Axon: (messages) away from the soma to other neurons. Dendrite: Receives signals (neurotransmitters) from other neurons. Synapse: the tiny gap between neurons. Soma: Cell body.
Conveys impulses
When learning occurs, changes are made in the brain to the neural pathways and connections within and between pathways. The brains ability to change is known as plasticity.
When neurons communicate with each other, they do this by sending neurotransmitters across the synapse. Three components to the synapse. - The synaptic gap: the tiny space between the axon (presynaptic neuron) and the dendrite (postsynaptic neuron) - Axon ending: Presynaptic neuron sending the message or neural impulse - Dendrite: Postsynaptic neuron receiving the message or neural impulse Synaptic formation occurs when neurotransmitters are released across the synapse and dendrites grow new branches and lengthen in response. When pathways are not used the dendrites are pruned. Hebb: neurons that fire together, wire together Neurons that activate at the same time, strengthen neural pathways and connections. Neurons not activated (perhaps through disuse) weaken connections. Synaptogenesis: synapse formation. Synaptogenesis occurs throughout a healthy persons lifespan, but it occurs most rapidly during early brain development, beginning at about two months before birth until approximately two years after birth. Long-term potentiation (LTP): The long-lasting strengthening of the synaptic connections of neurons, resulting in enhanced functioning of neurons when activated. LTP improves the ability of the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons to communicate with one another at the synapse. LTP is crucial to learning, as is the hippocampus Richard Morris Water maze experiment (1982). Hippocampus is crucial to learning and memory and therefore LTP. NMDA is a neurotransmitter receptor on the dendrite (found mostly around the hippocampus). It receives the neurotransmitter glutamate and has an important role in LTP.
Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitter Acetylcholine Location of Neurons Motor neurons of PNS; brainstem; base of forebrain (hippocampus) CNS Effects Excitatory effect at synapse with voluntary muscle, causing contraction; role in hippocampus of brain in memory consolidation Mainly inhibitory involved in voluntary movements, learning, memory, emotional arousal and feelings of pleasure. Deficiencies are linked to Parkinsons disease. Inhibits glutamate release. Excess linked to schizophrenia. Mainly inhibitory involved in sleep, arousal levels and emotional experience. Deficiencies linked to anxiety, mood disorders and insomnia. Mainly inhibitory involved in the experience of a range of emotions; acts as a hormone to stimulate the sympathetic NS. Excitatory communication between adjacent brain cells. Too little results in lack of signalling. Excess results in
Dopamine
Seratonin
CNS
Interneurons in many CNS sites Interneurons in many CNS sites; cerebral cortex; spinal cord
self-destruction of neurons, death of adjacent cells. Inhibitory blocks the transmission of information from one neuron to another. Excitatory assists transmission of information from one neuron to another.
Neuroplasticity
The brain has the ability to change its structure and relocate functions to different areas and /or neuronal networks Developmental plasticity: changes in neural connections during development as a result of environmental interactions as well as neural changes due to learning. Developmental plasticity is specific to the change in neurons and synapse connections as a consequence of developmental processes. Changes in the brains neural structure in response to experience during its growth and development. Adaptive plasticity: changes in neural connections in response to changing environmental conditions (such as brain injury), as well as neural changes induced by learning. Changes occurring in the brains neural structure to enable adjustment to experience, to compensate for lost function and/or to maximise remaining function in the event of brain damage. Critical periods Are periods in the life of an organism where they are more sensitive to environmental influences so that conditions are optimal for certain capacities to emerge. For the human nervous system, it appears that different areas of the brain used in learning develop fully at different periods of time.
The brain must go through a period of forming synapses and then pruning back unused connections to complete its development. Most of this occurs in the first 12 years. The frontal lobe has one of the longer periods of development taking up to ten years.
Imaging technologies
Modern brain imaging technologies such as CT scans, PET scans, SPECT scans, MRI scans and fMRI scans provide clear evidence that, during learning, changes occur in neurons that can result in permanent structural and functional brain changes.