both sexes.
Muslims and Christians in many ethnic groups of this country and about 90% of women are
believed to have undergone it. Its prevalence rate is 73% at the National level, among which
60.4% and 69.1% of the practice is applied on girls of age 10 to 14 and, 15 to 19 respectively.
10
On top of this, abduction is increased dramatically (Tekalign 1998). During the last years of
1993 to 1997 alone, about 311 cases on abduction were reported, on the average.
These gender related and harmful practices, not only violate the human rights of the victims
but also are mercilessly disrupting the health of many innocent children, regardless of their
demographic variables. Among the serious issues related to FGM, Abduction and early
marriage is the HIV /AIDS incidence, which is said to increase in an alarming rate. Negatu
Mereke, head of the National AIDS secretariat, describes the state of the HIV/AIDS in
Ethiopia as follows (The Daily Monitor, vol. X, № 6 of 2002).
This is to say that, apart from the lifetime psychological and physical trauma, the traditional
practices mentioned above, have the capacity to exert a great influence on individuals of both
It is in light of these problems, that challenge the human rights advocacy in general, and
violating the human rights of women and girls, in particular, the following research questions
1. Is there a practice of female circumcision, abduction and early marriage in the study area
under discussion?
2. What are the beliefs or opinions of the society towards these practices?
3. Is the society aware of the health, Psychological & the physical effects of these practices?
11
4. Is there difference between the opinion of males and females as regard to the occurrence
5.Which of these three (Female circumcision, Abduction and the Early marriage) is/are more
6. What are the major reasons for which the society practices the circumcision of females,
The general objective of this study is to examine and understand the prevalence of female
circumcision, abduction and early marriage and, to explore their magnitude. Studies show us
that the world violence of the male violence against women has recently increased at an
alarming rate in every culture and in various traditional practices. Furthermore, in almost all
societies of past and present, it is said that women have been subjected to unjust
discrimination and violence. Chinkin (1995) examined that the major reasons for which these
problems have not been recognized include: first, the extent to which the problems prevail has
been usually kept concealed and secondly, the incidence usually remain widely unreported
and is not officially recorded. Thirdly, the economic and social dependence of women on men
has hindered many women or girls from disclosing the issue against their health psychological
On the other hand, others argue that the problem of violence against females should not be
gender-specific but rather it is the human rights problem of both men and women. However,
numerous researchers conclude that although men could also be part of those, in some cases,
who could face these problems, violence against them is too low to give reliable data.
12
The specific objectives of this study, therefore, are to:
1. Assess and understand the view of many groups of the society, regardless of their
2. Document the incidence of violence against women and realize the set of problems that
women and children have to face in the name of tradition and culture.
3. Sensitize in various aspects the innocent girls, who due to lack of awareness, are made
to face multitudes of problems, with relevant information about the seriousness of some
It might be hardly possible to arrive at the common understanding with respect to the
definition of certain terminologies. A given term could mean many things for different
individuals and, in most cases, such variations can be attributed to the prior orientation and
the cultural background of persons. It is by taking this relativity of the meaning of terms that
violence against women as “an extreme violation of the basic human rights, especially
the right to life, liberty and the security of persons” (Hellum, 1996). Similarly, the
“violence that is directed at women because she is a woman or that affects women
13
disproportionately”. For the purpose of this study, the definition offered in the
reads as:
Any act of gender based violence that results in or is likely to result in,
physical, sexual, or psychological harm or suffering to women,
including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of
liberty, whether occurring in public or private life. This definition
encompasses, among other things, “dowry related violence, marital
rape, female genital rape, female genital mutilation, and other harmful
traditional practices harmful to women, … violence related to physical,
… and psychological … occurring within the general community.
Discrimination against Women: - This term in this study refers to any distinction,
exclusion or restriction, made on the basis of sex with the purpose of impairing the
equality of human rights &fundamental freedoms in their social, cultural or any other
sphere.
Female Genital Mutilation: - FGM is one of the predominant cultural practices that are
highly prevalent in numerous third world countries. “Mutilation” literally means, “to cut
of” or “damage” an important part of the body. It also means, “to cut short,” “to
amputate”. The term could also have specific meaning in each and every culture (Hirut,
2000 and Amare, 1996). For example, experience shows us that, in a community who
live in the study area under discussion, many people know female genital mutilation as
“Kittannaa,” to mean “circumcision”. Above all, in this study, the term female genital
mutilation, therefore, shall mean, the removal of parts or all of the most sensitive female
genitalia.
Abduction: - The term abduction is said to be related to the term “kidnapping,” which
comes from two different words: kid-child and, nab, to mean, suddenly arrest or capture.
14
The Random House Dictionary of the English language (Stein and Urdang, 1973) defines
abduction as the act of carrying off or lead away a person illegally, in secret and by force.
In this study, the term abduction has a meaning of the unlawful kidnapping of a girl,
without her knowledge and consent, for the purpose of marriages or defilement.
(Mintiwab, 2000 and UNICEF 2000), the term forced marriage, shall mean, a type of
marriage which constitute a form of violence as it undermines the human rights of the
girl. It is a kind of marriage that takes place without the consent & knowledge of the girl
(the case of abduction) and, with/without the consent and knowledge of the girl (the case
of early marriage).
The significance of this study of course, cannot be overemphasized. A drop of water that is
added to a large river might not raise the volume of the water in the river but still it can
disturb for a while. Sigmund Freud says, “The interpretation of dreams is the royal road to a
knowledge of the unconscious activities of the mind”. Studies related to identifying and
investigating such kinds of problems, in the form of research, in the context of this country
can be said minimal, as compared to the ethnic diversities of various cultural back ground and
the total number of the population, in general. The relativity of the culture and tradition, as it
could make the whole processes complex, usually deserve and adheres itself to a great care.
Those people, be it the practitioner and/or the victim may not realize the drawbacks of their
traditions. Several others may appreciate what others are criticizing. Narrowing this
discrepancy, particularly, in Ethiopia, where the varied cultural compositions exist, can be
difficult and time taking. This complexity and other things being equal, is possible to
15
generally sensitize the community as to what is desirable and not desirable. The writer
1. In general sense, it acquaints people with, and strengthens the human rights advocacy.
Particularly, although both men and women could be hurt by the existing culture, it
creates awareness that women and girls are the one to taste the bitter of those gender-
that violate the health, Psychological and the physical settings of women &children.
of the problems.
3. The findings of this study may help a concerned body in providing them with
persuasive feedback that could lead them to develop a baseline survey towards
minimizing, if not eliminate the problem and designing the possible strategies.
4. It could also help women and girls to be conscious enough and assertive and, know
5. It may also initiate and invite those who are interested in doing further study in the
area.
6. Above all, there is hardly any research conducted in the District under study with
respect to these problems. Therefore, this paper could contribute to address, if not
16
1.6 Scope of the Study
This study is delimited only to Dodola District, among other Districts found in Bale zone, due
to certain reasons. Because of the time and financial constraints, one can hardly include all
other Districts and/ or other zones in the study. However, Dodola District was selected for its
In undertaking professional research, obviously there are problems and drawbacks that one
could come across, due to certain problems. Some of the major constraints the researcher has
faced in undertaking this study were the shortage of time and money, without which the task
cannot, by any means, be effectively and efficiently undertaken as intended. Besides, since
there are only few studies conducted at the national level, in general, and almost none in the
study area, in particular, the findings that would have been the basis for fair generalization
17
Chapter Two: REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE
Violence against women is the most pervasive abuse of human rights. The worldwide
prevalence of the male violence against women has recently become more evident to occur in
every culture and society in various forms such as domestic verbal & physical abuse,
abduction, sexual harassment, female genital mutilation, female infanticide etc. Although
their forms and prevalence vary from place to place, cross-cultural studies reveal that there is
no society in which women have not been attacked by men. In almost all societies of past and
present, women have been subjected to unjust discrimination and violence. Many of these
prevail with alarming frequency, which adversely affect the rights, liberty and the security of
women. Despite the constitutional rights and advocacy on violence free life, women are
subjected to subordination, sexual abuse and to many traditional practices that are carried out
in the name of culture, many of which are contrary to the human rights advocacy in general,
only very recently that it has become an issue of an international legal concern. It has been
used for centuries as a mechanism through which the society sustains its family to obedience.
It is also evident that the traditional and cultural expectations about gender roles within
society are used to justify continued expression and subordination of females to males. The
expectation and the belief of many, particularly men, is that women are portrayed as weak,
ignorant and incapable of acquiring knowledge. They are believed to be short minded, i.e.
unable to think in advance and are considered as defective and incomplete naturally. Thus,
many people tend to conclude that women are incompetent and are unfit for every activity
18
2.1. Theories of Violence
Fawcett (1996) state that with respect to the why of violence against women and its
occurrence, there are various theoretical analyses. More specifically some theories have
stress, frustration, and blocked goals and, socialization and learning theories.
The following theories might have relevance for understanding violence against women and
perspectives classified under three theoretical levels of analysis (Ahuja, 1987 and Dallos
&McLaughlin, 1993).
offenders, as the sole determining factors causing violence against women. It relies, for the
analysis of behaviors of the offenders, on the mental illness and other intra-individual
phenomena, although there is no adequate and dependable data to support either of the
explanations mentioned below. Specifically it provides two different explanations: The first is
that the causes of violence against women arises from the offenders’ psychological or
adjustment problems. The second explanation is that violence against women arises out of the
19
2.1.2. Socio-Psychological Theories
This model asserts that violence against women can best be understood in terms of the careful
examination of the external environmental factors that exert an influence on the individual
offender. Besides, it gives emphasis to the types of every day interactions such as the
threatening situations and other family interactional patterns and so on, which are pre-
requisites to violence. This theory explains violence against women in terms of the
The frustration-aggression model is said to be stated for the first time in 1939 by Dollard et al
and derived many of its basic postulates from Freudian Theory. It believes that frustrations
he/she is the focus of both the high personal involvement and high frustration in the family. In
other words, whenever the individual’s attempt toward achieving certain goal is blocked, he
feels frustrated and, frustration, in turn, leads him to some form of aggressive behaviors. Such
a psychodynamic theory begins to occur at the early infant life when tension, rage and
aggression etc are seen to result when the primary caretaker does not satisfy the infant’s basic
needs. In such situation, rage is assumed as a form of defense against underlying fears of
dependency or rejection. If this tension is not released, the individual will become ill and
The second model, which the SocioPsychological theorists base their theory is on Self
Attitude model. It states that in a society, culture, or group who value violence, individuals
who have low self esteem take initiative to practice and perform violent acts so as to show
their male egotism to get approval by others and by themselves. Although there is no
empirical data to support this assumption, the tendency according to this theory, is that those
20
individuals who depend on violence against women, as resolving certain problems, are those
These theorists argue that, usually violence is examined and explained in relation to the
socially structured inequality that, social and cultural attitudes and, norms regarding anti-
social behavior and interpersonal relations are emphasized or regarded as a macro-level, used
One is the structural model, which emphasizes on the idea that there is hardly any relationship
between the violent acts of individuals and their personalities or values. Therefore, violence
can’t be understood and described in terms of conflict or other defense mechanisms such as
suppression, sublimation, guilt etc. similarly “rationality” doesn’t play any role in social
action. The core element of this approach, in general, is that the social groups of individuals
vary with respect to their typical levels of stress, deprivation and frustration. They also differ
in their value resources at their surrounding to deal with these stresses. In other words, those
individuals, who combine high stress with low resources, would be more violent. Thus, what
is important here is the explanation of an individual’s act of violence, in relation to what has
already been determined by social forces of one kind or another. In this case, the act of an
individual is judged and is determined by the degree of his integration in the system.
In its second model, the socio-cultural theorists explain violence in terms of what they call
Anomie model. It was developed in 1938 by Robert Merton, in which he examined the
socially learned needs, goals and aspirations, as the restricted structural access to their
attainment. This theory stresses that some social structures impose restrictions on certain
21
When it is needed to overemphasize the goals, disregarding the sufficient attention to
institutional means (social structures), it leads to a willingness to use any avenue, irrespective
of their legality, to achieve and see that the goal is attained. In such cases therefore, due
attention is given to crystallize the relationship between one’s social position, the strain which
accords that position, and the resulting deviant and non deviant adaptations. However, Robert
Merton in this theory has outlined the possible adaptations that can occur when the individual
has internalized the goals, although not legitimately attained. Furthermore, he gave a major
concern to the person who uses illegitimate means to goals, but who can’t be effective.
Their third model is the patriarchy model. Dobash and Dobrash, the founder of this model
(1979) explained that, throughout history to date, Violence has been systematically directed
towards women. A priority in his theoretical argument is that patriarchy directs individuals to
directed against them. In so doing, economic and social pressures function, one way or
This theory, as commented by others, perhaps, remains the most influential among the socio-
The question here is how to substantiate, integrate, approve or disprove, the models
mentioned above. There exist various views regarding the violence of men towards women
and, these views support some and, reject other theories. Let’s consider the preceding ideas
22
In the first instance, some people argue that, in ‘making sense’ of violence towards women or
girls, they necessitate the clear understanding of the historical context, instead of attributing
the matter, to a specific theory. They argue, therefore that, it is important to know and
understand how much violence has been accepted, condoned, normalized and/or ignored by
the society. Men’s perceptions of violence to the opposite sex are affected by the definitions,
and constructions, produced and reproduced in a group members. In other words, it is only by
considering the dismal historical context of violence in a society that enables us understand,
define and perceive the contributing factors, in a social context. It is also important that, for
example, men generally define violence in such narrower terms than do women. Thus in order
to vividly see and conceptualize the occurrence of violence, the formulation of the historical
and cultural definitions of meaning, individual action, social structure, the rethinking of power
and the deconstruction of “the self” are acknowledged. It is contended, therefore, that the
most usual model of interpersonal relations is of the ‘rational individual’ with a ‘unified self’
who conducts ‘his’ affairs in a liberal and reasonably tolerant way. In this scenario, violence
is portrayed as relatively isolated exceptions to normal life. And it doesn’t often figure out
and, social relations are not understood as characterized by violence, as an actual or potential
event (Fawcett, 1996). This view puts that, there are at least three possible standpoints based
The point of view of those directly involved, either as violator or the violated
The point of view of those solid actors involved in dealing with violence and,
The point of view of the analyst, who may or may not involve in such intervention.
23
These standpoints, however, are not distinct or separate, as someone may occupy all locations
simultaneously. These view underline, in general, that violence is not and could not be one
thing nor attributed to a single theory and therefore prioritizes more the historical context than
The second analogy, based on which we can see the practicality of the models mentioned,
focuses on the subordination of females by males and the attempt is made to contextually
relate the matter, for good or bad, to certain themes framed below.
Ruth (1995) argues that, although great diversity exists among peoples of the world, for the
most part, in society after society, and across time and space, men dominate the upper levels
of economic and social power and, females are only partially included. The work of men is
highly valued than that of women and usually men are typically valued more as a matter of
social customs, rites and laws. Their privilege is frequently built on the service of women.
They raise problems by saying for example that, if the dominance of males has indeed been
universal in time, how can this superiority be explained, so that the possible factors for their
violence can easily be known? Are behavioral differences biologically or culturally based?
What differences do the differences make? They argue that some answers to these questions
are scientific or quasi-scientific and, others are a myth. They attest that, men and women are
“different” in a variety of ways. And Psychologists and Biologists are carefully reexamining
the studies of males- females difference and hence, dominance, together with their relation to
assumptions and theories. In searching for an expression of the issues, some social scientists
prefer to use the concept “sexual asymmetry”, to mean stratification or dissimilarity based on
‘sex’. These people further warn that, in a culture where males are deemed intrinsically more
24
valuable than females, solely on the ground of maleness, sexual asymmetry occurs. It refers to
a whole range of situations in which, (1) policies regarding control over the wider community
and the freedom to participate in actions affecting all members of a group are determined
solely on the ground of sex. (2) And, judgments of worth are made primarily on the basis of
sex.
As to the biological theorists, sexual asymmetry implies difference, constitutionality and the
sexuality, aggressiveness etc, the domination are due to the innate, inherited physical
differences. The sociological or cultural perspectives, on the other hand, argue that although
nature, our physical selves and our genes constitute the raw materials and thus impose their
own limits on our development, nurture contributes a lion’s share to the behavioral
males. The cultural-evolutionary theorists, similarly, put that, priority should be given to the
cultural and social and environmental context, as a basic unit, if one is to explore, demarcate
and exemplify the behavioral mode of existence that males show against females. In other
words, as Anzaldua (cited in Ruth, 1995) one has to take the society rather than the individual
as a determinant factor.
In sum, it can be concluded, in general that, theories that explain only the fact of separation or
categorization (men do this and, women do that) and, omit the judgement of devaluation
(favoring one and disfavoring others), may not be valued. At the same time, theories that
disclaim the existence and/or the importance of devaluation are missing the central point.
Therefore, we may face difficulty to stick only on a single theory and thus, those strong points
25
2.2 Historical Developments of ‘SEX’ AND ‘GENDER’
Trew (1998) examined that with in social and personality psychology gender identity and the
gendered self are increasingly looked upon, as integral components in any description of the
relationship between gender and social behavior. Depending on the context, the term gender
can imply many things; it may be defined in terms of its use. At various times, for instance, it
alternative meanings attributed to the term ‘gender’ might be that it is an analytic concept,
Although gender could be viewed as a ‘subject variable’ most theoretical accounts of gender
concentrate almost exclusively on ‘gender as a social category’, that implies the differences
between men and women in terms of their relative power and prestige in society. These
realities in turn, are assumed to have an impact on how an individual thinks, acts and feels.
It is during the 1990s that the multiple theories began exploring the meaning of gender at the
interpersonal level. Constructionist theories argue that gender is not a stable internal
appropriate to one sex. At the other extreme, other theorists locate gender in primarily
theories, the idea of ‘self’ or ‘identify’ is a central concept for labeling ‘sex’ and ‘gender’ at
the individual level, in the context of the role of both the biological and social dimensions.
Thus, these theories, therefore, assert that, the diverse meanings of ‘gender’ as an identity can
26
• Multifactoral approaches: - assert that the gender identity is seen as a self-label with
self- perceptions.
• Self-construal approaches: - argue that the self-concepts of men and women are seen
More specifically, Hawke worth (cited in Trew, 1998) summarized a number of important
terminologies and concepts. Accordingly, the term gender is thought of either in terms of:
• Gender–role identity; which can be defined as the degree to which one approves or
Nelson–Johns (2001) reveals that the definition of many terms, particularly, those related to
culture and gender mainly depend on the Way individuals define them and it all varies with
individuals who define them. Bearing this in mind, sex refers to the biological differences
between male and female including reproductive functioning, bone structure and size etc.
27
Where as, gender is the cultural and social classification of characteristics, attitudes, values,
behaviors and the like, that are appropriate for either males or females.
Whyte (1998) examined that, right after birth, our gender continues to influence both our
physical and social development. Together with age, they influence the person.
His assertion is highly emphasized on the idea that there is a direct relationship between
assumed to be a possible cause for the gender differences, which in turn, leads to gender
gender development within psychology is derived from three inter-dependent models namely;
This model, which also includes the Sociobiologists, explains that the individuals’ differences
are attributed to the biological or genetic materials in which the contribution of the
The model maintains that, due to their biological predisposition, men have the greater
physical strength, which gave them an opportunity to perform their present roles, out of the
domestic spheres. Where as, women’s child bearing and milk production capacities
predispose them to nurturing role. It is these gender roles that act in a complementary fashion,
enabling the human kind to adapt to their environment. However, some specific biological
28
differences such as men’s y–chromosome, testosterone etc, and the women’s monthly
hormonal change, contribute to the behavioral, abilities and aptitudes, rates of development
and psychological functioning between men and women. The biological model on the other
hand, would find it more difficult to explain how one gender, just because of its biological
make ups, come to be socially dominant, which rather could be determined by other factors
like cultures.
Freudian theorists believe that, females are both sexually and morally inferior to males and
their psychological functioning is essentially different. They argue that the underlying reasons
for the female inferiority is the biological constitutes, which females miss some part of it
unlike males. Besides, the environment also contributes to the difference of the psychological
make up of girls and boys particularly, in their interpersonal relationships at their childhood
stage. Erickson treats the issue of feelings of ‘inferiority’ or superiority versus ‘difference’, in
relation to the different bodily experience, of males and females. The males tend to be seen as
projecting and out ward while females are inner-directed and more contained. He further
explained that, their difference is also that males are hardly able to create life unlike females,
and therefore, they constitute career achievement as an alternative means of creation of life.
The social learning theorists, who are Behaviorists, stress the local norms and the social
pressures, rejecting the biological determinants, as the most significant influence on gender
development. They argue that the gender appropriate behaviors are a function of modeling
and, parents, peers, teachers etc, who are the socializing agents, shaping the behaviors of
individuals through reinforcement. In doing so, both boys and girls are expected to behave in
accordance with the social standard and rules established by culture. Stressing the idea that
29
social forces largely contribute to the differences between the gender stereotypes of males and
females, Millet Kate (cited in Nelson- Johns (2001: 43) stated that,
In one study, by Sandra Bern, the American researcher (cited in Nelson Johns, 2001), who
self-reliant, willing to take risks etc. Where as, the femininities regarded as affectionate,
compassionate, eager, gentle, loving children, sympathetic, warm etc. And these traits are the
social expectations maintained and, demarcating the gender-role that is inculcated and
These are the cognitive developmental theorists who propose that the individual knows which
gender identity is appropriate through his or her active construction of the world with in
which he/she interacts. Kohl berg, a cognitive theorist, argued that, a child, as his/her
detail about gender and gender roles. This is by identifying first the potential models of
gender appropriate behavior and later on organizes their own behavior to ensure mastery of
their own gender role. The understanding of gender and the gender identify according to Kohl
berg, develops in steps, each of which is a base for the preceding stage. For example, at the
page of 2–3½ years, a child sees him/herself and others, as being in the same category but not
necessarily for life. This is just a gender labeling. Within 3½ – 4/½ years time, the child will
30
be aware of the durability of one’s own gender (gender stability). The physical concepts of
gender such as clothing etc, are exemplified to identify the gender category. The advanced
knowledge of the permanence of gender and gender constancy, disregarding the physical
The history of human rights can be said to begin a very long time ago after successive
centuries. These rights will continuously exist. The right for justice, freedom, equality and
dignity will be eternal. Through the enforcement of these rights, therefore, the human rights
are respected in all places and at all times that the values enshrined in them will always
The human rights have special components that are interrelated and through which the rights
Dignity: - Every individual, regardless of his/her social and cultural backgrounds, is entitled
to recognition of his/her inherent worth and the dignity of being human resides, in nature, in
each of the individuals that should be recognized and respected by all. Regarding this, the
preamble to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights reads, in its first paragraph
(Ferguson, 1999) as: “Where as recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and
inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice
31
and peace…”. And, more specifically it states that; (art.1) all human beings are born free and
Freedom: - Human beings by the virtue of their dignity are entitled to rights, and are creators
and holders of rights. Freedom is with a principle and value. Nonetheless, although the
fundamental freedom is accountable for making this principle, in reality it is far from being
enjoyed by all and, can be said that human beings may not achieve them in similar ways. The
values on which human rights are based are universal and every individual deserve and are
entitled to all. To this effect, the preamble to the charter of the United Nations, attests
Human rights and fundamental freedoms are the birth right of all
human beings; their protection and promotion is the first responsibility
of governments.
Equality: - All human beings, irrespective of their cultural and socioeconomic origins are
born free and, are equal, in the eyes of the law and, this is the underlying principle of the
universality of human rights. As a universal value, equality concerns among individuals, the
freedoms and rights of each individual, and forbids any form of discrimination based on race,
sex, religion, age and so on. And the combined effect of these elements lastly will make us
Justice: - Human beings establish the requirement of justice as an ideal and necessary event
for a just every day life, and those who fail to respect them show disregard for equality
between people and hence, denying others’ freedom. This is because, all human beings have
equal rights and those who deny others’ rights and freedom are supposed to answer and be
responsible for their deeds. And thus, the application of the principle of human rights to
32
everyday life of individuals necessitate an ethical attitude in which values and moral
judgments play a decisive role. It is the definition of the values and ethical principles in terms
of the relationships that exist between individuals that make the social lives meaningful. This
is because, a human being is not an isolated entity nor is human dignity exclusively
individualistic and rather, it encompasses all the social and collective dimensions of
Nevertheless, apart from the natural rights, all human beings, are also a product of social and
cultural experiences and manifestation and no one can live in isolation with other social group
members to satisfy him/her self with socially ascribed needs and values. His/her mode of
interaction in time could, therefore, shape his/her behaviors in some way, either benefits or
harms. Thus possibly one can say that, initially human rights of a person arises from human
nature and human nature, in turn, is a cumulative effect of both the biological and the social
product. Thus, the social and cultural pressures can be said to exert a significant influence on
The issue of cultural diversity is of paramount importance in the universality of human rights
of individuals. The cultural diversity doesn’t invalidate the universality of human rights and,
can’t be evolved as grounds for not respecting human rights and rather, cultures of every
society can play a great role to promote human rights, including cultural rights of individuals.
This is mainly because all cultures, as a product of the societal and individuals’ values and
practices, are equal in dignity when they are expressions of individuals’ freedom. At different
times and places, men, women and children were able to lead or guide real life versions of
human rights in the context of their cultures. The universality and individuality of human
rights therefore, set forth in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, do not preclude the
33
strengthening and advancement of rights based on certain particularities such as sex, race,
religion etc. The human rights in principle, give more concern, among other things, for people
who are more vulnerable than others due to certain reasons and these vulnerability of specific
groups has necessitated and initiated the formation of conventions and resolutions
The Beijing Declaration and the platform for Action (UN, 1996) reaffirms among other
things:
The equal rights and inherent human dignity of women and men,
The human rights of women and of the girl as an inalienable, integral and indivisible
The issue of violence against women and girls can be said to be a recent phenomena. It has
only recently that it has found its place on the international human rights agenda. In 1970s
issues related to women were generally considered and regarded as problems of political and
women of the developing nations in development. The 1979 Convention on the Elimination of
all forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) is the major International legal
instrument concerned with women’s rights with its concern on “discrimination”. And in this
convention too, the issues of gender-based violence is not specifically addressed, despite its
concern to it. Since then this issue was raised again at the world conference held at Nairobi, in
34
July 1985 aiming at Reviewing and Appraising the Achievements of the United Nations;
Finally, the integration of the issue of violence against women and girls into the mainstream
of the United Nations in the field of human rights is ought to be seen as an important step in
Violence against women and girls is rooted in a global culture of discrimination that denies
the victims’ rights. It is a violation of their right to physical integrity, liberty, and to their life
itself (Amnesty International 2001). It is rampant in all corners of the world and it is a human
rights violation that manifests itself in a number of ways and is a global pandemic. Many
international conferences and regional treaties have made major pronouncements about
gender-specific violence and, declared that women’s human rights are a fundamental part of
all human rights and must be protected not only in courts or prisons but also in other areas of
public life. The 1996 resolution of the world Health Assembly declares gender based
violence, after fully addressing its health consequences, as a public health priority and
(http://healthlinks.washington.edu/nwcphp/nph/f202/gender violencef200.pdf).
The United Nations Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of tolerance and of
discrimination, based on religion or belief, protects the rights of the child, regardless of
his/her sex, against abuse and violence that is carried out in the name of a particular belief or
35
“Practices of a religion or belief in which a child is brought up must not
be injurious to his physical or mental health or to his full development
… (art. 5, par.5)”.
In every social environment, to a greater or less degree, women and girls are subjected to
physical and psychological abuses. The term violence against women implies any act of
gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or psychological
harm. It also includes threats of such acts like coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty,
whether it occurred in public or private life. Violence against women and girls therefore,
(http://www.un.org/womenwatch/draw/beiging/platform/violence.htm.).
a) Physical, sexual and psychological violence, occurring in the family, including dowry
related violence, marital rape, FGM, and other traditional practices harmful to women.
b) Physical, sexual and psychological violence within the general community, including
elsewhere, and
wherever it occurs.
It is revealed also that violence against women violates and impairs or nullifies the human
rights of women and the girl child. The long-standing failure to protect & promote their rights
& freedom is a matter of concern to States. Such violence is a manifestation of the historically
unequal power relations between men and women, which led to domination, discrimination
36
Many literatures have documented that gender-based violence derives throughout the life
cycle, essentially from cultural patterns and exacerbated by social pressures. Particularly, the
harmful effects of certain traditional or customary practices perpetuate the lower status
accorded culturally to women in the family. Many factors can possibly be mentioned to have
contributed to the prevalence of various traditional practices that are harmful to women and
girls in many ways. These include women’ s lack of access to legal information, aid or
protection, the lack of laws that effectively and timely prohibit these violence, failure to
promote reform and enforce existing laws. Others also include absence of educational and
other means to address the causes and consequences of violence and the absence of gender
disaggregated figure and data on the incidence (UNESCO, 97). This is mainly because
women’s right is an issue that could affect virtually all human beings in a very direct and
personal way. The United Nations’ Fourth World Conference on Women, and the Vienna
Declaration (1993) on human rights have clearly concluded that, in the world, women
probably suffer more human rights violations than men. And at the very least, they are
Some of the major gender-related traditional practices, that exert an adverse effect on the
health and psychological adjustment of women and girls and, which are the focus of this
Around the world, women and girls suffer from the harmful and life threatening effects of
traditional and cultural practices that continue under the guise of cultural and social
conformism and religions beliefs, one of which, is female genital mutilation (UNICEF,
2000).It is a terrible violation of girls’ human rights; based on traditions and beliefs that
37
female’s sexuality must be controlled and, is one of the major human rights and public health
FGM is the deliberate infliction of severe pain and dangerous practice that involve the
removal of part or all of the external female genitalia. The practice is perpetuated in many
countries around the world as one element of a rite of passage, on girls from birth to
adolescence, preparing young girls for woman hood and marriage. It is a human rights abuse
that functions as an instrument for socializing girls into prescribed gender roles within the
platform of the Fourth World Conference on Women (Beijing 1995), FGM was cited as both
Everyday, thousands of girls are targeted for mutilation and it is a manifestation of gender
based human rights violations and one of many forms of social injustice that any girls and
women face worldwide. It is estimated that more than 135 million girls and women in the
world have undergone FGM and, 2 million girls a year, are at risk of mutilation (UN and
ECOSOC, 2002, Meron, 2000 and UNICEF, 2000). FGM is performed Approximately at the
rate of 6000 girls per day, 250 per hour and 5 girls per minute. Nevertheless, studies reveal
that, currently, there are more than 100 million women who have suffered or undergone
genital mutilation in the continent of Africa alone. It has been affecting too many girls and
women (Mackie, 1996) across some two-dozen countries in Africa. Among other international
human rights law, the practice of FGM violates the right of every child to “a standard of
living adequate for the child’s physical, mental, spiritual, moral and social development,” as
laid down in article 27 of the convention on the rights of the child. It is attested (UNESCO
l997) also that, “No child shall be subjected to … cruel, in human or degrading treatment or
38
Though FGM takes place mainly in 28 African countries, evidence shows that it has been a
common practice in almost every country of Africa (Meron 2000). On the other hand, Althaus
(1997) examined that, the practice of FGM excludes Southern Africa and the Arab Speaking
North African countries, with the exception of Egypt. In general it occurs among Muslims,
Christians and one Jewish sect, although none of these religions require it. Apart from the 28
African countries (both eastern and western), the FGM takes place in some regions of Asia
and the Middle East, and in certain immigrant communities in North America, Europe &
Australia (UNICEF, 2000). Balding et al (1996) studied that the top five African countries in
which the FGM is highly practiced include Djibouti and Somalia (98%), Sierra Leone (90%),
Ethiopia and Eritrea (90%) and, Sudan (89%). The following table summarizes the existence,
Estimated percentage of girls and women in Africa that are supposed to have undergone
Country %
Ghana 30
Burkina Faso 70
Mali 75
Sudan 89
Source:( http://www.womankind.org.uk/fa%20fgm.htm)
39
The practice is still widespread in more than 20 Sub Saharan countries. Certain religious sects
in Malaysia, India, Pakistan, South Yemen and the UAE etc practice different forms. Sadly,
despite their Law against such a violation, FGM is practiced in the UK, USA, Australia and
France. The UNICEF’s convention on the Rights of the child, and the Resolution passed
against it in 1994 by the World Health Organization have also underlined that FGM is a
violence against the rights of girls and is to be banned. Female genial mutilation, although it
may be performed during infancy, adolescence or even during a woman’s first pregnancy, the
procedure is usually carried out on girls between ages four and twelve (Althaus, 1995). The
UN office of the High Commissioner for Africa indicates that (UN, 1996) the specific age at
which mutilation is carried out varies from area to area and across ethnic groups of many
years old, and on adolescents. Adult women also undergo the FGM at the time of marriage.
Thus, possibly one can say that, since it is performed on infants as well as adults, it can no
The methods and types of surgical operation differ across countries and ethnic groups. The
type of mutilation for instance varies through tribes and ethnic groups. This is particularly
true throughout Africa, Asia, the Middle East, Australia, Latin America and so on. But FGM,
in general, can be broadly classified, based on the nature and the magnitude (painfulness) and
the ceremony attached to it (UN and ECOSCO, 2002 and, Mackie, 1996).
This involves the cutting of the tip of the clitoris, known in Muslim countries as “Sunna”
(tradition). It is of the mildest form, affecting only a small proportion of women. This is the
40
only form of circumcision to be correctly termed circumcision, although there has been a
tendency to categorize all forms of mutilations under the misleading term “female
circumcision”. The pain accorded to this one is relatively minimal as compared to others.
b) Excision/Clitoridectomy: -
This involves the removal of part or all of the clitoris as well as part or all of the labia minora.
It is the most common operation and is practiced throughout Africa, Asia the Middle East and
This is the most severe and painful operation, involving clitoridectomy and the excision of the
labia minora and, at least the interior two thirds and often, the whole of the labia majora. The
two sides of the vulva are then pinned or sewn together by silk or, held against each other
with thorns. Its operation takes place from a few days after birth to before the birth of the next
child depending on local custom, but mostly it seems to be performed around age eight, safely
before puberty. In Somalia, 99% of women are mutilated among which, 83% of them, are
infibulated.
d) Intermediate circumcision: -
This is the removal of the clitoris and some or all of the labia minora. The practice also varies
The origin of FGM cannot be evidently established but records show that the practice predates
the spread of both Islam and Christianity. Some evidence that has not been proved reveals
that, in ancient Egypt, both excision and infibulations were performed. In tsarist Russia as
41
well as 19th century England, France and America, records indicate the practice of
for numerous psychological ailments. Meron (2000) reported that although its exact origin is
obscure and is exactly unknown, certain sources claim that the practice of FGM was most
The Geographic distribution of FGM, on the other hand, suggests that it originated on the
western coast of the Red sea, where infibulations is most intense, diminishing to
clitoridectomy in west ward and southward radiation. Particularly, it has close relationship
with the Egyptians when they raided and traded the black south for slaves, from dynastic to
Byzantine times. Some sources therefore claim that Egyptians had used FGM as a means of
preventing pregnancy against the slave captives who come from south.
FGM is traditionally practiced as a ritual, signifying the acceptance of a woman into society,
and establishes her eligibility for marriage. It is believed to contribute in inspiring fertility and
ensuring chastity and, in FGM practicing societies it is extremely difficult, if not impossible,
On the other hand, although FGM predate Islam (UN and, Economic & Social Council,
2002), religious reasons are given for the continuation of the practice. Some argue that, FGM
is often defined and defended as a religious practice, as required by Muslim Law. Their
justification is that, although it existed in Africa, prior to Islam and has been later on
42
incorporated into Islam (Balding, 1996) and the kur’an itself makes no mention about it, the
practice can be and is seen by scholars and falls under Muslim Law in that it was practiced
during the time of Muhammad (the Prophet). They also believe that, a woman can’t be a true
or proper Muslim if she is not circumcised. She can’t go to mosque, marry or, in some cases
she may also be ostracized. However, several others are in different to such a controversy.
Another reason is also that, in many societies, FGM is believed to reduce a woman’s desire
for sex, reducing the chance and preventing woman from indulging in illegitimate pre-
marital sex, and protecting them from unwilling sexual relations. This is said to be vital
because it is believed to be honor for her family and, respect and tradition for the girl
(http://www.amnesty.org/ailob/inticam/femgen/fgm1.htm).
In general, the reasons given vary from country to country and, even with in the countries
themselves, there is a variation with different ethnic groups. Many have revealed that the
possible reasons include: cultural identity, Gender identity, control of women’s sexuality and
reproductive right functions and, beliefs about hygiene, aesthetics and health conditions.
A human rights framework affirms that the rights of women to physical & mental integrity, to
freedom from discrimination and to the highest standard of health are universal. FGM is a
practice that compounds unspeakable violence against woman and young girls and it can
never be justified. Its severe consequences of the psychological and physical health of women
and the girl-children are understood within the scope of the human rights instruments. Such
practice is a graphic illustration of the indivisibility and interdependence of all human rights
and its violation of the right to physical and mental integrity of women and girls. It is an act of
violence that cannot be addressed in isolation from the context of systematic deprivation of
43
women’s civil, social and economic rights and from issues of access to education and
economic development (Amnesty International 2001). The FGM that is performed on the
grounds of race, ethnicity, sexual identity, social status, class and age etc, not only restrict
women’s choices but also increase their vulnerability to violence and make even harder for
The effects of FGM have both the short-term and long-term implications that can cause grave
damage to children and women and, results in serious physical, psychological and mental
consequences. The conditions under which the operation is carried out are often poor and not
hygienic. On top of this, the instruments used include a kitchen knife, razor blade etc that are
crude and unsterilized and are used, at the same time, for many girls. The operation takes
usually about 10 to 20 minutes, depending on its nature and, in most cases the operation is
made by people who have not any training in the area through trial and error. The victims are
not given any anesthesia or antibiotics. These factors or constraints are more likely to easily
cause the spread of HIV/AIDS and, other communicable diseases. As a result, the lives of
many women and young children are threatened with the fatal and fast spreading disease, that
can disrupt the, life of many other individuals both men & women. Studies also reveal that in
particular, FGM is increasing the high rate for many girls & women to be infected with
In rural areas, where untrained traditional birth attendants perform the operations,
complication resulting from deep cut and infected instrument can cause death to the girl-child.
Most physical and health complications can occur. Accidental cuts to other organs can also
lead to a heavy loss of blood and the application of traditional medicine can also lead to acute
44
infection resulting in tetanus, anemia and even to sterility and death. Many revealed also that,
the psychological effects of FGM are more difficult and more chronic than the physical ones.
Despite the lack of numerous scientific studies, a small number of clinical cases of
psychological illness of FGM and other personal accounts of mutilation reveal certain
implications. These are feelings of anxiety, terror, humiliation and betrayal, all of which
(http://www.amnesty.org/ailob/inticam/femgen/fgm1.htm).
In general, it is argued that while the Hemorrhage, infection and acute pain are the immediate
consequences, infertility; obstructed and psychological complications etc are identified as the
http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu6/2/fs23.htm).
least one party, usually the girl, doesn’t have consent to the marriage. This form of marriage
may involve both abduction and early marriage and, in both cases it is the girl who is forced
to engage in marriage. According to UN and, Economic and Social council (2002), forced
Article 16(2) of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948 (Harvey, 2002) states that:
“Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending spouses”.
adult life. But the types of marriages mentioned above give no such cause for celebration and
45
rather, the fundamental rights of the girl child are compromised. The fact that these practices
violate human rights provisions in many international conventions and treaties particularly,
(http://www.unescobkk.org/ips/arhwb/resources/laws/ch3.pdf.).
In many societies young girls are prepared for marriage from a very early age and there is a
great social pressure for daughters to be married at an early age. This is believed to give a
longer reproductive period for the girl to produce more children. Practically the connection
between early marriage and early childbearing is acute. Early childbearing occurs through out
the world with about 10.6% of all babies born each year to adolescent mothers. Of this, about
six million babies are born to adolescent mothers in Asia-pacific alone. On the other hand
early childbearing is an indicator for a continued cycle of ignorance and poverty that could
Early marriage constitutes a form of violence as it undermines the health and autonomy of
millions of young girls. However, the legal minimum age of marriage is usually lower for
female than for males. In many countries, the minimum legal age for marriage with parental
consent is considerably lower. In many parts of the developing world, especially in rural
areas, girls marry shortly after puberty and are expected to start having children immediately.
It can have harmful consequences for both young mothers and their babies. It can lead to
childhood/teenage pregnancy, and can expose the girl to HIV/AIDS and other sexually
transmitted diseases. It is also associated with adverse health effects for her children, such as
low birth weight high infant mortality rate. Furthermore, it has an adverse effect on the
46
In general, marriages are forced upon early adolescent girls for various reasons. These include
strengthening family links, protecting perceived cultural and religious ideals, protecting
family honor and controlling female behavior and sexuality etc (UN and Economic &Social
Council, 2002).
In the preceding sections therefore, we try to have a look at some of these gender-related
The profiles of Harmful traditional practices that exist in Ethiopia are found to be above 140
in number, as it is reported after the comprehensive baseline survey study in the country.
Based on these reports and the present knowledge, the major types of Harmful Traditional
practices that are common in Ethiopia can be classified in different ways (Amare, 1998) as
follows:
The harmful traditional practices that are categorized under this classification scheme include
a) Mothers: -These are female genital mutilation, early marriage, Abduction, giving Kosso
(herbal medicine) to pregnant women, promoting excessive fertility, messaging the stomach
b) Children: - These include vulva cutting, milk teeth extraction, skin burning, food taboos
and others.
47
c) General: - These are the practices that could, one way or another, affect both mothers and
children, irrespective of their age, and some of them are: Tribal marks, skin burning,
These are some of the major Harmful Traditional Practices (HTPs) that are related to:
a) Skin Cutting: - Which include FGM, Tonsillectomy, Tattooing, Vulva cutting, Tribal
prior to marriage, old age man marrying too young girls and so on.
c) Pregnancy and Delivery: - Messaging abdomen before and during delivery, food taboo to
d) Child Rearing Practice: - Keeping a baby out of the sun, feeding fresh butter to a new
Having seen these as a very broad and general background, now let’s specify ourselves to
those Harmful traditional practices that are particularly, aimed at in this study and exerting a
significant influence, both on women and the girl-child. These are Female Genital Mutilation
Ethiopia has about 61.7 million people and is the third largest in Africa. It has a great number
of ethnic groups, whose cultures are varied as the ethnic groups’ composition. It has one of
the least educated populations in the world. The literacy rate in 1994 was only 24.1% for
female and 44.5% for male and, a higher proportion of girls in rural areas are out of school
48
(NCTPE, 2000). In other words, while the majority of people in this country have little or no
education (Teshome, 2002), women are generally less educated and about 45.5% of the total
population live under the absolute poverty line; which one way or another, contributes for the
harmful traditional practices that violates the rights of women and girls.
Women and children, who constitute the vast majority of the population (75%) in Ethiopia,
carry the brunt of harmful traditional practices. Every woman in Ethiopia on the average gives
birth to 7.07 children (2000 est.). And societal abuse of the young girls continues to be a
problem. In Ethiopia, between 70 and 90% of females undergo female genital mutilation. The
country remains one of Africa’s most traditional societies even when it comes to legislation
(http://www.afrol.com/catcgories/women/profiles/Ethiopia_women.htm).
The practice of FGM in Ethiopia is well entrenched in 23 ethnic groups and, if factors like
differences in age at mutilation & other variables are kept constant, it could be said that
almost all women have been mutilated. Due to the extensive distribution and the high
proportion of women, who are subjected to it, there fore, FGM can be said to be a pan-
Ethiopian. It is considered in some ethnic groups as a mark of ethnic identity. The baseline
survey in the country (NCTPE, 1998:102 and 2000) reveals also that the people’s level of
awareness of the harmfulness of FGM is very limited and only about one third of the general
population has said to have shown awareness. It is reported that only 18% of the population in
Oromia, 23% of the Amhara and, 27% of the Afar regions, are aware of the adverse effects of
FGM is a national problem. It does affect the physical, mental and social life of more than
half of the Ethiopian population (women and children), but also the socio economic
49
development of the nation. Nonetheless, the health status of the country’s population is too
low (NCTPE, 2000). Forty five percent of the people have no access to medical services
(http://www.afrol.com./categories/women/profiles/Ethiopia_women.htm).
Ethiopia is among the few countries in the world with the highest rate of maternal death and
the contribution of FGM to such an incidence can’t, by any means, be underestimated. With
the practice of FGM, girls and women are subjected to life long physical and emotional
problems (NCTPE, 1999 and 2000). The baseline survey of 1997 indicates that FGM is
commonly practiced in all regions of Ethiopia, both in rural and urban community, with the
exception of Gambella, and by various religious groups. About 90% of women in this country
are believed to undergone one of the three forms of mutilation (clitoridectomy, excision and
(Meron, 2000). For instance, it is indicated, in the Base line Survey on harmful traditional
practices in Ethiopia (NCTPE, 1998) that the largest proportion of FGM is practiced by Afar
region (94.5), Harari (81.2%), Amhara (81.1%) and Oromia (79.8%) respectively. Regions
that contribute the least in this regard include Gambella (0.0%) and relatively, SNNPR
(46.3%), respectively. And the estimated prevalence of FGM at the national level is 73.6%.
Reasons for FGM in Ethiopia include respect for tradition, keeping the moral behavior of
women or girls in the society, preservation of virginity, avoidance of shame, ostracization &
stigmatization, to control women’s emotions (tranquilizer), hygienic and esthetic reasons and
so on. The severe bleeding (hemorrhage) is said, among other effects, to be the most common
immediate complication that occurs following FGM and, numerous evidences reported its
severe incidence. The other serious problem is that of HIV/AIDS, that has grown into one of
the most serious public health problems in the country. Among some 22,000 HIV/AIDS cases
50
that have been reported by hospitals in 1996, for the 10% of them the mode of transmission
was hardly known and the harmful traditional practices have been suspected. This is while the
number of people, who are infected by HIV/AIDS, is estimated in Ethiopia alone, to be about
1.2 million with the potential of growing (NCTPE, 1999 and 2000).
2.3.1.3.2.2 Abduction
Marriage by abduction is the unlawful act of taking away a girl for the purpose of marriage
without her will, consent or awareness. It is also called marriage by kidnapping (mostly a girl
below 15 years old). A girl is abducted without her knowledge or her parents’ will. It can
therefore, be an informal and illegal means of acquiring a wife. The processes are made after
careful planning and the necessary preparations are made in advance and, it is kept
confidential so that both the girl and her parents would not be conscious about it (Teshome,
Mintiwab (2000) examined that abduction is a form of forced marriage as it is done without
the will of the girl and her parents. It is unlawful act, which usually takes place while the girl
is going to market, school, fetching water or visiting relatives etc. Most of the time it occurs
by a person whom, both the girl herself, and the parent rejected to give him their daughter.
How ever, in most cases and in most countries where it is practiced, it is impossible to think
abduction without rape that follows it. Because most abductors take for granted that raping the
girl would make them succeed in keeping her, if only they forcefully control her virginity. In
other words, it is a guarantee that the abductor (Teshome 2002) will most likely succeed in
keeping her after some negotiation and, by paying the required compensation to the parents of
a girl.
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Abduction is an offense, which constitute the most shocking crimes against human conscience
constitutional principles, declarations and other International conventions, which give special
respect for fundamental human rights (Tekalign, 1998). The act is not only ordinary offenses
but also is aggression of the basic human rights of the girls. The common event between
abduction and rape is that, mostly the two comes one after the other that, abduction is
inevitably followed by an act of rape in practice which is adherent to the strong traditional
belief of the society. In order for the person to end with marriage, raping the girl must
immediately follow abduction. Then after, a girl who is abducted has no choice to get another
The baseline survey study on 65 ethnic groups involving about ten regional states, 57 zones
(both urban and rural), in Ethiopia (NCTPE, 1998) reveals that, marriage by abduction is
practiced by most ethnic groups in the country, among which particularly the SNNPR,
Oromia and the Benishangul Gumuz respectively, constitute the highest proportion. And it
was found to be 69%, on the average, at the national level. The survey study however, based
on the findings from opinion leaders, both on the occurrence of & popular support to marriage
A matrix – table showing the prevalence of Abduction & its popular support
52
It is shown that SNPPR stands out the first to be a problem area where marriage by abduction
is highly prevalent with very low popular support of the practice, followed by Oromia.
Furthermore, Tekalign (1998) argues that the occurrence of abduction is rising at a high rate
in Ethiopia more than any other forms of gender-related violence. There are two types of
abduction that is common in Ethiopia (Mintiwab, 2000, Tekalign, 1998 and NCTPE, 1998).
In the first category the act of abducting a girl is carried out with the slightest clue or
=information to the girl’s family, relatives or friends. Such kind of abduction is frequently
named as simple abduction. It is usually done because of the fear of rejection or refusal by the
parent of the girl due mainly to economic and social status, or ethnic reasons and the
consequence could therefore be disastrous. The second type is the “arranged abduction,”
which is done with some kind of understanding between the family, relatives or friends of the
Most of the time, the possible factors contributing to marriage by Abduction in various ethnic
groups of Ethiopia are the following (NCTPE, 2000, Teshome, 2002 and Amare, 1996).
1. Poverty: - inability to pay excessive dowry (bride price). The wedding expenses are
too high that the bridegroom is supposed to provide ornaments, gifts, money and
3. Fear of rejection: - The person who abducts will anticipate and reject refusal of the
family of the girl. This happens due to reasons such as difference in economic and
4. False sense of power: - the abductor some times, if he is from well-to-do family is
proud of the matter that, his money can make him do anything including forcefully
53
5. Voluntary Abduction: - This occurs sometime, based on the prior commitment of the
two couples. The reasons here include shortening the marriage processes, and is
usually common in Sodo Gruage and Zey) and, to avoid exchange marriage (eg.
Shinasha). The girl will also involve in abduction when her parents intend to give her
Physical injury: - because force is used there is a high risk of physical injury such as
fracture of some parts of the body, suffocation and possibly death that could result from
Psychological trauma which can lead a girl to a deep psychological crisis that can hardly
Marital difficulties, because of the immaturity of the girl physically, biologically and
psychchologically she may face problems of adjustment that could lead to marriage
instability.
Denial of education: - many girls who are abducted or exposed to abduction will have no
chance to pursue their education. Parents do not send or determine not to send their
54
2.3.1.3.2.3 Early Marriage
practice that is carried out between a very young girl aged between 8-15 and in most cases; a
girl is forced to marry a very senior boy who coincides to the age of a girl. It is predominantly
performed in most third world countries including Ethiopia (Mintiwab, 2000). In Ethiopia it
is, practiced widely in the northern parts of the country where it stands out prominently by
Amhara & Tigray. The rate of early marriage in this country, as it is revealed by the baseline
survey study is 54.5% at the national level. This figure is 82% for Amhara, 79% for Tigray
and 64% for Gambella & Benishangul Gumuz regions. The mean ages of marriage for
Amhara & Tigray regions respectively, are 14.5 and 15.9 years. It is also said that the
percentage of women married below the age of 15 was found to be 43.0% for Orthodox and
28.8% for Muslims and, others contribute the rest. In general, 33% of women in the country
are subjected to early marriage, with the average age of 17.1 years (NCTPE, 1998 and 2000).
Other evidence shows that although the civil code prohibits marriages of girls under the age of
15 years and boys under the age of 18, to the contrary girls are marrying at the age of 12, 13
and 14 years and at a younger age (National office of population, 1999). Early marriage,
although its prevalence could relatively be low, also exists predominantly in other regions
such as Oromia, SNNPR, Harari, Benishangul, Gambella and Addis Ababa etc, and the
underlying factor is related mainly to underdevelopment, poverty, illiteracy and so on. For
example in accordance with the 1994 data, 77% of the people of Ethiopia were reported to be
illiterate, and only 23% are literate among those who have age of 50 and above. Moreover, it
is only an estimate of 16.7% of women are literate (read & write) among those who are 10
and above years of age. In general, the following table may give us an insight into the state of
55
Average age at which the first marriage takes place
Region Amhara Tigray Benishangul Oromia Afar Somali Harari SNNPR Gambella
Age 14 15 16 17 17 18 18 19 20
The possible causes of early marriage in such a traditional society include the following major
family has one less mouth to feed, and hope that the girl herself will be better off.
Desire to protect the girl: -in most societies where virginity is valued, early marriage is
seen as a way of promoting a girl from unsanctioned premarital sex and pregnancy
Conformity: - people tend to be abiding by the tradition and custom, and fear of stigma.
Many parents fear the lose of appreciation by others if they fail to engage their daughter
early in marriage. Other wise, the girls would-be considered as unaccepted and they
Threats to cultural survival: - the society also believes that marrying a girl to someone
within the same culture is a way of promoting the culture by ensuring that the children
Nevertheless, although one could list down too many reasons underlying the practice of early
marriage, it would not by any means be free from some problems and consequences. The
major health related risks include the following (UNICEF, 2000, NCTPE, 1999 and 2000,
56
Poor health including poor reproductive health: - girls who marry young are at risk of
High maternal mortality rats: - The most serious problem of early child bearing is
Early pregnancy & early child bearing: - for girls who marry early, there is a high
chance to give birth to many children and thereby high fertility rate.
Illiteracy: - girls who marry at their young age tend to drop out of school and are more
Psychological disadvantages: - girls who are forced to marry early usually face social
A cycle of poverty: - finally the consequence would be that children of young and
illiterate mothers are more likely to face some sort of deprivation and possibly, they
It will be very important to have a look at the nature of marriage and marriage related rights
of girls and women in Oromia, with special reference to abduction, in the study areas. There
are various kinds of marriages among the people of the study site mentioned. To this effect a
study findings by Hirut (2000), Mamo(1995) and Teshome (2002) are substantial. The types
of marriage include:
57
1. Marriage by bride wealth (“Gabbara”)
It is a type of acquiring a girl for marriage. Such a marriage type involves the payment, by the
boy’s parent, of too many or much bride price, either in kind or in cash, to the daughter’s
parents and her self. The amount of the bride price to be paid is as small as five heads of cattle
and two woven clothes (“Woyaa”) and, as large as twenty heads of cattle and two woven
clothes. Depending on the physical maturity, the relationship between the two parents and
their socioeconomic background, the bride price may also include, in the case of Gabbara, a
This is a kind of marriage where by two girls are being exchanged from their respective
parents, one from the bride’s side and, the groom on the other side. Usually, the two girls,
from both sides are supposed to be equal in physical maturity and they are of identical age
brackets. Although the two types of marriages (by “bride price” and by “sister exchange”) are
the most dominant and culturally favored, there are also, some means of acquiring a wife.
These include “abduction”, “persuasion”, “levirate”, “sororate”, and “biidhaa” For the
purpose of this study, it is important to look at a highlight of each of this, and if not in detail,
so as to have an insight into their occurrence and their marriage-related impacts on girls.
3. Abduction ("Buttaa")
This is an informal and illegal type of marriage, in which a girl is forcefully kidnapped
without mere knowledge and consent of both the girl and her parent. Although it is illegal
violating the human rights of girls abduction as form of marriage still is widely practiced in
58
In Oromia a study revealed that one in five women marry by abduction. Particularly a study
was conducted (Teshome, 2002) on 227 spouses in two rural Districts of Asasa and Dodola;
which are situated in the periphery of the Wabe Shabale river in Arsi and Bale, respectively,
has shown considerable outcome. It was reported that 60% of the women were abducted at the
age of less than 15 years and 93% were found to be abducted before the age of 20. With
respect to the victims’ education, the study revealed that when they are abducted, 36%of the
girls had no education, 54% were found to join elementary education and the rest 10% were in
secondary education. On the other hand, 42% of the abductors were aged 16-20, 28% were
between the age of 21-25, 17% were aged 26-30 and 13% of them were above age 30.
Furthermore, among them, 53% had a chance to primary education, 29% were with no
This shows that, in general, considerable number of girls are forced in rural areas to enter into
marriage by abduction at their early stage of life and many of them are abducted at
A baseline survey of the year 1997 (NCTPE, 1999: 11) shows us that, about 80.4% of the
people included in the study responded that abduction prevails in Oromia. Besides, they
argued that rejection/refusal on the side the girl’s parent to give their daughter to some one
else, when asked, avoidance of wedding ceremony, and fear of the payment of the pride-price
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3. Marriage by Persuasion (“Hawata”)
This usually occurs in the form of convincing or persuading a girl in suitable areas such as in
the market or in areas where youngsters are gathered together for ceremonies like weeding
and so on. The guy, after convincing the girl, takes her to one of his friend or relatives’ home
on her consent. He then sends a socially acceptable elder to his own parents to inform them
that he established marriage with a girl. As a result, his parents in turn send an elderly people
to the girl’s parent, to settle the occurrence in peaceful way, which usually is ended, in
positive way.
This is a kind of marriage, in which case, up- on the death of a husband, one of his young
brothers inherits the deceased brother’s widow. Any children born to the union is considered
This is also another social and cultural practice where by up on the death of his wife, a person
is given the sister of the deceased woman with out any payment. This is a custom, although
not very common, done to express their sorrow both to the person and his deceased wife. But
it is not mandatory for the parents to give their girl. It rather depends on their strong
relationship that exists between them. The intention is that she would manage his home and
the children of the deceased mother carefully. Besides, the sister of the deceased wife inherits
all the properties so that other woman, particularly, in the case of polygamous society, does
60
Chapter Three: THE RESEARCH DESIGN
The purpose of this paper is to identify and understand some of the gender-based traditional
practices that, directly or indirectly, harm women and the girls. Specifically, the study focuses
on the investigation of the female circumcision, abduction and the early marriage. To this
effect, the relevant data were gathered, by the use of various tools, from the study area of the
This section of the paper focuses on the description of subjects taken, the sampling techniques
and its procedures, the instruments used and, the statistical methods employed for the analysis
of the data.
The subjects of this study consist of individuals from heterogeneous groups in terms of sex,
age, occupation, educational background and the marital status. The participants include
parents (male & female), students (boys & girls), girls-out-of school and the community
elders. This study was undertaken both in rural areas and the rural towns (in the case of
schools).
The following Table (Table 1) will display the profile of the subjects who were included in
the study. It indicates the proportion of each of the samples taken and also summarizes the
61
Table 1. Profile of Subjects, Sample size and their Age
Age(min.12, Max.90)
Respondents Sample Size %
Mean Sd
As it is indicated in many literatures (for instance, Howell, 1987 and Thorndike, 1982), the
correct sample size is determined by the nature of the population and the purpose of the study.
Some argue that, about thirty cases seem to be bare minimum and, others regard hundred
cases as the minimum. Besides, irrespective of the size of the population, the determination of
the sample size required to reflect the population value of a particular variable depends also
Other things being equal, the general principle in sampling the required number of subjects
states that, “the larger the sample, the smaller the likelihood of the sampling error”.
Keeping this principle, the researcher included a total of three hundred fifty five subjects in
the study and, believes that, this is a considerable number, if not too many, provided that, the
62
Accordingly, as it is shown above (Table1), there were a total of 355 respondents who have
been included in the study, among which female students (36.62%) constitute, relatively, the
higher number, followed by male students (19.72%). The age of these heterogeneous groups
also varies considerably that, on the average, the respondents have 34.40 years of age with the
cumulative standard deviations of 4.55. In this table, in general it can also be summarized
that, there are a total of 230 (64.79%) females and 120 (35.21%) males.
Furthermore, Table 2 below describes the settings/centers, from which the subjects were
drawn and, it also indicates the size of the population, among which the samples were taken,
particularly, the student population. For instance, the total student population, who was in
grades 10,11 and 12, in Dodola senior school, was 599. This figure was 214 for the total
Out-of-Schools Baka*** - - - - 50 50
*Schools from which the students were drawn (Grades 8, 10, 11 and 12)
**The rural villages from which the parents and elders were drawn
***The rural village from which the girls-out-of-schools were drawn
****The total number of sample size
63
However, these figures indicate only the size of the student population, who were in grade
eight and from which the samples have been taken and, do never show the total population of
the students in the school. It is to be noted also that, the total population, from which the
samples have been taken, has not been indicated, for the subjects taken from the rural areas.
Table 2 above indicates that, the samples were taken, for this study, from two settings, in
general, one of which is the school and, the other is the out-of-school setting. That is, 200
students that constitute about 56.34% of the total sample size were taken from the school
settings and, 155 parents, out-of-school girls and elders (43.66%) altogether, were drawn from
the out-of-school settings. These were from the rural villages that were relatively close to the
main road.
With respect to the sampling techniques, the stratified random sampling, the purposive and
the availability sampling methods were employed, to select the samples among their
respective population. The sampling procedures also follow that, among a total of 309 female
students in grades 10,11 and 12 and, 290males in grades 10 to 11, at the Dodola senior school,
90 girls and 40 boys were, respectively, selected by a stratified random sampling technique.
Similarly, among 46 female and 168 male students, who were in grade eight, at the Heraro
junior school, 40 girls and 30 boys were drawn, respectively, by a technique of stratified
random sampling. These make a total of 200 students, irrespective of their sex, among 813-
student population.
Besides, fifty girls, who were out- of-schools, 50 men and 50 women, were added to the
sample. These subjects were taken on the basis of their availability from three rural villages
that were close to the rural town of Heraro (see Table 2 above). The reason for their inclusion
64
was that, it is hoped that individuals with different ages and experiences could be obtained
and, this in turn could contribute to the fair generalization of the findings of the study. They
Again, to further diversify the subjects and obtain relatively valid and dependable
information, five key informants were purposely added from the community elders who live
in the rural villages mentioned and, they have given their responses to the in-depth key
informant interview series. Studies reveal that, in purposive sampling technique, the
researcher uses his own judgment about which respondents to choose and which subjects best
suit the purpose of the study. The researcher can also use his prior knowledge and experience
to choose the suggested informants (Gall and Borg, 1996). Therefore, The key informants
were drawn based on these practical evidences, after talking to some of the elders in the
Indeed, The participants of this study, in general, are found regardless of their sex, between
the age brackets of twelve and ninety years old, with an average age of 34.40 and standard
Pertaining to the ethnicity of the subjects taken, the majority of the respondents (82.82%)
belong to the Oromo ethnic group followed by the Amharas (11.55%). The rest 5.63% of
them were from other ethnic affiliations such as Gurage, Silte and so on.
The next Table below (Table 3) describes and summarizes the religion and the ethnic
65
Table 3. Ethnicity and Religion of the Respondents
Ethnicity
• Amhara 8 3 16 13 1 41
• Others - - 12 8 - 20
Religion
• Islam 45 35 47 74 39 240
• Orthodox 7 12 18 43 9 89
• Others 3 3 5 13 2 26
Similarly, with regard to the religious compositions, a large pool of the respondents (67.61%)
were found to be Muslims and, 89 (25.07%) and 26(7.32%) of them belong to the Orthodox
Christianity and other forms of religions, respectively. These were from Protestants,
The marital status and the educational background of the respondents will be summarized
66
Table 4. Marital Status and the Respondents’ educational back ground
Marital Status
• Married 55 50 3 3 - 111
• Engaged in - - 27 31 19 77
• Single - - 40 96 31 167
Educational
Status
• Illiterate 46 46 - - 43 135
Table 4 above depicts the marital and the educational status of the respondents. As regards
their marital status, while all the parents are married, only 6(3%) students have reported to get
married. But about 58 (29%) of them have reported to engage in the processes, as the would-
be ‘couples” in the future. Of course the majority of them (68%) were found to be single
(neither married nor engaged). When we come to Girls-out-of school, a considerable amount
of them (38%) have engaged and 31(62%) are single. In general, of the total respondents, 111
(31.27%) of them have married, 77 (21.69%) of them have engaged and, 167 (47.04%) of
67
It is to be noticed also that, we might conclude from this data that, there is a practice of
engaging both boys and girls, in the processes of marriage, before even they get married to
the subjects included in the study were characterized by ethnic and religious backgrounds.
And their marital and the educational background also vary in the same fashion.
The instruments used to collect relevant data were designed, both for the quantitative and the
The quantitative measurements used for the data collection include Questionnaire and
structured & semi-structured interview items. Through these instruments, the researcher
attempted to chart the respondents’ perceptions and opinions regarding the different social
and cultural values attached to the practices mentioned so far. The questions themselves
needed to be simple, direct and relevant in providing commentary by the participants, with
pre-formulated items composed of the multiple choices that could reflect tendencies identified
from various sources. In some cases, the questions also give the respondents a chance to
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The researcher was aware of the limitations of the questionnaire format and, in particular, the
ways in which questions can embody assumptions and response formats. The aim was not to
reify or reinforce particular conceptual frameworks, or to accept the data generated at face
value but to obtain what the respondents directly perceive or to generate their opinion. In
other words, the instruments were developed to gather information on the perceptions and
beliefs of the participants with a clear focus on perceptions of differences between the two
sexes.
Initially, the items were formulated in “Afan Oromo” (Oromo language) and then transcribed
into English for the purpose of comparison. The English version was then transcribed back to
Afan Oromo with the help of a student of Linguistics, who then compared and commented on
both versions. Apart from the mode of administering and answering the items, the whole
content of the questionnaire was the same for all the respondents. That is, the first part is
composed of thirty items each, most of which are closed-ended, with some open-ended items.
The next part is composed of twenty items or statements in which the respondents were asked,
firstly to indicate their agreement or disagreement on issues that are directly related to female
circumcision, abduction and early marriage. The respondents were then requested to rate their
judgment on a four point-scale with a continuum, “strongly agree”, “agree”, “disagree” and
“strongly disagree”.
Before writing the final draft and administering the questionnaire, the items were pre-tested
on ten individuals (four males and six females) who belonged to the study area and, they were
taken on availability basis. As a result, the necessary modifications and refinements (for
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instance, words or phrases that were ambiguous were refined) and, the plausibility of the
The introductory part of the questionnaire clarified that the responses of the questionnaire
will remain anonymous or that the information given would be kept confidential. Despite the
clear guidelines already given in the questionnaire, important clarifications were given, during
administering the inquiries to the respondents, with the help of the research assistants. The
fact that the researchers were available in administering the questionnaire and the interview
enabled them back to collect the entire questionnaire and, therefore, the return-rate was very
high (100%).
To confirm, supplement and substantiate the quantitative data, the qualitative data have also
been collected using an in-depth unstructured interview with the key informants that were
drawn from the community elders. The interview was made in their respective language (Afan
Oromo) and then translated in to English. The basic aim was to identify the distinct themes
expressed with respect to the practices mentioned and, to use these as a set of supplementary
evidence in the thematic analysis of the whole data. In so doing, the researcher was very
attentive to looking for the counter-examples and similarities in the quantitative and
For the data analysis, both the quantitative and the qualitative methods were used. The
response given were analyzed and presented by the use of simple descriptive statistics such as
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Percentage, Frequencies, Means and Standard deviations. Moreover, the appropriate
inferential statistics were also used. Accordingly, both the Chi-square and the independent
The Chi-square test was employed to test for the association of the opinions, given by the
male and female respondents, with respect to the practices under discussion. It is to see
whether the male and female respondents have the same idea on issues related to female
The t-test (two-tailed) was used to test whether there are significant differences between the
male and the female respondents, in terms of the mean ratings computed for this purpose. This
was made on the basis of the statements that were directly related to female circumcision,
abduction and early marriage, on four point-scale, on which important contrasts were made,
Having seen these as a general guide of the research design and methodology, we know
presume with the analysis of the subjects’ responses, on the gender-related practices,
beginning with Female Genital Mutilation (Circumcision), and then Abduction and finally
Early marriage. Accordingly, the next Tables (Tables 5 up to 12) will display the opinions
given by the respondents. On the top of each of the Tables, the headlines that imply the issue
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Chapter Four: RESULTS OF THE STUDY
In the presentation and Analysis section, the focus is to display and systematically analyze the
respondents’ view, both quantitatively and qualitatively. This is mainly integrated by using
Tables. In many cases the analysis of those open-ended items will be made following the
closed-ended responses for each item. To this effect, it would be more sounding to remind of
the basic research questions to be treated here. These were the following:
1. Is there a practice of female circumcision, abduction and early marriage in the study area
under discussion?
2. What are the beliefs or opinions of the society towards these practices?
3. Is the society aware of the health, Psychological & the physical effects of these practices?
4. Is there difference between the opinion of males and females as regard to the occurrence
5.Which of these three (Female circumcision, Abduction and the Early marriage) is/are more
6.What are the major reasons for which the society practices the circumcision of females,
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4.1. The Quantitative Results
In this section, the quantitative analysis of the data obtained will be made. This is by using
Tables, Percentages, Frequencies and the inferential statistics. Accordingly, the following
Tables (Tables 5 to 12) were used to logically and coherently analyze and present the opinions
of the respondents. And, for each of the responses given, the relevant statistics was used to
determine and understand the extent to which the opinions were significant or not, in
accordance with what have been intended. For example, Table 5 below presents the views
given concerning the circumcision of females. The items that deal with abduction and the
early marriage will also be presented and analyzed, respectively, using Table 6 and 7 below.
The Chi-square test was used to see the association of the opinions given by the male and the
Furthermore, the opinions of the respondents on the statements that were stated in four point-
scale, to see the extent to which the respondents were “agreed” or “disagreed” with the
statements, were presented using Tables 8,9,10, 11 and 12. The independent t-test was
computed, to determine the statistical significance between the male and the female
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Table 5. The Respondents’ response to items on Female Circumcision (FGM)
χ2
circumcision (FGM) Male (n=120) Female (n=230)
* P<0.01
** The numbers in parentheses refer to percentages.
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There are about seven items dealing with different aspects of questions on female
circumcision (Table 5) in accordance with which the respondents’ replies were shown in
frequencies, percentages and the inferential statistics, that is the Chi-square Test. The numbers
in the parentheses refer to the percentages of the respondents. Each of these items will be
The first item is about the presence or absence of the female circumcision and its practice in
the locality of the respondents. Among the total respondents, 111(92.50%) males and
211(91.74%) females argue that there is a common practice of female circumcision in their
community. However, there is no significant difference between male and the female
The next question posed to the respondents was the extent to which the aforementioned
practice takes place in their area. The majority of them, 63.33% of males and 45.22% of
females have responded that, its rate of occurrence is very low. The rest, 31(25.83%) males
As it is marked clearly, there is apparent difference between the responses of males and
females that, the computed chi-square (χ2=11.77) value is much more than its critical value
(χ22 =9.21, P<0.01). We can, therefore, conclude that there is a significant difference between
the responses of the two sexes, with regard to the rate of the occurrence of the practice of
female circumcision. Which is the same as saying that there is no similarity between the two
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The third item requires the respondents to indicate some of the major reasons for which the
community under takes female circumcision. All the four alternatives were taken to be the
possible reasons, although their magnitude varies. In accordance with the male respondents,
both ‘respect for tradition’ and the issue of ‘checking & preserving virginity’ were the major
reasons. Some of them have also marked that; it is a ‘mark of tradition’ as well as ‘respect for
religion’. A high percentage, favoring the idea of the ‘respect for tradition’, come from female
respondents (66.52%) and, 51(22.17%) of them have attributed it to the last option of
‘checking & preserving virginity’. Nonetheless, there is a significant difference between the
two sexes, with respect to the major reasons for the practice (χ23 =11.34, P<0.01).
In the next question, they were requested to mark whether they accept or reject the practice of
female circumcision. Only 22(18.33%) males and 69(30%) females have answered, favoring
the practice and, there is hardly any apparent difference between them in their responses to
the item.
In their response, the respondents have also marked with a great similarity (item5) that, in
their respective cultural & societal belief, there is no way for a girl to get married without
undergoing circumcision. That is, only 5.83% and 8.70% of the male & female respondents
have said, respectively, 'yes' to the item and the majority of them; 94.17% of males & 91.30%
of females were in different. However, it was found that there is no variation in the responses
given by them.
On the other hand, the respondents were asked whether they believe in the idea that female
circumcision has the health & physical effects. Most of them, 77.50% of males and 77.39% of
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females, have shown that it has a remarkable health & physical effects and, there is no
Lastly, the respondents have indicated also that the females themselves perceive the practice
of circumcision as something good and favorable and that they support the practice, as one
aspect of their cultural exercise. No differences were indicated between males' & females'
opinion in this regard too and thus the differences are not statistically significant.
In general, as revealed in the table above, for the most of the items on female circumcision,
the non-parametric test of the Chi-square shows that, there is a similarity between the male &
female respondents and there are no statistically significant differences in their opinion. The
only apparent differences were observed between them, in the case of items two and three
(Table 5), which were found to be statistically significant. Explicitly, this can also be said
that, the two sexes, males & females, do not respond to these items in a similar way or, has
not any commonality in their opinion, as each of them see these problems, in different ways.
The Table below summarizes the respondents' opinions on other form of the traditional
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Table 6: Respondents' Opinions on Abduction
culture?
* P<0.01
** The numbers in parentheses indicate percentages.
There are about four items above (Table 6) all of which have much to do with marriage by
abduction.
In the first item, the individuals were supposed to just indicate the types of marriage that
occur in their community. Accordingly, in relative terms, both males & females tend to mark
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their response on ‘marriage by bride price’ followed by that of ‘marriage by sister exchange’.
In general, the distribution is so scattered that, possibly, all the options were found to be
evident. That is to say, all the three types of marriage mentioned seem to be a common
practice and, there are no significant differences between males & females with respect to
their response to the item. The observed value of the Chi-square was below the critical value
(χ23 =11.34, P>0.01), as a result of which one can conclude that there are no apparent
differences between the opinions of the two sexes, with respect to the item.
The next question directly goes to the issue of existence or absence of abduction, in which the
respondents were needed to say ‘yes’ or ‘no’ to the item. Many of the male respondents
(76.67%) and, a considerable number of females (59.13%) have pointed out that there is
marriage by abduction in their society. Only 23.33% of the male and, 40.87% of the female
respondents have indicated that there is no abduction. This, however, was found to be
statistically significant (χ21 =6.63, P<0.01) that, there exists a difference between the two
Following this, they were asked to give their own opinion as to what major reasons are there
to aggravate abduction. The central reason given by about 70% of males and 52.17% of
females was that of the ‘refusal of parents,’ to give their daughter to a person who asks, for
marriage. The next possible reason was that, if a girl is happened to be a beautiful, it is more
likely for her to be abducted by individuals. On the other hand, abduction sometimes could
occur, as the respondents reveal it, simply due to the possession of the parent of the girl and,
to save the weeding expense on the side of the abductors, that is males. Likewise, irrespective
of these reasons, there is statistically significant differences between the opinions of the
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respondents that, the two, males & females, vary and not similar in their opinion (χ23 =11.34,
P<0.01).
The last question in Table 6 above aims at whether the culture of the people under study
encourages or discourages abduction. For the direct question raised with this intention, the
majority of them, nearly, 82% of males and 69% of females, have marked that their culture
doesn’t encourage abduction of girls. And this was found to have no significant differences
In sum among all the four items to which the respondents have reacted in their opinion, with
the exception of two items, for the rest, there were no statistically significant differences
between males and females’ opinion. And in many cases, they tend to be similar in giving
Similarly, the Table below (Table 7) summarizes the opinions, given by the respondents,
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Table 7: Respondents’ reply to early marriage and the Chi-square value for the
differences of their responses
Sex
Items
girl?
P>0.01
*The numbers in parentheses are percentages
In the first item the attempt was to get feed back from the respondents for the question, ‘who
is the right person in their community, to choose a marital partner for a girl’. Accordingly,
83(69.17%) males and 163(70.87%) females have said that it is the parents who are
responsible to do so, and the majority of the respondents have shared this idea. Some of them,
20% of males and, nearly 18% of females, have a position that, it is the girl herself who takes
the responsibility and, very few still, have given this responsibility to the friends of the girl.
The responses given by males &females were similar and, there are no statistically significant
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The next item is whether there is a practice of engaging girls in marriage at their early age of
life. A considerable amount of the respondents, nearly 51% of males and, 60% of females,
argue in favor of this question that, there is such a practice in their locality. Only 49% of
males and 40% of females have replied in opposite direction to the item. There is also
similarity in the responses between males & females that there is no difference between their
In the third item, they were required to mark their opinion, whether the boys or the girls are
more encouraged, by the community, to get married early. Almost all of the respondents, 90%
of males and, nearly 87% of females have indicated that, it is the girls who are encouraged &
expected more, by the society, to get early in marriage. Only a few have opposed this
argument and, the two sexes tend to be similar in their opinion, to this item too (χ2 1 = 6.63,
P>0.01).
Lastly, for all of the items dealing with early marriage, there are no statistically significant
differences (χ20.01, 2, 1 & 1). Therefore, we can conclude that, there is a similarity between the
male and female respondents in replying the items and, they tend to go in a similar fashion in
their opinion.
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In order to further explore the respondents’ view and perceptions associated with the three
kinds of gender-related traditional practices namely, female circumcision, abduction and early
marriage, they were presented with a series of different statements. The first five statements
do not directly deal with these practices and they rather focus on men-women equality, from
the viewpoint of the pre-dispositions of the respondents. The next six statements deal with the
circumcision of females. Again another five and four of them are directly related,
Respondents were asked firstly to indicate whether they agree or disagree with each of the
statement and then, to rate the extent to which they agree or disagree, on a four-point scale
(1=strongly agree, 2=agree, 3=disagree and 4=strongly disagree). Thus, the lower the mean
score, the more likely that the respondents tend to agree with the statement and, vice versa.
The "undecided" option has been avoided purposely, as the respondents could easily give
The aim of these statements was to explore again what suggestive differences there might be
in the information males & females have acquired about these practices, through the grid of
To this effect, an independent t–test (two-tailed) was computed. The preceding four Tables
(Tables 8, 9,10 and 11) report the mean ratings given by both sexes, to each practice
subsequently. Table 12, at the end, will give us a summary of all the four categories
mentioned so far.
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Table 8: Perceptions attached to men-women equality (mean ratings)
Male Female
Statements t-result
(n=120) (n=230) P-value
1 The issue of women is the men’s issue 2.07 1.95 0.04 0.9680
2 Inherent equality of men & women 1.83 2.32 -0.07 0.0556
3 In our locality, females are more
vulnerable to harmful traditions 1.94 1.61 0.05 0.9602
4 Our community usually prefers, and
encourage girls more, to marriage than to
education 2.42 2.33 0.03 0.9760
5 The Rights of women is the Rights of
human beings 1.50 1.80 -0.05 0.0398*
Mean Ratings (average) 1.95 2.00 -0.24 0.1896
*P<0.05
As it is mentioned earlier, Table 8 above depicts the difference or similarity that could exist
between males and females, regarding their perceptions about the men-women equality, from
human Rights point of view. Their difference was shown in terms of their mean. It is also
important to notice that, the lower the mean, that is computed for both sexes separately,
indicates that, it is more likely that the respondents have agreed up on the series of the
statement(s).
Accordingly, some contrasts can be made from the data in the table. In the first statement that
deals with the men-women equality, female respondents tend to agree with the idea, as
compared to the male respondents. Meaning, the issues of both males & females are
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On the other hand, in the case of the inherent equality between men and women, other things
being equal, the response is reversed from that of the first item. That is, the male respondents
seem to agree that the two, men and women are equal in nature or, they are more convinced
In the other items, females, as compared to males, are more likely to agree that, females are
more vulnerable, in their locality, to various forms of traditions that are carried out in the
name of culture. At the same time, they are optimists to believe that; girls are more preferred
Moreover, females are more likely than females to say that the Rights of women is the Rights
of human beings, as it is revealed in the last item and, therefore, there is statistically
significant difference between the male and female respondents (Table 8).
Nevertheless, none of these were found to be statistically significant, with the exception of the
little variations observed, with in the individuals of the same sex, above. Thus, we conclude
that there are no statistically significant differences between the means of the respondents
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Table 9: The respondents’ orientation about FGM (Mean Ratings)
Male Female
Statements
(n=120) (n=230) t–result P-value
1 A girl shouldn’t get married unless she is
*P<0.05
When comparisons were made between males & females on the statements on FGM, opinions
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opinions of the two sexes for statements numbered 1,3,4 and 6 (Table 9 above). For other
items in the Table, there is a striking similarity in their responses, either to agree or disagree,
with the statements. Particularly, Mean Ratings below 2.00 were observed, for both sexes, for
the item that deals with the “health & physical effects of female circumcision”. It tells us that
the two sexes were more likely to, strongly agree with the statement.
High means conversely indicates that the statement tended to be rated or judged as
disagreement. The statements with the highest means, relatively, from both sexes, suggesting
There is a strong consensus here that the respondents have showed their opinion that, both
The same analogy works, though the rate of disagreements tend to be less, for the two
The respondents of both sexes have rated in a similar way that they disagree with these
statements. A relative disparity is observed between the mean ratings given by the
respondents on whether female circumcision should be stopped or not. Here, the lower mean
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rating, which implies a state of agreement, is evident on the side of males, as compared to
females.
The only statement with relatively lower mean ratings from both sexes is that of the statement
that has dealt with health & the physical effects of female’s circumcision. The respondents,
Male Female
Statements
(n=120) (n=230) t-result P-value
1 Abduction is an illegal & sanctioned act 1.94 1.91 0.01 0.9920
2 Abduction, being our culture, shouldn’t
be avoided 3.03 2.91 0.02 0. 9840
3 In our community, the societal request
for the bride price to a marrying person
makes him to resort to abduction of girl 2.27 2.33 -0.02 0.0160*
4 Abduction is the respected & favored act
in our respective society 2.73 2.60 0.05 0.9602
5 Abduction is considered as violating the
Human Rights of a girl 1.88 1.81 0.02 0.9840
Mean Rating
2.37 2.31 0.20 0.8414
*P<0.05
For the statements that focus on abduction the respondents tend to disagree to many of them.
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“Abduction, being our culture, should not be avoided”
“In our community, the societal request for the bride price to a marrying person,
For these statements, the mean ratings are relatively high, indicating that they (the
respondents) have shown their disagreement. This is particularly true for the second item in
the Table, which was disagreed by both sexes of the subjects. A statistically significant
difference was observed on the idea that deals with the "payment of the bride price" and its
possibility to lead the persons to "abduct" a girl. Likewise, the respondents have indicated
their agreement in a more similar way, for two statements each that include:
For these particular items, we see a striking comparison that the mean ratings given for the
two statements each are very close to one another. The fact that they are relatively very low in
magnitude, as mentioned earlier, implies that the respondents have agreed on them in a
similar way.
In general, most of them have found, not to be statistically significant, item 3 is exceptional,
suggesting that the observed t-value (two-tail) is safe. Thus, we can conclude that there are no
sufficient reasons to justify the differences in the mean ratings, based on the responses given
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Table 11. The Respondents’ expectation on early marriage (Mean Ratings)
Male Female
Statements
(n=120) (n=230) t-result P-value
ought to get married prior to 15 years old 3.20 3.00 0.05 0.9602
*P<0.05
The Table above summarizes statements that rely on early marriage in terms of the mean
Many of the mean ratings, as judged by the subjects seem to reveal that, the respondents have
shown their disagreement, if not significant and, there are some variations in the magnitude of
the disagreements, between the two sexes. For instance, the male respondents tend to
disagree, as compared to females, with the first, third and fourth statements. On the other
hand, for the statement that refers to early marriage & its associated problem (statement 2),
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while the male respondents’ mean rating tends to be low, indicating their agreement, the
female respondents, as compared to males, seem not to agree with the idea and, there is
Eventually, many of the mean ratings that have revealed above, except the statement number
two, were statistically significant, based on which one can say that there were no marked
differences between the means of the two sexes and their opinion.
Table 12: Summary Table of the opinions of the respondents (Mean Ratings)
Male Female
Categories of Practices
(n=120) (n=230) t-result P-value
P>0.05
Finally, we can summarize what we have said so far, in a very condensed manner, if at all,
In the first category of the statements on "men-women quality", the mean ratings of both
subjects were almost the same. We can make use of this figure in such a way that, the two
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sexes have marked their opinion that they do not strongly disagree, if not strongly agree, with
men-women equality. In this regard, the t-result shows us that, there are no statistically
significant differences, between the opinions of the respondents, with respect to the mean
ratings.
In the second category of the statements on female circumcision, the mean ratings seem to be
close to one another and, tends to be high, implying that both sexes were more likely to
disagree with the statements on circumcision. However, there are no statistically significant
The conclusion drawn for circumcision above could also be applied for abduction. Both males
& females have shown, relatively, high mean ratings. This indicates that, irrespective of their
sex, the respondents have disagreed with the statements on abduction and, there is no marked
In the case of early marriage too, although males have marked, relatively high mean ratings,
both males & females, disagree with the statements on early marriage and their differences
Eventually, one can, therefore, give such a conclusion, based on the weighted mean ratings,
which were nearly equal (2.30 for males and 2.29 for females) for both sexes that, in many
cases the respondents seem to reveal their disagreement, to some extent for all the four
categories. There were also no apparent and statistically significant differences, in general, for
all the cases. And thus, we can conclude that the respondents tend to have similar opinions or
positions on the gender – related practices under discussion. Above all the mean ratings
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computed for all the practices imply that both sexes have shown the inclination to disagree
with the statements in the series, although there were no apparent differences for many of the
statements.
An attempt is made, in this section, to qualitatively present the opinion of the key informants.
To this effect, it is necessary to thematically integrate issues that are similar to each other, in
the context of the objectives of the study. For instance, it is inevitable for us to give a
highlight on the marriage and marriage related issues while discussing about female
circumcision and its operation. It is also important to notice that; most of the inhabitants in the
rural areas of this study area are the Oromos (Daniel, 2002, Mamo, 1995) who belong to the
“Arsi tribes”. They are thus, Arsi Oromos; the name that does have nothing with the name,
Arsi zone, other than the people of the Dodola district. The themes of the problems and issues
to be discussed here below tend to appear more coherent and condensed and, they include the
following points.
• The historical background of the female circumcision, the cultural and social beliefs
associated with it, the appropriate age at which the girls are expected to undergone it, the
rituals and process attached to it. It also includes the possible effects that the practice
• The practice of marriage by abduction in the study area, its possible reasons, processes
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• The issues on early marriage and marriage-related cultural practices that would deny the
Why people perform the circumcision of females? And, to what extent it prevails? It was
the key informants have responded that it is hardly possible for them to attribute its
background exactly nor tell as to when and how it was started. They underlined that it must
have a history of so long period that it has been carrying out, as a matter of tradition, or
The major reason for which the circumcision of females is undertaken, according to the
informants, has got its own deep rooted cultural beliefs that a girl is supposed to pass through
it as a precondition before they get married. They stress that a girl is circumcised means she is
given to someone and, even if she stays at the home of her parents, no one is allowed, under
any circumstances, to ask her for marriage. It is a sign of respect and honor. In this particular
area for instance, it is said that, a girl who is circumcised is known, culturally as “Luba”, to
literally means, the respected and reserved for someone and, is considered as though she has
got married. On the other hand, those girls, who have not yet undergone circumcision, are said
to be “ Raaba”-meaning, not asked for marriage. Therefore the issue of female circumcision
in this society is directly related to marriage. Besides, it is culturally forbidden for a girl to
engage in premarital sex and, if she happened to do so, it is regarded as "taboo" and no one
take initiative to ask that girl for marriage. In such a case the community condemns and
blames not only the girl but also her parents and the clan (“gosa”) to which they belong. This
is to mean that in accordance with my informants, the specific day in which the girl is
circumcised gives them an opportunity to identify and know whether the girl is virgin or not.
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The girl is also well oriented culturally to preserve her virginity for the respect of her self, her
The major reasons behind female circumcision have also been raised in an open-ended
question, to all other respondents, in addition to the key informants. The reasons given by
most of them, in order of their magnitude, were that it is valued and perceived by the society
as a:
Some of them, many of whom were males, have also replied that this practice is done to make
the girl conform both to her parents and her husbands and, to behave well. They also believe
that, it helps the girl to play maternity roles in a more faithful and effective way. Some of
them have also said that, circumcision is important for a girl as it reduces pain during her first
sexual intercourse and, simplifies delivery. Few of them have said that it is carried out for no
reason that people are ignorant about its problems and consequences.
Is there a specific age limit at which girls are supposed to undergone circumcision? This is
another question that was raised to the informants. In response to this question their belief is
that there is a specific time period, if not possible, to determine it in terms of age. This is
possible only after she is given to some one and specifically; it takes place immediately before
They have also pointed out that, now days there is some sort of doing it at the early age of the
girls even before the girl is being asked by someone. The reasons for this is usually that, the
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girls themselves prefer to pass through it and waiting for the husband and, this doesn’t mean
Under normal conditions, there are cultural rituals and beliefs attached to, the pre-requisites to
be fulfilled and, the processes to pass through, female circumcision. The data obtained from
the informants reveal that as it is mentioned above, after a girl has been asked formally by
someone, there is a series of steps that would follow. Therefore, it would be important to see
some of the basic steps associated with the two interdependent practices (circumcision and
marriage), based on the feed back obtained, so that we can easily show that the two are not
treated separately.
A person who has decided to marry a girl is supposed to officially send the mediator or the
“go-between”, to the parent of the girl. Usually priority is given for the social affiliation & the
acceptance and, the socioeconomic background of the parent, rather than the beauty of the
girl. The processes, after being facilitated by the mediator for so much, would result in that
the “go-between” convinces the girl’s parent and present the progress or success to the other
party. Right after this, the latter party initiates the mediator to facilitate conditions for what is
gives opportunity to formally publicize that their daughter is given as marriage for someone.
It means also that now on no, one takes initiative to neither formally ask nor forcefully ask
ones wife for marriage and, if it happened to do so it would lead to so much complications as
On the other hand, before formally taking the girl to his home, the would-be husband or his
parents initiate, right before marriage, the parents of the girl, for the circumcision of their
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“would-be” groom. After the two parents have fixed the date for the circumcision, at least
three persons; the bride, one of his uncle’s son and an elderly person, go to the home of the
parent of the groom. In accordance with their culture they take, sheep (“Hoolaa”), a woven-
cloth (“Woyaa”) to be worn by the girl, coffee (to the mother-in-law) and, a tiny woven made
belt (“sabbata”), to the home of the groom, a day before the date fixed for the circumcision.
The Sheep is to be slaughtered, right after the circumcision, to congratulate and to please the
girl and, the “woyaa” is worn by her while she stays in the ward. The rituals and the processes
at the verge of the practice include also that a day before the practice, the girl, to be
circumcised, is made to drink “Heexoo”-which, literally, is a mixture of water and the herbal
drinking “Heexoo” is to purify the whole internal bodies after which she is allowed to eat
and/or drink only selected food items. During the “Heexoo” ceremony, many friends of the
groom accompany her and take part in the drinking process. The circumcision is then to be
done early in the morning of the next day, in the presence of friends and the neighbors. The
“would-be” husband and his courtiers would not be allowed to attend the ceremony and they
are rather kept apart to stay somewhere around, just until the ceremony is over. As to my
informants, the girl is to be circumcised usually early in the morning for its own reason. The
reason is that, at the specified time the chance is too high to reduce bleeding due to absence of
the heat of the sun. The operation is conducted exclusively by those elderly women, who have
no special skill, except that of the training they acquired over time, through practice and
courage, to perform it. The type of the instrument they use for the operation include crude
materials, particularly, razor blade without applying any drug or anesthesia to stop bleeding.
They rather believe that, a girl is assumed to urinate right after the operation and therefore, the
urine facilitate blood clotting and stops bleeding and gradually, heals the wound. Therefore,
the “would-be” husband and his companionships ought to stay, before going back to their
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own home, until the girl urinates; the sign that indicates the operation is promising and is
fairly done. The girl then would stay in a ward for a minimum of ten to fifteen days until she
is fully recovered. During her stay in a ward she is furnished with a kind of delicious and
cultural food items by her friends, age-mates and relatives and, is known culturally as
“Gumaata”-to literally mean, incentives. It is done to please her up on the transition that she is
Other respondents, other than the key informants, have also pointed out that, female
circumcision will not be carried out only during the marriage. There is also a case during
which the girls are circumcised earlier than seven months after she is born. For instance, some
female respondents have written their reply to the question on which they were asked to
indicate their retrospect about the problems they might have faced during circumcision. These
The informants have also described that a girl, after having been circumcised, is ready to get
married within one or two months time, depending on the request and the readiness of the
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Here below we look at the informants’ viewpoint on marriage and marriage related issues
with particular reference to abduction & early marriage. When and how abduction of girls
began?
The informants have pointed out that marriage by abduction doesn’t have its own remarkable
history and they could not exactly tell how and when it has begun. They say that basically
There is precaution that is universal and practical among the community as regards to the
abducted by someone, the father of the girl resorts to the culturally and universally justified
norms and regulations by saying, together with his clan (gosa), the following precautions.
To mean,
Basically, as indicated by the informants, a given girl is assumed to be “Wolaba” meaning she
has got her own dignity, that no one is there to abduct her illegally.
On the other hand, although these culturally justified rules & regulations are there my
informants have mentioned that there is marriage by abduction in their locality, in general, but
the rate of its prevalence, particularly, at the present time is very low.
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What are the possible reasons for such a practice?
The reasons for abduction vary from one another. For example, it is customary in this
community; as it might be true for others too, to look for the socially and economically
respected parents, both of who are at the same level in their society. In most cases, therefore,
their marriage pattern is more likely to follow this kind of trend. If someone who doesn’t fit,
both socially and economically, to these people ask their girl, obviously it is hardly possible
for him to get their daughter as a wife, even though he sends the mediator.
The informants, therefore, say that one of the major reasons for abduction is the refusal of a
parent to give their daughter to a person who asked for marriage. This is due to certain
reasons, one of which is the disparity that could exist in terms of socio-economic background
between the two parents. In other words, there are three major conditions for which the person
A parent may fail to approve the request by their son, if he decided to marry a girl &
The parent of the girl themselves refuse to accept the request on the side of the son’s
parent, or
When the girl’s parent tend to prolong or show a sign of regression, for some
Thus in the case of the first condition, it is solely the determination of the son to involve in the
act merely without the consent & knowledge of both parents. Where as in the second and third
occasions it is more likely that the parents of the son would be the pioneers to take the action,
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Is there any relation between abduction and circumcision? Yes, there are common features
that the two share in common. For instance, my informants have explained that when a person
abducts a girl by force, the first thing he does is to circumcise her before having any sexual
relationship with her. The person who abducted then is accused culturally of two reasons. One
is that, abduction basically is culturally disfavored and illegal. Secondly, in addition to the act
of abduction, he could also be condemned for the circumcision he performed. That means, he
transformed the life of the girl from “Raaba” (neither given for someone nor circumcised) to
“Luba” (circumcised, or married), against the will of the girl and the parents. It is also
considered as violating the social norm. Thus he is requested to compensate his wrong doing
by paying what has already been predetermined, in the form of “Yakkaa” to mean, to atone
for the offense he did. The “Yakkaa” to be given to the girl’s parent varies in that, if he
abducted a girl who has not been circumcised and, therefore, not yet given, he is supposed to
pay a minimum of five heads of cattle and, two heads of cattle if otherwise, as stated by the
informants. This is just the payment to be made for the illegal act. Following this, the person
who abducted and/or his parents ask the parent of the girl for their approval & to confirm the
marriage between the groom & the bride. This is facilitated by the mediator,the “go-between”
and if the girl’s parents are positive towards the mediator & trust the parent of the abductor,
the issue will then be formally discussed whether it could be finalized in the form of
the parent of the girl is reluctant to confirm and, reject the other party, they remain to be the
enemies – “Xinsoo”, that could result in inflictions between them unless it is settled in a
peaceful manner. If it is not settled in the course of time, the death of either the girl abducted
and/or her child or infant is announced by her parents to be “Gumaa” – that spark a huge
conflict between the respective clans of the two parents. It is a kind of clash that could lead to
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What specific problems could a girl encounter during abduction and what kinds of conflicts
The informants reveal that the abducted girl could face, depending on the situation, many
problems. Usually it occurs on the way to and from market, or fetching water while she is
collecting firewood alone. Since it is against the will or awareness of the girl, in many cases,
she doesn’t submit herself and, therefore, they resort to use of force. For instance, slapping,
beating with whip, warning etc may take place, which are very threatening for her. This is
also common that under such pressures the girl does not eat or drink for some days. From the
viewpoint of their culture, it is not favorable to miss a girl once she is abducted and, therefore,
when the abductors suspect that the parent of the girl are following them during the act, the
would-be husband takes measure to diverging the girl even before circumcising her. This is so
because, once she is disvergined, the maximum cost he spends is the “Yakkaa” – a payment to
be made either in cash or kind to her parent. And her parents will then have no options, as
they do not, under normal conditions, take their daughter back once she is disvergined.
What is the appropriate age at which a girl is supposed to get married? The view of the elderly
informants on the thematic issues of early marriage is as follows. In their surrounding the
appropriate age at which their girls are involved in marriage seems to be twenty and beyond
that, under normal conditions. For the normal and culturally encouraged marriage types, the
priority is absolutely given to that of the socioeconomic background of the girls’ family and,
not to the beauty of the girl. The assumption is that, if her parent, particularly her mother, is
the one whom the community loves very much and, effectively and efficiently manages her
maternity roles her daughter is chosen. The mother is also judged on the basis of the respect
she has for her husband’s relatives and, usually they have a proverb in their local language, as
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follwos: “Haadha laalii intala fuudhi”. This literally means, see and judge the mother of the
girl first, so that you can easily know about her daughter.
If a family or parent fulfills these criteria, it was common in this study area, to give a daughter
to one of the respected and loved family at the age five or six and/ or below that. This is, of
course, possible if only the two children; the boy on one side and the girls on the other, are of
the same age so that they grow relatively at the same time until they reach for marriage. This
is meant to prolong and strengthen the love and respect that exist between the parents of the
two children. But this tradition is said to be minimal and very rare these days.
Are there circumstances under which the girls are made to marriage at their early stage of
life? Besides that of the harmonious relationship between the two parents, as a result of which
they are initiated to form a marriage partner between their sons and girls, there are other
reasons that could force girls to get married at their early ages. The two circumstances, under
which early marriage of girls could occur, according to the informants, are as follows:
• “Beenbetoo/Miilbetoo”(Sororate): -
This is one form of marriage that occurs in rare case as a result of some incidence. In the
death, usually at her early reproductive age, the person seeks the sister of the deceased one (if
any), for marriage. It is right after the incidence that he proposes his request to the parent of
the deceased for substitution, without any payment. The response on the side of the parent
requested depends mainly on the trend and magnitude the relationship they have with the
person.
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If they have warm and good relation with him they give him one of their daughters (if any).
This is to please him and, take care of the children and the possession of the deceased wife.
• Biidhaa: -
This is also a rare form of marriage and there are two conditions under which it could occur
as the informants said. One is that, when at the day of marriage, the betrothed girl is happened
to have gone away with someone else, refusing the former person due to some reasons, such
as that he is either too old or she doesn’t want him at all. In such occasions it is inevitable for
this person to get another girl, usually from the former girls’ parent or from their close
relatives, at the outset. Because, it is regarded as “Taboo” to return home empty hand. The
parent of the girl is also more concerned as it is culturally known to be both unusual and
sensitive issue.
The Second condition is that when a person went out to abduct a girl and unable to succeed
due to some reasons. Or, some times people who are on the side of the girl interferes by force
and take her back to her home. In these situations, the abductor and his colleagues would
resort to other options and decide that they should get and be able to take any girl to their
home usually by force. But unlike the first condition, this is not favored and is sanctioned.
Everyone is reluctant to it although the abductor and his companions perceive it as such.
Indeed, in accordance with my informants, both of these types of marriage; “Beenbetoo” and
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4.3 DISCUSSION of the Results
As it has been clearly stated in the presentation and analysis section, almost all of the
respondents (92.50% of males and 91.74% of females) have indicated that female
circumcision is a common practice in their locality. Besides, the key informants have also
underlined that as part and parcel of their respective culture, girls are supposed to undergo
circumcision prior to the time of marriage. It means that the practice prevails and many of
them associate it with marriage. However, one can notice here that female circumcision is
practiced, irrespective of the religion and the ethnicity of the subjects, that, in this study
individuals who belong to Islam, Orthodox, traditional beliefs and other religion have shown
their judgment that such a practice is evident. As examined by the national committee on
traditional practices in Ethiopia (NCTPE, 1998 and 2000), female circumcision, from its
prevalence point of view, can be said to be a pan - Ethiopian. In its baseline survey study of
the year 1997, the committee have reported that this practice is prevalent both in rural and
urban areas and, nearly about 90% of females are believed to pass through it. Moreover, the
occurrence of female circumcision at the national level is said to be 73%, among which the
Therefore, one can say that the data obtained from this study reveals some evidence that is
universal and common in the country, in general, and in this study area, in particular.
Regarding the magnitude of the female circumcision, however, the respondents tend to say
that the extent to which it occurs is very low. This is probably due to the reason that some
parents circumcise their daughters at their early age or, they do not attach it to her marriage.
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Meaning, a girl could be circumcised, in rare case, before even given to someone and,
therefore, there will not be rituals that accompany the practice. This could also vary relatively,
from religion to religion and among ethnic groups. However, although this seems to be
contrary to the view of the key informants, the practice does exist in the area at the regular
time as usual.
The major reasons for female circumcisions vary. For example, 37.50% of males and 66.52%
of females have indicated that the reason underlying it is the respect for tradition. About
37.50% of males and 22.17% of females attribute its reason to the belief of checking virginity
and preventing the girl from pre-marital sex. Some of them have said that, it is the religious
order. For some of them, it is a mark of transition from girlhood to adulthood. But according
to the key informants, the major reason for female circumcision is that, it is perceived as a
ritual through which a girl is transformed from the girlhood to womanhood. Different
researchers both at the national and international levels have said the view of the key
informants mentioned above. With respect to the underlying reason for the society to practice
female circumcision, it has been reported that, the practice is one form of rituals through
which the female gets acceptance by the society at large. Furthermore, it is a means of
creating eligibility for marriage. Unless a girl has undergone it, it is less likely that she
which female circumcision is done by the society. Some of these include respect for tradition,
relation to this, 94% of the male and 91% of the female respondents share this idea in which
they have indicated that a girl in their respective locality can never get married if she is not
circumcised. Furthermore the finding have also revealed that although individuals personally
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reject the circumcision of girls (82% of males and 70% of females), the respondents have
pointed out that, in their society females, in general, have good perception and positive
attitude for it. The key informants have also added that females in the rural areas does never
reject circumcision and even sometimes they themselves take initiative to push their parents to
circumcise them even before they are given to someone as the would-be wife.
This is possibly something that has much to do with the course of their development where by
they have been overwhelmed by social traditions and/or beliefs and, as a result of which; they
have been oriented and shaped to enforce the cultural practices. For instance, many of the
respondents (77.50% of male and 77% of female) believe and are aware of the health and
Furthermore, the respondents have marked their disagreement to those statements on female
circumcision that have been listed in the result section (Table 8). For many of these
statements, their responses were opposite, although the statements seem to be general and
personal. We can therefore, say that the respondents, in general, and the females, in particular,
are well aware of the adverse effects of the circumcision of females and, oppose the practice.
But the fact that they take initiative to pass through it, can be attributed to the cultural
orientation in which they have grown up. In other words, whatever the reason may be, they
are subjected to face the consequences of the practice. The worst of all is that the circumcision
ceremony is carried out under poor conditions, by individuals, usually women, who have not
any skill or training in the area. These all however, are contrary to what have been revealed in
various literatures. Amnesty International (2001) has reported that, the severe consequences
of the psychological & physical health that occurs due to female circumcision is unjust and
are understood interms of the human rights of women and the girl-children.
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The practice can cause lifetime damage to the girl and, results in serious physical,
psychological and mental problems. The fact that the operation is carried out by the traditional
and crude materials through trial & error, under poor hygienic environment and without
applying any antibiotics could lead a girl to the most serious disease of HIV/AIDS. This, in
turn, could negatively contribute and disrupt the life of several others, irrespective of their
sex.
Nonetheless, though the respondents have shown, in their response, that they are conscious or
aware of the possible consequences of the circumcision of females, it seems to contradict with
the data available at the national level. Just for the sake of comparison, the base line survey at
the national level revealed that (NCTPE, 1996), the individuals’ level of consciousness is too
limited. At the regional level, the study has shown that among the total subjects included in
the study, it was only 18% of the people of Oromia, who have reported to be aware of the
seriousness and the adverse effects of the practice. This figure was 23% for Amhara and, 27%
for the Afar region. This discrepancy of the level of awareness between the subjects could
also be due to the time factor and possibly we may say that the individuals’ level of
consciousness increases from time to time. However, it could also vary from place to place,
As regards to the issue related to marriage, a large number of the male respondents (nearly
77%) and considerable number of the female respondents have indicated that there is marriage
by abduction. Here it is the female respondents who tend to say, as compared to males that, its
occurrence can be said to be very low. Similarly the key informants share the latter idea and
they have indicated that although it had been common for so long, currently abduction doesn’t
take place most of the time. They also believe that the trend, in general, is not reliable and, is
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declining. The possible reason for its occurrence at a low rate could be due to several reasons.
Firstly, once a person is involved in such an act, it is getting customary that it usually results
in conflict between the two parents, mainly due to the payment the parents of the girl fix and
to be paid by the abductor. The other reason could be that from ones own observation one
may infer that, let alone, getting wife by forceful abduction, many youngsters would not be
seen to engage in marriage even through culturally recognized means. This could also be due
mainly to the economic constraints. The informants have also shared this idea that many
people seem to refrain from marriage in any means simply because of the lack of courage that
they couldn’t withstand the associated problems. The type of marriage that is common in their
surrounding, according to the respondents is that of marriage by bride price. As its name
implies, the person that determines the economic capability of the individuals, directly relates
it, to the payment. In many literatures, on the other hand, there are several reasons that
contribute for abduction. These include poverty, fear of rejection, illiteracy, false sense of
power etc.
The respondents believe that there are some factors that contribute for abduction. For
example, 70% of the male and 52% of the female respondents have pointed out that the
refusal of parents to give their daughter for a person is among other reasons that lead the
person to forcefully abduct girls. The other reason is the beauty of the girl. The key
informants have also underlined that the solely reason is that of the refusal of the parent to
On the other hand, although it exists, the extent to which abduction occurs in this study area
seems to be contradictory with the literatures that are available both at the national & the
regional level. Tekalign (1998) has reported that within the five years beginning from the year
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1993, over three hundred case, were reported in Oromia alone and he also said that, it is
It has been reported in another study (Teshome, 2002) that in Oromia alone, 20% of women
get marry by abduction. A study conducted on Dodola District and its periphery, about 60%
of women were reported to have been abducted before fifteen and 93% of them were abducted
before the age of 20 years. The baseline survey study of the year 1997 (NCTPE, 1999) also
shows that nearly 80% of the people have supported the occurrence of abduction. The study
by NCTPE (1998) has revealed that abduction occurs in Oromia in a high rate. It is also
evident that, various ethnic groups in Ethiopia carry out abduction, both in rural and urban
areas and, its rate of prevalence, at the national level, was reported to be 69% on the average.
Thus, one can confidently say that, as compared to the data that have been documented
earlier, the existence and the rate of occurrence of marriage by abduction in this study area
Nevertheless, many respondents (82% males and 69% females) have marked that abduction
can never be justified by their culture. It is rather among those practices that are socially
sanctioned and culturally denounced. That is, their culture does never encourage abduction.
The key informants have also underlined that it is considered as an act of theft and, is crime
that goes against the human rights of a girl. All the respondents have agreed that it violated
the inherent human rights of females and, therefore, it is not respected nor favored in their
locality and rather they have showed their position to insist that abduction should cease. With
respect to the overall nature of abduction, in general, the respondents tend to have similar idea
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With the same token, considerable numbers of the male and female respondents believe that
there is a practice of involving girls in marriage at the age of 15 years and below. About 49%
of males and 40% of females do not accept this idea. To the contrary, what has been common
in this particular society, according to the key informants, is that, it doesn’t usually occur for
girls to get married at the specified age mentioned above. They rather put that, in most cases,
what is culturally evident is that the maximum age at which the girls enter into marriage is
twenty years. In several literatures (UNICEF, 2000) it is stated that the ages of marriage for
girls with the consent of their parents tend to be lower. This is particularly evident or common
in third world countries, where the girls are entered by force, into marriage at their early
adolescent ages, due to several reasons. Some of these include underdevelopment, illiteracy,
In another study (NCTPE, 1998) early marriage was said to be practiced widely in the
northern parts of Ethiopia. For example, its rate of occurrence in the region of Amhara was
reported to be 82% and 79% for Tigray, respectively with 14.5 and 15.9 mean ages of
marriage. What is more stimulating here is that, its rate of occurrence varies also with
religion. It is also revealed that (NCTPE, 2000) the rate of the prevalence of the early
marriage was found to be 54.5%, on the average, at the national level and 33% of women
Other evidences show that, early marriage, although it exists in Oromia too, it prevails in a
relatively low rate and the average age at which a girl is involved in marriage is found to be
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Therefore, the fact that the key informants stick to the absence of such practice could be
related to their religion. That is, as it is clearly indicated in the result section, the majority of
the respondents were Muslims. If this is the case, it has some sort of relation with what others
have pointed out as mentioned above. So, the disparity between the respondents’ view and
However, most of the respondents (69% of males and 71% of females) say that in their
respective culture, girls do not have the right to choose their own marriage partner for
themselves. This is said to be the responsibility of their parents. Few of them have of course
indicated that the girls themselves have the chance to decide for themselves. But many
respondents including the key informants have told that usually it is the parents who should
do this, as they are capable to identify the appropriate person from the appropriate socio-
economic background. This study also shows that in this society, girls as compared to boys
are more encouraged to get married. The majority of the respondents that is, 90% of the males
and 87% of the females, share this idea. The reason could be that, as it has been said, one way
or another, in different contexts, since the girls are supposed to preserve their virginity
without being involved in premarital sex, to maintain such beliefs, it may culturally be
preferable to do so. Otherwise, both the girl and her parents could be criticized for an act
Finally, as it can be observed, for most of the gender-related practices mentioned in the result
section of this text, the differences between the respondents’ opinion is too minimal. They do
not have much difference in their belief. It might be that the issues under discussion are so
sensitive that individuals can be said to have similar predisposition and cultural orientation in
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Chapter Five: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The main purpose of the study was to investigate the problems and prospects of female
Circumcision, abduction and early marriage. The attempt was made to look at the Prevalence
and the magnitude of the problem and, to assess the respondents’ cultural Ideologies and the
level of awareness that they have about the harmfulness of these practices.
A group of subjects that was composed of students, adults and the Girls- out of school were
included in the study as the sources of data. Specifically, one hundred adult individuals of
men and women, seventy male students, one hundred thirty female students and, fifty girls-
out of school, were the major participants of the study. The students were taken both from
high school and junior elementary school by means of stratified sampling techniques. Where
as the parents and, the girls–out-of school, were drawn using the availability sampling method
structured and unstructured interview. Although the results of the study cannot by any means
be generalized for the whole population in the District, the study has inevitably shown that
these practices are not peculiar in this study area. In light with the research questions raised
and the analysis made, the most important findings obtained were as follows:
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1. Female Circumcision
• Female circumcision is highly practiced in the study area and, there are different
reasons for its occurrence. The major reasons, according to the respondents were that,
it is regarded as custom and tradition that have been practiced for so long. Another
• The “when” of female circumcision is not clearly known and yet people kept on
exercising it simply because their fathers and stepfathers had been practicing it, as a
• Because of the reasons associated with it, as mentioned above, in this particular area, a
girl can never get married without being circumcised and the failure to do so will
result in an out caste. It is a sign of honor and respect both for the girl and her parents.
And, therefore, the girls themselves do not oppose the practice, as a matter of
tradition.
related to marriage, or the two are not, by only means, independent of each other. In
other words, the former is a pre condition for the latter. In many cases, a girl is
• The majorities of the respondents, of course, do not appreciate and even oppose
female circumcision.
• The respondents believe that the practice of female circumcision has health and
physical consequences. It could also result in HIV/HAIDS. That is to say, they are
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• In most cases, the majority of the respondents have similar understanding and opinion
2. Marriage by Abduction
• In accordance with the view of the respondents and the informants, abduction is
denounced and rather regarded as an act of theft and, their culture strictly opposes it.
But once it occurred, it is less likely to bring the girl back to the home of her parents
• Although the male and female respondents argue that there is marriage by abduction in
their society, its occurrence is very rare and is minimal. The type of marriage that is
• The major reason for which people involve in abduction usually is due to the refusal
of parents to give their daughter to a person who may ask for marriage. This is due to
many factors such as the socio-economic background of the person, his social
affiliation etc. The other reasons include the beauty of the girl and the wealth of her
parents.
• The respondents of both sexes tend to have similar opinions about the issues related to
abduction.
• Almost all the respondents stress that abduction violates the human rights of a girl.
3. Early Marriage
involved in marriage at the age of 15 years and below. But it can be said that, in most
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• In many cases, girls do not have right to choose the marriage partner for their own and
• The respondents also believe that girls are usually encouraged to get in marriage
• There are no statistically significant differences between the male and female
respondents, as far as issues related to early marriage, are concerned. They respond, in
most cases, in similar ways. This is also true for all the three major practices, namely
It is to be assumed that this study cannot be claimed to be free from certain limitations that are
symptomatic of both the instrument and the subjectivity of the respondents. The subject
matter of the investigation itself seems to be sensitive from the social and cultural points of
view, which intern influence the provision of pertinent and reliable data. It is, therefore, with
the appreciation of these factors that the following conclusions were drawn, in light of the
1. Both the circumcision of females and abduction have been indicated in the survey
study that they are not uncommon in this study area. And yet they couldn’t exactly
indicate the history of these practices nor attribute it to any evidence. It might be the
case that, regardless of the possible consequences of the practices, the people perform
them simply because their grand parents used to do and have been performing it.
2. Many of the respondents, as revealed by the findings, were reported to have awareness
about the health and physical effects of the female circumcision. On the other hand,
they have also indicated that this practice is widely common till today. It can,
therefore, be concluded that, although they believe theoretically in the health and
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physical effects of female circumcision, the respondents do not appear to practically
understand and identify its consequence or, they failed to clearly appreciate the
3. While other respondents believe that female circumcision tend to occur relatively, in a
low rate, the key informants stress and tend to believe that it occurs as a part and
parcel of the cultural manifestations. This might be due to the reason that, the
community at large keeps on enforcing such a practice even if the youngsters could
4. Unlike female circumcision, abduction was found to exist at a very low rate. As it was
indicated in the result of the study, the culture of this study area basically encourages
expectation and demand, the occurrence of early marriage is almost minimal. It can,
therefore be said that unlike the circumcision of females, the two (abduction and early
5. In most cases, the male and female respondents were found to respond in similar ways
with respect to these practices. That is, the young persons, irrespective of their sex,
tend to have the same opinion in their response. As compared to the opinions given by
the adults and the key informants, the former one can be said to have limited
knowledge about the overall aspects of these practices and the demand of their culture.
6. In this study area, the findings show that the roles played by the girls in deciding for
their own, particularly, in the case of marriage is very limited. For example, a girl will
not be given a chance, in the rural area, to choose her marriage partner for herself and
instead, it is her parents who could do this. From this, we may conclude that, in such a
culture, at least in certain aspects, the rights of females can be said to be violated and
117
the culture doesn’t pave the way for them to be assertive. And thus, the psychosocial
well being of the females is largely determined by the culture and the social demand.
7. In this society, there is close relationship between female circumcision and marriage
and, the two are highly interdependent that the former is expected to be the pre-
requisite for the latter. Possibly, the people failed to associate many hazards,
especially the incidence of HIV/AIDS that could result from the circumcision of
females.
8. The majority of the respondents do not favor female circumcision. At the same time,
the majority have pointed out that a girl can never get married without undergoing
circumcision. This discrepancy might be that the culture highly encourages this
practice and therefore, the individuals are assumed to enforce it as part and parcel of
their custom.
Therefore, on the basis of the findings obtained and the conclusions drawn we can
recommend the following few but central points, in their order of priority:
1. The issue of harmful traditional practices such as female circumcision, that violate the
human rights of women and children, should be integrated in school curricula, with a
view to create and raise awareness among young people at the grass root level. This
2. Establishing a national committee at the regional, zonal and District level would give a
good opportunity to sensitize the community at large. This enables to look into the
magnitude of the problem and, therefore, devise possible strategies to ameliorate the
3. Effective training programs should be offered to religious & the community leaders,
birth attendants and paramedical personnel, to equip them with the necessary skills
118
and knowledge of the health and physical consequences of the traditional practices,
4. Further research should be conducted periodically on some of the major practices, (for
example, female circumcision and abduction) both at the national and the regional
levels. It is important at this juncture to identify and understand of course the priority
areas across the existing Districts. Efforts should be made to generate information
from regions, zones and Districts and then, to disseminate the findings to legislative
and senior academic institutions, with the view of eliminating the occurrence and
teaching the community about the health and the Psychological effects of these
practices.
6. The issue of female circumcision, abduction and early marriage and their adverse
the mass media such as TV, Radio and the newspapers. That is to say, the community
ought to have access to the mass media so that one can easily report any form of
incidence in the area. The mass media, therefore, should play a vital role in changing
7. Those women who had a chance to know the harmfulness of these traditional practices
should be initiated and mobilized as role models, with the aim of sensitizing and
raising awareness to the society at large. Experience sharing should be made among
women themselves, on issues related to Human Rights, Traditional Practices and the
Reproductive health.
119
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125
Appendix-A: Gaaffiiwwan barattootaaf qophaa'an (Afan Oromo Version)
Kabajamoo Hirmaattoata Qo’annoo kanaa, Kaayyoon qo’annoo kanaa Aadaa fi Gocha tokko
tokko, keessumaanuu , Gocha dubartoota irratti raawwatamuu fi akkaataa isaa irratti
xiyyeeffata. Qaamni qo’annaa kana raawwatu, gargaarsi isin asirratti gootan gayee guddaa
taphatuu qofa osoo hinta’in, yaada isin kennitanii fi hirmaannaa keessan malee qo’annoon
kuni fiixan bayuu hindanda’ua jedhee amana.
Hirmaannaa keessaniif ammoo Galata guddaa isinii galchaa, gaafiiwwan asii gadii kana
deebisuuf qabxiiwwan kanniin irratti akka xiyyeeffatan isin hubachiisa.
1.Gaafiiwwan kana keeessatti, deebiin “sirrii” ykn “dhugaa” ta’e inumaa hinjiru. Kan
dhugaa jedhamee fudhatamu, yaada gara keessaniin argamu qofa.
2.Maqaa keessan katabuu hinbarbaachisu.
3.Yaanni isin kennitan Qaama biraatiif dabarfamee hinkennamu. Icciitiin qabama.
4. Gaafiiwwan Filannoo qabaniif deebii sirrii ta’e qofa filatuudhaan deebisaa. Filannoo
ka hinqabneef ammoo, gabaabinnumaan katabuun deebisaa.
126
11.Ati gara keetiin kittaannii ijoollee durbaa ni deeggarta mo’o nimormita?
A)ni deeggara b) ni morma
12.Ati amma sirni kittaannii sirratti raawwatee jiraa? a) Ee b) Lakki
13.Yoo sirratti raawwatee jiraate, rakkinni sirra gaye yoo jiraate mee gabaabbinnumaanibsi.
14.Isin biratti yeroo baay’ee durba yeroo kami kittaanani?
15.Akka yaada keetiitti sababni durba kittaananiif maal sitti fakkaata?
16.Mee sababa kittaannii qabxiiwwan asii gadii kana keessaa kamtu isa dhuga jettee yaadda?
Sababa irra caalu filadhu. a)Sirna durbummaa xumuranii gara heerumaatti seenuu agarsiisa
b)Amantitu ajaja c)Kabaja Aadaaf kennamu agarsiisa d)Durbummaa qabaatuu isii
ittiin hubatuuf
17. Akka Aadaa keesaniititti, durbi takka osoo hinkittaanamin heerumuu dandeessii?
a) Ee b) Lakki
18. Osoo hinkittaanamin yoo heerumte maal taati jettee yaadda?
19.Hawaasa keessan keessatti,Yeroo baay’ee dubartiin sirna kittaannii kana akkamitii ilaalti?
a) haala gaariin ilaalti b)haala badaan ilaalti
20. Namoonni durba kittaanan kuni meeshaan isaan ittiin fayyadaman maali? ____
21.Dimshaaahumatti, kittaanniin fayyaa fi qaama dubartii irratti rakkinna ni fida jettee
yaaddaa? a) Ee ni fida b) Lakki, womaa rakkinna hinqabu
22.Haala Fuudhaa fi Heerumaa keessaa, isin biratti kamtu bay’innaan beekama?
a) Wolgara b) Gabbara c) Butiinsa d)Hundinuu bay’ee beekama
23.Durba butuun isin biratti jiraa? a) Ee nijira b) Hinjiru
24.Durba butiinsi yoo jiraate, Aadaa keessanitti fudhatama qabaa? a) Ee b) Lakki
25.Yeroo ammaa kana durba butuun isin biratti, hagam baay’ata?
a) Bay’ee jira b)nixiqqaata c) bay’ee xiqqa
26. Isin biratti, sababni durba butaniif keessumanuu maali?
a) yoo isiin bareeda taate b) yoo maatiin isii qabeenna qabaate c) Baasii cidhaaf bayu
hambisuuf d)yoo maatiin intalaa nama isii kadhate sani dhoowwate
27. Aadaa keessan keessatti durbi umrii xiqqeennaatti, fakkeennaaf woggaa 15 gaditti
heerummun jiraa? a) Ee nijira b) hinjiru
28. Umrii jedhame kanaa gaditti heerumuun yoo jiraate, sababni isaa maali ?
29. Intalli takka heerumaaf yoo geesse, akka aadaa keessaniitti, nama itti heerumtu eennutu
filaafi? a) maatii isiiti b)ufumaa filatti c) Hiriyyatu filaafi
127
30.Hawaasa keessan keessatti durbaa fi dhiira keessaa kamtu yowaan gara fuudhaa fi
heerumaa akka deemu taasifama? a) dhiira b) durba
Yaanni addaddaa kan haalaafi gocha dubartii illalutu asii gaditti tarraawee jira. Yaada kana keessatti
wonti “Dhuga” ykn “Sirrii”ta’e hinjiru.Yaaduma isin kennitanitu sirriidha jedhamee fudhatama.
Kanaafuu,yaada kana erga sirritti dubbiftanii hubattaniin booda deebii isin “sirri” jettanii amantan qofa
filadhaa.Yaada hundumaafuu laakkofsi”1”irraa hanga “4”kennamee jira. Laakkofsi kunniin hiikkaa
asii gaditti kenname qabu. Isinis haaluma kanaan, yaada kenname kanaaf, deebii ufii itti amantan,
qajeela lakkofsa dalgatti tarreeffame jelatti mallttoo “X” godhuudhhaan deebisaa. “1” jechuun yaada
kana baay’ee deeggara jechuu yoo ta’u, 2= ni deeggara, 3=ni morma, 4=Baay’ee morma,
jechuudha.
Qabxii Iskeelii
Afuritti hirame
La Yaada
kk. 1 2 3 4
1 Dhimmi dubartii dhimma dhiiraati
19 Akka amantii keennaatti, durbi takka umrii woggaa 15 gaditti heerumuu qabdi.
20 Yeroo baay’ee sababni intala takka umrii xiqqeennaatti heerumsiisaniif, Horii fi Qarshii
ittiin argatuufi.
Galatoomaa !
128
Appendix – B (English Version)
Dear participants, the purpose of this study is to look at and investigate some major gender-related
Traditional practices with especial focuses on Female circumcision, Abduction and Early
marriage. To this effect your genuine cooperation in providing us with relevant information is
highly acknowledged. Please notice that,
1) There is nothing “right” or “wrong” answer here and, rather what you respond is
just regarded and taken as a correct answer.
2) No need of writing your name.
3) The information you give will be kept confidential.
4) For the multiple choices, choose the letter you think “correct” and for the open-
ended items, give your own comment shortly.
129
1. Issues Related to Circumcision, Abduction and Early Marriage
9. Is there practice of female circumcision in your culture? a) Yes B) No
10. If there is female circumcision, who operate it? ________________________
11. Do you personally accept or reject the circumcision of females?
a) Accept b) reject
12. Have you undergone circumcision so far? a) Yes b) No
13. If you were circumcised, would you please tell us the problem you faced?
____________________________________________________________________
14. In your culture, when do girls are being circumcised? ______________________
15. In your opinion, what are the reasons for female circumcision?
16. Which of the following do you think is the major reason for female circumcision?
a) a mark of transition from girl hood to womanhood b) religions demand
c) respect for tradition d) to check virginity
17. In your culture, can a girl get married before being circumcised? a) Yes b) No
18. What if, she get married before passing through circumcision? _______________
19. How do girls in your locality perceive female circumcision? a) Good b) Bad
20. What instruments are used for the operation of circumcision?_________________
21. Do you think, in general that, female circumcision could have the health and physical effect? a)
Yes b) No
22. Which type of marriage is the most common in your locality? Marriage by:
a) Sister exchange b) bride price c) abduction d) all are common
23. Is there abduction in your community? a) Yes b) No
24. If there is abduction, does your culture encourage it? a) Yes b) No
25. To what extent does abduction occur here? a) very high b) low c) very low
26. Which of the following is the major reason for abduction in your locality?
a) the beauty of the girl c) to reduce wedding Ceremony
b) If her parents are rich d) When the parents refuse to give their daughter
27. Do girls happen to get married at their early age, for example below 15?
a) Yes b) No
28. If the girls get married at their early age, why it happens so? ________________
29. Who is responsible, in your culture, to choose a marital partner or husband, for a
girl? a) Parents b) the girl herself c) her friends
30. In your Society, is it boys or girls that are encouraged more to get married early?
a) boys b) girls
130
These are twenty Statements below. For each of them, the possible answers range from 1 to 4. In other words, each
of the statements has a four point-scale. Read thoroughly and choose the number of the correct answer
that you want. The numbers have such a meaning that:
Thank You!
131
Appendix-C (Afan Oromo Version)
1.Gaafiiwwan kana keeessatti, deebiin “sirrii” ykn “dhugaa” ta’e inumaa hinjiru. Kan
dhugaa jedhamee fudhatamu, yaada gara keessaniin argamu qofa.
2.Maqaa keessan katabuu hinbarbaachisu.
3.Yaanni isin kennitan Qaama biraatiif dabarfamee hinkennamu. Icciitiin qabama.
4. Gaafiiwwan Filannoo qabaniif deebii sirrii ta’e qofa filatuudhaan deebisaa. Filannoo
ka hinqabneef ammoo, gabaabinnumaan katabuun deebisaa.
132
12.Ati amma sirni kittaannii sirratti raawwatee jiraa? a) Ee b) Lakki
13.Yoo sirratti raawwatee jiraate, rakkinni sirra gaye yoo jiraate mee gabaabbinnumaanibsi.
14.Isin biratti yeroo baay’ee durba yeroo kami kittaanani?
19.Hawaasa keessan keessatti,Yeroo baay’ee dubartiin sirna kittaannii kana akkamitii ilaalti?
a) haala gaariin ilaalti b)haala badaan ilaalti
20. Namoonni durba kittaanan kuni meeshaan isaan ittiin fayyadaman maali? ____
21.Dimshaaahumatti, kittaanniin fayyaa fi qaama dubartii irratti rakkinna ni fida jettee
yaaddaa? a) Ee ni fida b) Lakki, womaa rakkinna hinqabu
22.Haala Fuudhaa fi Heerumaa keessaa, isin biratti kamtu bay’innaan beekama?
a) Wolgara b) Gabbara c) Butiinsa d)Hundinuu bay’ee beekama
23.Durba butuun isin biratti jiraa? a) Ee nijira b) Hinjiru
24.Durba butiinsi yoo jiraate, Aadaa keessanitti fudhatama qabaa? a) Ee b) Lakki
25.Yeroo ammaa kana durba butuun isin biratti, hagam baay’ata?
a) Bay’ee jira b)nixiqqaata c) bay’ee xiqqa
26. Isin biratti, sababni durba butaniif keessumanuu maali?
a) yoo isiin bareeda taate b) yoo maatiin isii qabeenna qabaate c) Baasii cidhaaf bayu
hambisuuf d)yoo maatiin intalaa nama isii kadhate sani dhoowwate
27. Aadaa keessan keessatti durbi umrii xiqqeennaatti, fakkeennaaf woggaa 15 gaditti
heerummun jiraa? a) Ee nijira b) hinjiru
28. Umrii jedhame kanaa gaditti heerumuun yoo jiraate, sababni isaa maali ?
29. Intalli takka heerumaaf yoo geesse, akka aadaa keessaniitti, nama itti heerumtu eennutu
filaafi? a) maatii isiiti b)ufumaa filatti c) Hiriyyatu filaafi
30.Hawaasa keessan keessatti durbaa fi dhiira keessaa kamtu yowaan gara fuudhaa fi
heerumaa akka deemu taasifama? a) dhiira b) durba
133
Yaanni addaddaa kan haalaafi gocha dubartii illalutu asii gaditti tarraawee jira. Yaada kana keessatti
wonti “Dhuga” ykn “Sirrii”ta’e hinjiru.Yaaduma isin kennitanitu sirriidha jedhamee fudhatama.
Kanaafuu,yaada kana erga sirritti dubbiftanii hubattaniin booda deebii isin “sirri” jettanii amantan qofa
filadhaa.Yaada hundumaafuu laakkofsi”1”irraa hanga “4”kennamee jira. Laakkofsi kunniin hiikkaa
asii gaditti kenname qabu. Isinis haaluma kanaan, yaada kenname kanaaf, deebii ufii itti amantan,
qajeela lakkofsa dalgatti tarreeffame jelatti mallttoo “X” godhuudhhaan deebisaa. “1” jechuun yaada
kana baay’ee deeggara jechuu yoo ta’u, 2= ni deeggara, 3=ni morma, 4=Baay’ee morma,
jechuudha.
Qabxii Iskeelii
Afuritti hirame
La Yaada
kk. 1 2 3 4
1 Dhimmi dubartii dhimma dhiiraati
19 Akka amantii keennaatti, durbi takka umrii woggaa 15 gaditti heerumuu qabdi.
20 Yeroo baay’ee sababni intala takka umrii xiqqeennaatti heerumsiisaniif, Horii fi Qarshii
ittiin argatuufi.
Galatoomaa !
134
Appendix – D (English Version)
Dear participants, the purpose of this study is to look at and investigate some major gender-related
Traditional practices with especial focuses on Female circumcision, Abduction and Early
marriage. To this effect your genuine cooperation in providing us with relevant information is
highly acknowledged. Please notice that,
5) There is nothing “right” or “wrong” answer here and, rather what you respond is
just regarded and taken as a correct answer.
6) No need of writing your name.
7) The information you give will be kept confidential.
8) For the multiple choices, choose the letter you think “correct” and for the open-
ended items, give your own comment shortly.
135
2. Issues Related to Circumcision, Abduction and Early Marriage
9. Is there practice of female circumcision in your culture? a) Yes B) No
10. If there is female circumcision, who operate it? ________________________
11. Do you personally accept or reject the circumcision of females?
a) Accept b) reject
12. Have you undergone circumcision so far? a) Yes b) No
13. If you were circumcised, would you please tell us the problem you faced?
14. In your culture, when do girls are being circumcised? ______________________
15. In your opinion, what are the reasons for female circumcision?
16. Which of the following do you think is the major reason for female circumcision?
a) a mark of transition from girl hood to womanhood b) religions demand
c) respect for tradition d) to check virginity
17. In your culture, can a girl get married before being circumcised? a) Yes b) No
18. What if, she get married before passing through circumcision? _______________
19. How do girls in your locality perceive female circumcision? a) Good b) Bad
20. What instruments are used for the operation of circumcision?_________________
21. Do you think, in general that, female circumcision could have the health and physical effect? a)
Yes b) No
22. Which type of marriage is the most common in your locality? Marriage by:
a) Sister exchange b) bride price c) abduction d) all are common
23. Is there abduction in your community? a) Yes b) No
24. If there is abduction, does your culture encourage it? a) Yes b) No
25. To what extent does abduction occur here? a) very high b) low c) very low
26. Which of the following is the major reason for abduction in your locality?
c) the beauty of the girl c) to reduce wedding Ceremony
d) If her parents are rich d) When the parents refuse to give their daughter
27. Do girls happen to get married at their early age, for example below 15?
a) Yes b) No
28. If the girls get married at their early age, why it happens so? ________________
29. Who is responsible, in your culture, to choose a marital partner or husband, for a
girl? a) Parents b) the girl herself c) her friends
30. In your Society, is it boys or girls that are encouraged more to get married early?
a) boys b) girls
136
These are twenty Statements below. For each of them, the possible answers range from 1 to 4. In other words, each
of the statements has a four point-scale. Read thoroughly and choose the number of the correct answer
that you want. The numbers have such a meaning that:
1 = Strongly agree 2 = agree 3= Disagree and, 4 = Strongly disagree.
Four Point- Scale
Statements
The issue of females is the males’ issue too.
Inherently, males and females are equal.
In my own culture, girls are more vulnerable to harmful traditions than boys.
ciety, girls are more encouraged to “marriage” than to “education”.
The Rights of females is the Human Rights.
A girl should not get married before being circumcised.
Female circumcision should be eliminated.
FGM violate the Human Rights of females.
Being it is our tradition; Female circumcision should not be eliminated.
FGM could result in health effects on girls, particularly Can cause HIV/AIDS.
I Personally believe that my daughters (if any) should be circumcised.
Abduction is an act to be condemned.
Abduction is our tradition and, therefore, shouldn’t be avoided.
The major reason for abduction is to reduce wedding expenses.
Abduction is encouraged in our locality.
Abduction violates the Human Rights of the girls.
A girl should get married earlier than 15 years old.
Early Marriage could have adverse effects, both on the girls and her children.
As to our religion, a girl is supposed to get married before 15.
Usually the major reason for early marriage is to get money either, in cash or in
kind.
Thank You!
137
Appendix-E: The key informants' Interview Guide:(Afan Oromo version)
Kaayyoon qorannaa kanaa waa'ee kittaannii ijoollee durbaa durba buttaa fi umrii malee heerumuu ijoollee
durbaa irratti xiyyeeffata. Kanaafuu gaafiiwwan asii gadii kanniin irratti yaanni isin nuu
kennitan cimina hojii kanaatiif bakka guddaa waan qabuuf, yaada isin nuu kennitaniif
guddifnee isin galatoomfanna. Gaafiiwwan akkana jedhu:
Galatoomaa
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Appendix-F: Key Informants' Interview Guide: (English version)
The purpose of this study is to investigate and understand issues related to female
circumcision, abduction and early marriage. To this effect, the responses that you
give us concerning these issues will help us to understand them and make this
study meaningful. The information you give us will be kept confidential and we
are very grateful for your cooperation.
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