Songs of a Rada Community in Trinidad Author(s): Alan P. Merriam Source: Anthropos, Bd. 51, H. 1./2. (1956), pp.

157-174 Published by: Anthropos Institute Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40451103 . Accessed: 03/10/2011 21:49
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Anthropos Institute is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Anthropos.

http://www.jstor.org

in Trinidad Songs of a Rada Community

of Sara Whineryand B. G, Fred * By Alan P. Merriam,withtheassistance

Contents : of Rada songs characteristics 1. Structural of Rada withotherNew WorldNegroand African 2. Comparison songs 3. Conclusion

The songs on which the following study is based were recordedby Mr. Andrew Carr in Port-of-Spain, Trinidad,in 1953, as part of a general This of a cult Rada by Abojevi groupwas founded particular group. study Zahwenuwho was born in Hweda in Dahomey about 1800 and who came to Trinidad about 1855. A few years afterhis arrivalhe as an immigrant and cornerof Port-of-Spain establisheda compoundin the northeastern The the compound named it afterhis own African Dangbwe. deity patron, beliefand in time and is still a centerof Dahomean religious has persisted belief with Christian been have syncretized practicealthoughtheseconcepts saintly "so that the Africangods have with few exceptionstheirChristian there the In dual this in so and are system aspect." regarded counterparts who Dahomeans for the worship Dada is a Creator, SupremeBeing Segbo, the Earth pantheonor Sakpata group of gods, as well as a pantheonof of Africandieties mainlyof the Earth and Thundergroups.Manifestation the mediumof the possesseddancer,and a the deitiestakes place through names is carriedout both on with African regularcalendar of ceremonial includeamong basis. Religiouspracticioners a seasonal and a non-seasonal the wifeofthe god - a dancer the vodunsi, or highpriest, thehubono, others, who entersinto a state of possession by the deity- and the hutoor father used includethe drums,whichare of the drums.Chiefmusicalinstruments and have sponsorsand are consecrated in sets of threeand which employed withseedsand fitted specialnames; maracas smallroundcalabashesfilled
* The transcription Mr.Carr's totalcollection, ofthethirty-one comprising songs, ofthe author. out by MissWhineryand Mr. Fred, underthe supervision was carried finalanalysis the assistants of the two work the also ; was The preliminary analysis careful form in the present data wereassembled and comparative by the authorafter and analysis. of the original transcriptions checking

158

ALAN P. MeRRIAM

61. 195G Anthropos

withwoodenhandles; and the gan, a bar of steel beaten out flatat the ends to resemblea double hoe and struckwith a steel rodli. The songswere made available to the authorin the fall of 1953, and in 1954. The analyticalmethod analysiswas carriedout in the laboratory used is based upontheworkofvon Hornbostel 2,whichhas been elaborated 5. by Kolinski 3, Waterman4, and to some extent by the presentauthor of The approach is aimed toward obtainingas objective a description a have musical styleas possible; to this end various quantitative procedures disbeen adopted,althoughmoresubjectiveevaluationsare not completely with first two the into is divided The dealing parts, paper present regarded. of the Rada songs,the seconddealingwiththe characteristics the structural as well as some comparisonof this music with other musical groupings of problemsof method. considerations 1. Structural characteristics of Rada songs. In tonal rangethe of the thirty-one withtwenty-six Rada songsare rather songs homogeneous, an octave. less than and five or an octave of a more, Eight only having range fivea rangeofan octave,and five semitones, songshave a rangeof seventeen in semitones The largestrangeis twenty-two semitones. a rangeof fourteen show in Song12. Since84 % ofthesongs eightsemitones Song 18, thesmallest as using theRada groupmaybe characterized therangeofan octaveor more, a indicate would which narrow to as majority widetonalrange, opposed range witha compassofless than an octave. in the is evidenced the strongest of melodicdirection, In terms pattern tones.In foursongsthesetwo tones and ending of thebeginning relationship above the are identical; in one song (Song 17) endingtone is two semitones remainthe In movement. overall a slight toneshowing thebeginning upward tonelies belowtheinitialthusmaking final the however, songs, ingtwenty-six of the groupofsongsas a whole. characteristic melodicdirection a downward tone; below the beginning semitones seven is tone In six songs,the ending semitwelve widest The difference, varied. are in othercases the differences two in two semitones, songs. tones, is foundin foursongs,the narrowest, ten and seminine are five, four, eight, three, differences Other represented direction, 84 % of the songs show a downward tones. Since approximately this marked particulartype of proportion, however,relativelya rather characteristic. movement may be considered
3, Caribbean 1 Andrew T. Carr, A Rada Community in Trinidad, Quarterly, 1953, 35-54. Musikwissenscnait, 2 Erich M.von Hornbostel,Die Probleme dervergleichenden African 85-97. NegroMusic, 7, 1905, der Internationalen Musikgesellschaft, Zeitschrift 1, 1928, 30-62. Africa, 3 M. Kolinski, Suriname Music,in : Melville J. and Frances b. Herskovits, New York, 1936,pp. 491-740. Folk-Lore, Suriname 1943). University, diss.,Northwestern
At T* _ _ _^ /T*- - -- J# J 'T/'/v*rk TV/ ci / TtiTMln 4 Richard A. _-..Vwir waterman, Aincan .rarcernsm nmuau ^cgiu .**^, "

1951). University, (Unpub.diss.,Northwestern Analysis,

5 Alan P. Merriam, Songs of the Afro-Bahiap Cults : An tnnomusicuiugiucu

in Trinidad Songsof a Rada Community

159

A comparisonof the initial and highesttones reveals some internal in the songs, but this is not strongly marked, upwardmelodicmovement and highesttones are identical [n eightsongsthe beginning ; in two groups In is but two and threesemitones 3ffoursongsthe difference respectively. fivesongs the highesttone lies foursemitonesabove the beginning tone, of and in seven songs five semitonesabove. One song shows a difference ofninesemitones internal another ; themoststriking semitones, upward sight toneis fourteen semitones is foundin Song 17 in whichthe highest movement tone. The initialand lowesttonesare equal in Song 17, ibove the beginning In othersongs,the is at least seven semitones. the difference but otherwise fromseven (Song 1) to twenty-two tone may be anywhere lowest (Song 18) of songs,eleven, tone. In the largestnumber below the beginning semitones Theseinternal tone. movements, toneis an octavebelowthebeginning thelowest and The about the octave drop,are relatively ending, quite sharp. centering tonesare equal in Song 12 ; in the remaining songsthe highest thirty highest above the semitones 5) tone rangesfromtwo (Song 19) to fourteen (Song the above rather is tone sharply characteristically final.Thus the highest an of the difference numberof songsshowing endingtone with the greatest octave. Special attentionmay here be called to Song 12 in which the tone is the same as the endingtone, and both are the same as beginning ofdrop consists movement the songall melodic tone.Thus within thehighest as the same is the lowest The tone and ending. the beginning and risebetween one to ten semifallsfrom final tonein two songs(Songs5, 8) but otherwise in six songs,five. below semitones is it ; seven tonesbelowit. In eight songs in is third minor the proportion greatest Of 1,834 ascendingintervals third the second %), the the (12 major followed %), (25 major by (42.5 %), fourth(10.5 %), the perfectfifth (4.2 %) and the augmentedfifth perfect fourth, major sixth,minorseventh, (2.5 %). The minorsecond,augmented accountforbut 2.3 % of ninth together major seventh,octave and major the Rada intervals kinds of ascending, the total. In this usage of thirteen fewer typesare employed. unusual; in mostsonggroups songsseemsomewhat accountsfor37 %, third minor the intervals, Of a total of 2,126 descending each 15.3 %, fourth and third perfect the major second 25.5 %, the major diminished the fifth, and 3.6 %, the minorsecond 1.5 %, fifth the perfect but 1.8 %. major sixth and minorseventhcombined the minor intervals, and descending In the total of 3,960 ascending second the (25.3%), the major by third appearsmostoften(39.6%), followed fifth fourth (3.9 %), and (14.3 % each), the perfect major thirdand perfect major the augmentedfifth (1.5 %). The minorsecond,augmentedfourth, account combined ninth and octave major minor seventh, majorseventh, sixth, in the Rada songsreprethirds foronly1.1 % of the total.The use of minor In mostsonggroups intervals. ofthe total sentsan unusually highproportion used ; indeed,in only two groupsof the major second is most frequently songsof theBashi sones the Gee cult musicofBahia, Brazil 6,and the flute
6 Ibid., pp. 146-48.

.60

Alan P. Merriam

51. 195G Anthropos

the eastern Belgian Congo7,are minorthirdsfoundin greatest proportion so far as is knownto the presentauthor. 53.7 % ofthetotalintervals are descending, while46.3 % are ascending, in apparently that is, those of normaldistribution. Narrowintervals, fairly minorthirdor less, account for66.1 % of the ascendingand descending for14.3 %, ntervalscombined that is, the major third, ; mediumintervals, those largerthan a major third,for19.6 %. This distrimd wide intervals, normal. Dutionseems also to be fairly All songsuse wide as well as narrowintervals, althoughat least one interval as its widest uses fourth the ; the widestskip perfect song(Song 8) semitonesascendingfound in Song 24. Wide skips are more ls fourteen whichseemsto than in ascendingintervals, foundin descending frequently be a reversalof the usual patternfoundin African-derived songs. of the more or consecutive four monotone The repetitive repetitions structural its onesongs; samepitch appearsin nineofthethirty importance characteristic in Songs4, 20, 21 and 26. This particular seemsto be greatest in the Rada songs as a group. does not seem to be strongly represented interval different patternsare foundin the Rada songs, Twenty-one foundin twenty-eight are patternsof thirds, of whichthe most important Mf8, -fifth is thetriadic themostimportant split ofthesongs.Ofthesepatterns in thirteen mfrf thirds whichappearsin fourteen by pendular songs,followed mr in nine fifths triadic twelve in mf fifths split songs, songs,triadicsplit Mr in fifths and triadic also in nine songs, split songs,pendularthirdsmrfr thirds Mfrf, Mrfr, eight songs. Other patternsof thirdsinclude pendular interlocked and dim r and dim f, fifths triadic and fff thirds linear rrr, split is minimal. of these latterpatterns thirdsf ; the importance are of fourths found, appearingin nine different Six different patterns f in threesongs, interlocked songs.Fourthsrfappear in foursongs,fourths and frfr rfin two songs,and fourths also in threesongs,fourths frf fourths linearffin one song each.
Flute 7 Alan P. Merriam,The Bashi Mulizi and Its Music: An End-Blown of American Folklore). in the Journal -f +hP-R^lHm Con^o. (forthcoming : The triadicsplitfiftr as follows 8 The variousinterval are indicated patterns melodi( twosuccessive into broken is fifth a of theinterval in which ofthirds is a pattern note no ma) this In intervening G. C tones three the pattern as forexample, thirds, fifth The fifth ma} a split constitute not G does pattern. F C thus split be present ; Linea: or r (rising). f (falling) and either M (major),or m (minor), be dim (diminished), are sungsuccessively in whichthreeor morethirds are thosemelodicpatterns thirds rrr(rising linear as thirds, noted be would B G C Thus direction. movingin one fff falling, falling) linear as noted thirds, be would (falling, C G while rising), rising, thirds by thetonesC D F. In thiscase thedesignatioi Interlocked maybe illustrated are pattern: thirds illustrated by : /vx. Pendular r,thepattern is interlocked thirds, tone an broken intervening without by being riseand fallsuccessively in whichthirds Pndula : as illustrated and /'/. as rfr, thirds, M, Thus C C is noted pendular ofthesametypeare also noted or rfr. M or m,frf, patterns Longer thirds maybe either wherepresent (see : Kolinski are treated and fifths similarly of fourths and patterns op. cit., pp. 498-501).

in Trinidad Songs of a Rada Community

161

are rare in the Rada group,appearingin only four Patternsof fifths frin one song. rf songs. Fifths appear in threesongs, fifths of thirds, In threesongs(12, 20, 25) none of the conventional patterns 12 In and 25 this is the high reflected or fifths in fourths Songs appear. to thirds, fourths and fifths numberof major secondsused in comparison ; should is not so clear-cutin Song 20. Special attention the differentiation be called to Song 15 in whichan unusuallylarge numberof fourkinds of withthe use of major and minor is employed triadicsplit fifths ; correlation thirdsis here very high. Song 21 also presentsan unusual aspect in the used ; fourdifferent of fourths of patterns typesare largenumber relatively intervalhas considerable structural and thisparticular importance employed in the melodicline. of the Rada characteristic of thirdsmay be considered Whilepatterns not of are cases in most itmustbe notedthat importance paramount they songs, in any one song. For example,while Song 28 uses fourdifferent patterns of thirds,these patternsappear only threeor fourtimes,and such usage of third patternsmay be comparedwith other musical groups in which 9. ofthirds ofpatterns are made up almostentirely individual songsfrequently must do appear in 90 % of the songs,however, of thirds they Since patterns characteristic. be considered of of the thirty-one songs show a basic formalstructure Twenty-five the in which structure variations and a theme AA'A" etc., thusemphasizing the initialtheme.In almostall cases, from do not differ variations markedly subdividedinto can be further however, any singleunit of this structure chorus.Thus, the a theme B and leader the sung by an A themesung by the for basis as a songs might analysis, upon the unit selected depending ratherthan the AA'A". In be said to have an ABA'B'A"B" etc. structure the leader'sphraseand that of the chorusare considered thiscase, however, be dividedand even that thismight the understanding with as a singleunit morecomplicated rather a show Rada At thesametime,the songs subdivided. more be in some cases than thosewhichmight considered structure internal whileSong 3 musicof the New World.For example, usual in African-derived into (ab), thefollowing witheach A divisible is basicallyoftheAA'A" variety etc. In other : appearsat one pointin the song (ab) (a'b') (b"b) (a'b') pattern In Song 6 the is added at this one point,(b"b). words,an extrasub-phrase is A(aaba') ; in Song12,A(ababcb); in Song17A(abcd) ; in Song21 subdivision 4 is introduced by a more A(abcdedcd); and in Song 30, A(abcbdb). Song its is then AAB, which repeatedthroughout duration. structure, complicated basis, the Arabic In thiscase the subdivision may be made on the following : A(albl) the numberof measuresfor each sub-phrase numeralsindicating A(albl) B(c5bl). the two employing Songs 7, 11 and 22 use an AB pattern,the first cannot 14 : A(ab) B(cb), the third, A(abab) B(cb). Finally,Song sub-pattern into down small, broken repeatedunits,the phrasepattern be satisfactorily
9 Merriam,Bashi Mulizi. . . , op. cit.
51. 1956 Anthropos ll

162

Alan P. Merrtam

Antlu'opos 51. ])f>G

organizedas: ABCDEB'CT)'B"B'C' In this case, it shouldalso be pointed out that the leader and chorusinterchange phraseson occasion,a structural in found New factor World not frequently Negromusicof the leader-chorus variety. In one song, Song 19, the normal phrase for the leader is four the song with eightbars of he introduces measuresin duration ; however, four of which are later the first material, repeated,the last four,not. it be stated that the AA'A" etc. pattern In summary, then, may safely of the Rada songs,with each phrase divisibleinto is most characteristic of mostNew is characteristic kind of patterning This particular sub-phrases. construction WorldNegromusic.At the same time,the internal sub-phrse encountered. is somewhatmore complicatedthan that usually of the Rada songs includesportamento, ornamentation Characteristic whichis heard in almost all the songs and whichis used eitherrisingor releasewhichalso occurin or both,the risingattack and the falling falling a 15 In and attack,an unusualornaalmostall the songs. Songs 28, falling in whicha pitch mentaldevice is used. The dip, or "double portamento", is established,allowed to slide downwardfor variable distance,and then is foundin fivesongs,in each of which to its originalfrequency, returned it is frequently repeated.Finally, the bend, a less markedversionof the dip, is used in threesongs.Both the leaderand the chorususe thesevarious and of African all of whichare morecharacteristic typesof ornamentation, the leader the Western of than rising forms forms, using African-derived device not actually an ornamental attack more than the chorus.Although leader the or both in the strictsense of the word,in several songs either a seriesoffirm pitches; and chorussingalmostwithout actuallyestablishing in is effect. a continual in such that said be portamento it may almost songs World New in other Negro be called such, appears This device, if it may sinceit couldpossibly of themusicspecialist attention the and deserves songs forspecial songsor used to reserved prove to be a special type of singing, These are, of withceremonial. in connection indicatespecial statesof feeling seems to be used by singers but since the effect course,merelysuggestions, in the sense be restricted to still and in many New World Negro groups, is knownto as far so in all songsof any one group that it is not employed forfurther study. it would seem to be a phenomenon the presentwriter, of the some use Rada penta type of the thirty-one songs Twenty-two Of the structures, the hexatonic. and four penta use theheptatonic, five mode10,
ofanalysis 10Determination is based uponKolinski's system of modalstructure functiona: the rests this upon explained, system Briefly (Kolinski, op. cit.,pp. 491-93). numbei certain a of the than rather presence ofthetonesused, upon solely relationship dtermine is center tonal a in of the the song question, of tones.Following analysis is place which and thistone,withthoseothers appearin thesong, by actual duration, dtermine mode the and to F from fifths B, scale of seven ranging uponthe harmonic of fifths by the varioustonesof the song.In thosesongi encompassed by the number themodeis transpose in the cycle, lessthansevenfifths thetonesencompass in which Thus the notation. to standardize order in of, and to C as a matterof convenience D A) G F C harmonic the A scale, G F D C tones the that (on for examplelet us suppose

in Trinidad Songs of a Rada Community

1G3

thanfivetonesactuallyappearing, three songsuse thepentado butwithfewer 4 : 5 of four a structure while thus giving ; 1, songs use the normal (5:5;1) is structured 4:5;l-6, the singlepenta penta do. The singlepenta do-la form do-mi 5:5;l-3. Two songs of the penta sol type have the structure 4:5;5, while three penta sol types are normal (5:5;5). There are two penta la than fivetones (4:5;6), and two normalpenta la (5:5;6). of fewer structures than fivetonesin a penta mi, 4:5;3, one penta mi song Two songsuse fewer is a double structure, is normal, 5:5;3, and the finalpentatonic penta mi-sol, hexa a the In is structure. sol hexa normal The sol-la, 5:6;5, 5:5;3-5. single in is and of tones used one five mi mode one song a hexa (5:6;3), song a normalhexa mi (6:6;3). Of the hepta types,one is hepta sol but with the
thisscalemustbe transposed can be determined, in a song.Before are utilized modality fivestepsof C G D A E. This mode,encompassing to the "key" of C, thus becoming a pentatype.Further, let us supposea the harmonic designated scale,is accordingly this song whichutilizesthe tonesF C G Bb. In orderto be rid of the accidental, D F C G A second the tones A. a fifth be transposed mode mustfirst upward,giving to movethe tonesto the modebased on the C scale; is thennecessary transposition let us assumea song thusit becomesC G D A E, the pentatypenotedabove. Finally, that thesethreetones is noted It be to utilized are E G C in whichthe tones solely. ; thus the mode remains also lie withina sectionof fivetonesin the cycle of fifths threetones. penta,but of a tri type,that is, utilizing the duration tone,as determined modal structure In analyzing by this method, is also its tone and of each of duration, number the of appearances by an analysis not only by their modes are distinguished Thus different taken into consideration. tone. For this of the duration but also by the position on the cycleof fifths, position Thus in the tonal center. as the or si have la, we maythen do,re,mi,fa, sol, purpose, re, do,ifD, penta tone,themodebecomes penta C D G A E, ifC is theduration structure scale may be built that the pentatonic and so on. It mustbe pointedout, however, of fivetonesin the cycleof ,sincewe have threesections two or threetones, up from modalstructures, In . D G and diagraming : FCGDA, CGDAE, sevenfifths thus as representative, selected that based on C forthepentatypehas been arbitrarily noted above. forthe transpositions accounting constructed. modesare similarly or seven-tone and hepta, The hexa,or six-tone, utilizeall since fixed are modes they the that unequivocally noted be It is to hepta In whilethe hexa modesmay take two positions. seven tonesin the cycle of fifths, as Kolinski taken been has C on representative by the lattercase, the mode based of thesemodesmay also be comout that either of the type.It may also be pointed a six- or sevenwhilestillutilizing thansix or seventonesrespectively posed of fewer utilize CGD mode a hexa for may Thus, example, ofthecycleoffifths. noteportion modes These and B. F tones two as may as few even theoretically, or a heptamode a pentamodeconto the original example, in numerals be expressed ; thus/returning as 3:5;1. The first figure may be expressed of C G , withC as the tonalcenter sisting the second the utilized tones of ; figure, sectionof the cycle the number represents tone. Thus, as a further the stressed example,the of fifths ; the third, encompassed a heptare mode whichuses but five tones in its 5:7;2 represents modal structure structure. encountered ; whiletri-and lowertypes mode is also sometimes The tetratonic rare. is occurrence their extremely are theoretically possible, as pentado sol, Doublemodalstructures mayalso be used; thesetake suchforms in or duration of are tones two instances or heptare mi. In these equal importance in defining and thus both must be taken into consideration the melodicstructure, the mode.

164

ALAN P. MeRRIAM

5. 195, Anthropos

structure 5:7;5, threeare normalhepta la (7:7;6), and one a normalhepta mi (7:7;6). In termsof the fact,then,that over 70 % of the songsuse some this particular modal structure formof the pentatonic, may be considered of the Rada group.However,it shouldbe notedthat thirteen characteristic number thanthenormal modalstructures ofthe songsemploy in whichfewer the Rada songs of tones are actuallyused ; this may proveto differentiate at least, fromother fromotherNew World Negro groupsand conceivably Dahomean-derived groups. The durationtone and subjectivetonicn fall on the same pitch in tone falls on the sixth degree nine of the songs.In six songs,the duration of the scale based upon the subjectivetonic,and in six othersongson the fifth degreeof that scale ; it is on the thirddegreeof the subjectivetonic scale in four songs,and on the seconddegreein two songs.In Song 10, which modal structure, the subjectivetoniccoincideswiththe do of a double has the penta do-la structure ; in Song 13, on do of the penta do-mi; in Song20, thebasis tonic,do, forms on sol ofthehexa sol-la.In Song 25, the subjective to which the two durationtones contribute for a major triad, do-mi-sol, toneand subjective then, tonic, betweenthe duration mi-sol. The relationship or third a in are two the that of tonic, is, is directin the majority songs; second on the falls tone theduration The twosongsin which fifth relationship. morecomplexaspect somewhat of are tonic scale the of subjective degree of the dominant indicates this that be it relationship although might argued sixth a are two tones the which In those six songs in apart, the dominant. some sort of major-minor mightbe argued,but such a relationrelationship ofmajorand minor withcautionsincethe concepts shipshouldbe postulated All musical other such as in verbalized not are and systems. are Western these well-defined 17 show ; 14 and exceptions tonality songsexceptnumbers to prereferred by the singers, are due to the special vocal style employed the butin sevensongs pitchchanges as such,do notexist, Modulations, viously. for example,the relativepitch in Thus to end. 17, frombeginning Song in to end from ; Song 23, the rise is two semirisesone semitone beginning below the tones. In but one song, Song 15, the singersend one semitone initial "key". of the Rada songs, althoughsporadic Harmonyis not characteristic these apwhether be determined cannot it ; harmonyoccursinfrequently is Where sporadicharmony present, pearancesare accidentalor intentional. pitchesare employed it occursat the ends of chorusphraseswheredifferent fourth ; thus in Song 16, for example,two notes a perfect simultaneously a 23 in while chorus the of major line, Song at the end apart are employed leader the which in type thirdis found.All songs are of the leader-chorus and no songs the chorus, a answered is and sung by a phrase by sings phrase
11Durationtone refers is mostheavilyweighted throughout to that tonewhich the subtonic The count. designates duration actual subjective the songas defined by in musicians Western observed as or tonality, by of a key feeling, jectivecriterion traditions. musical to Western respect

in Trinidad Songs of a Rada Community

165

betweenthe leader and chorusoccurs in use real polyphony. Overlapping two in unisonsinging the betweenleader and five of others, songs; twentychorusis employed. In all but threesongs a male leader is employed ; in almostall songs a mixed chorusis present,althougha purelymale chorusis also used when a femaleleader sings,the chorusis male. All songsuse leader,chorus two different and gong; as far as can be determined, gongsare used indiwith a metallic one in the tone,the otherwith high pitched songs, vidually are absent; used in Rada singing, a low, flat sound. The drums,normally that the absence of drumsmight whileit is at least conceivable changesuch it as tempo,absolutepitch,and otherexternal characteristics, songelements would be changed to any significant is doubtfulthat the song structure extentby the omission. In melodicmeter,thirteen songsuse 4/4 time,nine use 6/4,seven use evensplitbetween time.An approximate 3/4and one each are in 6/8and 12/8 the use of duple and triplemetersis thus evidenced.Melodictempi,based bothoftheextremes 84-160beats per minute, on thequarter note,rangefrom the rangeis from are extremes if the Even in 6/4 time. ignored, occurring a widerange.Eleven ofthethirty-one 96-153beats perminute, songsincrease theirown duration ; the largestincreaseis 22 beats, in tempo throughout and of the Characteristic four. the smallest, songsis the use of syncopation fall accents melodic the in which consistently off-beat its extension, phrasing betweenthe normalaccentedbeats. This particular type of melodicrhythm and African-derived music,and need of both African is highlycharacteristic 12. here discussed not be further between A series of difficult problemsis raised by the relationship noted,the meterand templ.As has been previously melodicand percussion in the recordings the songsare not present whichnormally drums accompany make to seem would in itself this and analysisofgongpatterns underanalysis, to be an unsureness seems what is fact somewhatsuspect. Added to this are frequently in therecordings ; the patterns on the partofthe gongplayers or are are brokenoffat odd intervals, manner, not repeatedin consistent in the courseof the song. It shouldat changedfromone meterto another fewerthan eight songs,the meteras no least be noted,however,that in fromthe melodicmeterand tempo. well as the tempo of the gong differs It There would seem to be two possibleexplanationsforthis phenomenon. place, be ascribedto a faultygongplayeror to confusion may, in the first on his part in view of the absence of drums,whichmightwell occur since unit. sectionin New WorldNegromusicis a closelyintegrated the percussion standardusage which On the otherhand, the gong playingmay represent the of rest the without percussioninstruments. sounds somewhatpeculiar are drums the that lackingand that the In any case, in view of the fact it seems advisableto make no specific gongplayingappears to be aberrant, in regardto this aspect of the Rada songs. statements
12 Waterman, op. cit., pp. 97 ff. ; Merriam, Songs of..., op. cit., pp. 85-90.

166

Alan P. Merriam

51.1950 Apropos

between Some of the same difficulties occurwhenthe relationship gong these and melodicpitchare investigated. relationships may be briefly Again, that they cannot be regardedas here but with the stipulation presented in the respective Threeof the thirteen which conclusive. pitchescould songs toneto be identical. thegongpitchand thatoftheduration be isolatedshowed tonic. betweenthe gongand subjective In one song the same pitchoccurred not did which In fivesongs,the gong pitch restedon a note of the scale coincidewith a major structural pitch; in threesongs the gong pitchwas withthe endingtone. outsidethe melodicscale, and in one songit coincided to percussion in here material be that the It must repeated presented respect in tempi and pitch cannot be taken as conclusive view of the rhythms, as a part of the Rada music. function absence of drumswhich ordinarily showsthefollowing in summary, The analysisofthe Rada songs, general is condirection melodic wide Tonal characteristics. ; range is consistently movements. downward internal marked withsomefairly downward, sistently and descending intervals, in totalascending is used mostoften third The minor medium oftheuse ofnarrow, ofthesongs; distribution characteristic a striking more found are intervals Wide be normal. seems to and wide intervals fairly unusual somewhat a than in ascendingintervals, in descending frequently of thirds, melodicpatternsare patterns The most important characteristic. At the same time, wide usage of patternsof fourths. followed by a fairly in any one song. structural of are not importance high patternsof thirds and variations theme a AA'A" etc. whichemphasizes The phrase pattern, consub-phrase is used in most of the songs,and the internal, structure, New than that usually foundin is somewhatmore complicated struction the includesportamento, ornamentation Characteristic World Negrosongs. in used The bend. and pentatonic, risingattack and fallingrelease, dip structure modal ; 70 % ofthe songs,is themostcharacteristic approximately are tones of number normal the than fewer thirteen in songs however, is foundbetweenthe subjective actuallyused. A fairlydirectrelationship is used. The leaderor tonic and durationtones; no harmony polyphony between equal division is foundin all songs; an approximate choruspattern are varied; duple and triplemelodic metersis employed.Melodic tempi to the as the of the on basis recordings present little can be determined or of percussion character tempo pitch. rhythm, 2. Comparison of Rada with other new world negro and forthe fieldof New WorldNegromusic African songs. Of special interest is hereunderof ofvariousgroups music; such comparison is the comparison which musical groups among relationships takenwiththe aim of discovering Of Africa. the same generalsourcein are knownto have been derivedfrom .Since itself ofanalysis ofthemethod is thetesting however, equal importance, to difficult as it is been have undertaken, yet very few such comparisons are music of two between or similarities differences groups know whether and differences musical structural reflect accidentalor whether theyactually whichare made withbothgeneral In the following similarities. comparisons,

in Trinidad Songs of a Rada Community

167

is usedas something ofDahomey ofa "baseline" themusic purposesin mind, and the Ggecultgroup for comparison withthe Rada groupof Trinidad are derived 13.If themethod from of Bahia, Brazil,bothofwhich Dahomey bothretains its basic characis reliable, and if indeed, musicalstructure to African culture from African culture anddiffers teristicsin a newsituation to be validseemclearly in some respects at least- and bothpostulates to similarities then the musicof Rada and Ggeshouldshowconsiderable a closer check In order to provide on method, each otherand to Dahomey. the with in wherever used been have two control possible comparison groups of the music is the first The music. Dahomean and Dahomean-derived To in the UnitedStates. the and Wyoming Cheyenne Indiansof Montana and AfricanAfrican from different is strikingly ear, the musicofthisgroup in analysis. reflected be clearly should derived music,and thesedifferences but is cult Bahian African-derived, The secondcontrol Ketu,another group, In theYorubapeopleofsouth-western in this case from Nigeria. hypothesis : the comparisons from to we should expectthe following emerge points involved all other from ; differ should music groups markedly 1) Cheyenne also should both and in similar be fairly structure, 2) Gge and Rada should bothfrom differ should ofDahomey be similarto themusic ; 3) Ketumusic theCheyenne theGgeand Rada),andfrom the Dahomeangroup (including than Dahomean to the affinities closer show should it group group ; however, it does to the Cheyenne14. is of tonal rangesof the variousgroups In Fig. 1 the distribution heavier songsshowa distinctly considered. In this aspect,the Cheyenne do Although than wide groups. in the any of theother distribution ranges in the used than are and Rada ranges larger any some of the Dahomean a show latter the range morethan70 % of the songsof Cheyennegroup, off marked thus are The semitones. more songs or Cheyenne of seventeen The Ketudistriand African-derived theAfrican groups. from rathersharply off semitones, a peakoftwelve sloping in distribution around bution centers ; its totaldistriequal curves on eitherside of thispeak in approximately In the Dahomeansongsthe semitones. nine to seventeen bution is from of ranges withthe majority lies at twelvesemitones peak of distribution at centers tonal The Gge approxirange semitones. fromtwelveto nineteen
13 Carr, op. cit.; Melville J. and Frances S. Herskovits, The Negroesoi 1943), pp. 263-79. Brazil, Yale Review, 32 (Winter, 14 The characteristics of the musicof Dahomeyare tauen iromm. iyui^ivi, ; forGge and Ketu University) Die Musik Westafrikas, (Unpub.MS, Northwestern P. Merriam,Notes Alan from for cit. of ; Cheyenne from Merriam, Songs ..., op. Society,3 (Fall, 1950), Musicological on Cheyenne Songs, Journalof the American Indian of and 289-90, and Alan P. Merriam,A Transcription Analysis Cheyenne music Bush with made be Negro Further may comparisons Music '(UnpublishedMS). Music,op. cit.; withotherBraziliancult musicin Melville in Kolinski, Suriname Revista de Culto Afrobahiana, J Herskovits and Richard A. Waterman, Msica in music Waterman, Haitian with 65-127 ; de Estdios Musicales,1 (Dec, 1949), ; with Bashi flutesongs of easternCongo African Patterns ..., op. cit., pp. 153-59 in Merriam, The Bashi Mulizi ..., op. cit.

68

Alan P. Merriam

51.iu5g Authropos

Fig.1 15 Tonal Range3

Dahomey Range in semitones
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

Gge

Rada

Ketu

Cheyenne

2 3 4 2 4 4 2 23 .5 8 13 6 15 .5 10 2 .5 1.5 .5 .5 .5

4 4

20

3 6 6 16 3 16 6 3 26 6 3 3

20 10 20 20 10

14 10 4 21 7 10 7 13 7

9 18

27 9 27

over direction withthe distribution shadingin either mately14-15semitones seventeen at The Rada groupcenters semitones. a rangeof nine to nineteen semitones. twelveto seventeen from distribution withthe heaviest semitones Dahomean the set are which clearly apart, theCheyenne songs Thus,excluding but the Ketu is more and Ketu songshave the same centerof distribution but is at seventeen in the lowerranges.The Rada center heavilydistributed as same is in a largerrange than the Ketu, is about the its distribution Ketu and Gge seem to Gge. In summary, similar Dahomey,and somewhat close, and Rada and Gge close here,Rada and Dahomey also fairly fairly less closelysimilar. . are compared.Again In Fig. 2 various elementsof melodicdirection which,on the basis groupis the Cheyenne the most sharplydifferentiated withAfrican be Confused almostnever could apparently ofmelodicdirection, distinguished, clearly music.The Ketu groupis also fairly or African-derived Dahomeanand Dahomean the of the below or range fallingeitherabove
15 Numbers in Figs. 1-3 and 6-7 referto percentagesof songs using the particular total song group are characteristiccited. In Figs. 4-5 percentages of intervals in the expressed.

in Trinidad Songs of a Rada Community

169

Fig.2 Melodic direction

Dahomey Range of a fourthor less 30 % between beginningand lowest tones Range of at least an octave betweenbeginning 33% and lowest tones Beginning tone equal to ^ highest tone Ending tone equal to low- ^ est tone Ending tone is below in- Ug itial tone tone is above inEnding . . , , Gge 10 % 30% y Rada Ketu Cheyenne 0% yi % ^

3% 58% 2

37 % 24% ^ 5 24 %

g4
U 0, /O 0, /

66 _ 0,
' -0

10()
U 0/ ,0

itial tone

theCheyenne from andconsistently butstilldiffering derived clearly groups, marked. arenotsharply thedifferences Forthethree groups remaining songs. to seem Dahomean and Rada the go together groups In somecharacteristics 16as opposed between others in to ; (ranges Gge H) equals example, (for On bothGgeand Dahomey. from and L), theRada songsare separated in two characteristics the other hand,Rada and Gge are close together Fig.3 Patterns of intervals
Dahomey Half tones not used Fourths rf Fourths fr Pendular fourths Linear fourths Interlocked fourths Three or more pendular thirds Split major triad Split minor triad Linear thirds Interlocked thirds Repetitive monotone 84 % 52% 45 % 29 % 12 % 4% ^ 40 % 33 % 16 % 0% 71 % Gge 80 % 0% 20 % 0% 0% 20 % 2Q % 70 % 50 % 10 % 0% 70 % Rada 64. % 6% 13 % 3% 3% 10 % 55 % 55 % 48 % 13 % 3% 30 % Ketu ? 20% 27 % 3% 3% 20 % %% 45 % 31 % 0% 0% 45 % Cheyenne 54.5 % 36% 9% 9% 0% 0% () % 27 % 18 % 0% 0% 91 %

16 Abbreviations used : - beginning tone ; - ending tone ; - highest tone ; L - lowest tone.

170

Alan P. Merriam

51.1956 Authropos

and Ketu stand apart ( equals L, E is above L). Thus whilethe Cheyenne from other both each from the three and here, remaining groups,no clear can be drawn among the Dahomean, Gge and Rada groups distinctions ; are thesethreelattergroupsmarkedly at the same timeneither homogeneous among themselves. the Cheyenne of the usage of specific interval In comparisons patterns, fromthe othergroupsin most characgroupis again clearlydifferentiated teristics. In thiscase, the Dahomeangroupalso seemsclearlyto standapart, separate lyingalmostalways at one end or the otherof the scale, although fromCheyenne.Thus the three New World Negro groups tend to cling or theAmerican in comparison theAfrican to either closely together relatively Indian. Amongthese threeNew World groups,Ketu stands at one end or half the characteristics scale in approximately anotherof the comparative the scale. With some of middle it lies at about the listed; in the otherhalf here. the Gge and Rada groups seem to be closest together exceptions, Fig. 4 Interval usage
Dahomey Ascending Minor second Major second Minor third Major third Perfect fourth Perfect fifth Octave Gge Rada Ketu Cheyenne

34.2 % 35.7 % 11.9 % 11 %

25 % 42.5 % 13 % 10.5 % 4.2 %

39 % 21 % 12 % 21 %

26 % 22 % 5% 21 % 10 % ?% 6% 36 % 30 % 12 % 13 %

Descending

Minor second Major second Minor third Major third Perfect fourth Perfect fifth Octave

Jf
^ $ 0 $ | o 29.2 % 35.4 % 13.8 % 15.6 % .

1.5% 25.5 % 37 % 15.3 % 15.3 % 3.6 %

39 % 22 % 14.5 % 20 %

Total . Minor second Major second Minor third Major third Perfect fourth Perfect fifth Octave

31.5 % 35.5 % 12.3 % 13.5 % 4.4 %

25.3 % 39.6 % 14.3 % 14.3 % 3.9 %

1-3 % 39 % 22 % 13.5 % 21 % 2.3 %

33 % 28 % 10 % 15 % 5%

A recentstudyin whichstatisticalmethodswere applied to interval structural thatthisparticular usagein Ketu and Rada songshas shownclearly

in Trinidad Songsof a Rada Community

171

in differentiating is of consi ble importance characteristic 17. song groups It was foundthat on th asis of intervalusage alone the Ketu and Rada in 91 cases out sample could be distinguished songs in a randomunknown of 100, a reasonably ; thus in this particular high degreeof differentiation at least, it is knownthat a differentiating factoris present. characteristic, the are In the present comparison Cheyenne songs again fairly sharply all others involved.In thiscase, so also is Ketu, especially from differentiated use of major secondsas the most frequently in the predominant employed but the two are clearlydifferent. here Ketu interval ; agreeswithCheyenne, In the use of the minorthirdas the predominant interval, Gge and Rada used theyare of the variousintervals agree,and in the relativeimportance The Rada songs,however,exaggeratethe use in almo.stexact agreement. the use of the major secondmorethan of the minorthirdand deemphasize the Gge. However,Gge and Rada stand closelyrelatedhere. Fig. 5 Other interval usage
Dahomey Narrow intervals Medium intervals Wide intervals intervals Total descending Total ascending intervals s $ g> g| | j Gge 67.2 % 12.3 % 20.5 % 55 % 45 % Rada 66.1 % 14.3 % 19.6 % 53.7 % 46.3 % Ketu 62.3 % 13.5 % 24.2 % 58.5 % 41.5 % Cheyenne 65 % 10 % 25 % 66 % 34 %

of otherintervalusage, Cheyennemusic stands fairly In comparison scale in fourof the five clearlyat one or the otherend of the comparative but can listed.The Ketu sampleshowsthe same distribution, characteristics are Rada and Here the from again, Gge still be differentiated Cheyenne. and show a distinctrelationship. close together Fig. 6 Modal usage
Dahomey Penta Hexa Hepta Tri & Tetra 42 % 33% 20% 5% Gge 100 % Rada 71 % 13% 16% Ketu 68 % 25% 7% Cheyenne 45 % 18% 36%

17 LiNTONC. Freeman and Alan F. Merriam, btatisticaluiassincationm Aninroin AmericanAnthropologist) m (Forthcoming pology : An Applicationto Ethnomusicology,

172

ALAN P. MeRRIAM

51. 1956 Anthropos

the comparison In modal usage, nothing from definite ; sharp emerges are not evident. Rada and Ketu are distinctions probablyclosesttogether is not close. but even here the relationship in this particular characteristic, Fig. 7 Other characteristics
Dahomey Uses Leader-Chorus Tonal range Meter Overlapping ST equals DT . Increasein tempo : Formalstructure AA'A" etc. Gge Rada Ketu Cheyenne

100 % ? 100 % 80 % wide 80 % wide 84% wide 4/443 % 4/450 % 4/442 % Present Present Present ? 30 % 70 % 35 % ? 80 % 81 % ? 70 %

0% 100 % 65 % wide 100%wide 6/450 % Variable Present Absent ? 62 % 0% . 59 % Variable 45 %

are compared ; in thosecharacterIn Fig. 7, variousodd characteristics is available the Cheyennesongs again stand istics for which information the others.Close correlations amongDahomey,Gge and clearlyapart from shared Rada are foundin tonal range,meter, (thischaracteristic overlapping of the the and In tempo, structure. relationship with Ketu), and in formal a Where subjectivetonic and durationtones thereis no basic correlation. and African-derived itis amongtheAfrican groups. doesexist, then, correlation it is advanced earlier, to the hypotheses 3. Conclusion. In reference African the from apart ofall clearthattheCheyenne first songsstanddistinctly all characin nearly distinct is differentiation this and African-derived groups; are the marked hypotheses also borne In a less clearly teristics. way, remaining the Dahomeanand apart from out. The Ketu songsseemto standsomewhat than the African with Dahomean-derived songs,but show closeraffiliation similar with the AmericanIndian groups.Gge and Rada songs are quite to Dahomeydo not seemto be as clearly similarities to each other, although in all thereare exceptions markedas mightpossiblybe expected.Although to hereserves,first, distinguish analysisemployed cases, then,the structural and second,to dismusical between groupings, .and sharply major clearly betweenrelatedvarietiesof a single less clearlybut recognizably tinguish somemajorproblems however, stock.In thepresent comparison, majormusical Whileanalysisof the musicof Dahomeyhas and variablesremainunsettled. withthe been carriedout, no analagousworkhas been done in connection there thus derived are ; Ketu the which songs music of the Yoruba from from differ should Ketu Gge markedly at least, as to whether is a question, Dahomean whether knownthrough analysis or Rada, sinceit is not at present at least, in structure. Analysisconceivably, and Yoruba musicare divergent the of size the in differences the samplings. of in view could be misleading

Songs of a Rada Communityin Trinidad

173

It is possible that variationwithinthe musicof various areas of Dahomey the Dahomean-derived ; thusGge songsmight groups mightaffect represent one area, whileRada represents musicsung by personsfrom songssung by personsfromanotherarea of Dahomey. What this serves to emphasizeis the lack of analyticalmaterialboth of New WorldNegromusicand perhaps from whencethe New World especiallyof that of the Guinea Coast of Africa materialis, in most part, derived.Veryfewreal analyticalstudiesexist for as and relationship, of derivation eitherarea, and beforethe basic problems numberof further well as those of method,can be attacked,a considerable studies must be made. In this respect,the analysis by similarstructural methodof a singleotherbody of New Worldor African Negromusiccould the present thus results reached here the at ; least, study change conceivably, which further from a as serve to is intended analysis point beginning only and comparison may be made.
Note on the transcriptions : in abbreviated form.Thus the with pertinentinformation headed Each song is that the song is number1 indicates : : 1 first 20d:120", for the Elegba song, "Song legend of the collection,that it is sung forthe god Elegba, that the originalpitch was 20 semitones lower (20u would indicate the originalpitch to be 20 semitoneshigher),and that the tempo is 120 beats per minute. The basis forthe tempo figureis the quarter note ; the songs are notated in that key in which the majorityof notes falls withinthe limits of the regular stafflines. The zigzag line in Song 13 indicates that a portion of the song has here been omitted because of considerationsof space.

Songl:

Elegba: 20d: 120

' - f--iI'll^ :: iliiri -"- 1=3=<c* etc. ' '

-'i i"-Hu

' -/ ' If I-

174

ALAN P.

MeRRIAM

51. 105G Airfhropos

Song 10: Bo Zuon Sagbata: 2d: 132-144

f*

Leader

^^

e.tc.

I ifJir.^.H^,!,
l^^ - j

'L|,

" , '.
-

' irj U-n' irj Juif i: i^pi'ju^rV

variation with sametheme Chorusrepeats

Song13: AHtheSaints:2d: 144

if"

Leader ^ *m j. Chorus

,,,,,
*

.,

niMM
,

'=

W
. _ '" ___ : ** uz w

t? zzzzi

Ml

1' ^v*j'v

"" .U