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MLE1101

AY12/13 Semester 2

Tutorial 1-6 Detailed Tutorial Solutions
Written by: Ms Kong Hui Zi :3

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2/4/2013
1
2
1 2
net 2 1
0
4
n
Z Z e nb
F
a a tc
+
=
Chap.2AtomicStructureandBonding
1. AtomicNumber=NumberofProton,Isotope
2. #ofMole(mol)=Mass(g)/AtomicMass(g/mol),1mol=6.023x10
23
atoms
3. AE=hc / ,E(forHatom)= 13.6eV /n
2
AE= 13.6eV /n1
2
+13.6eV /n2
2
4. PeriodicTable:e+ve :Cation,eve :Anion,Noble:s
2
p
6
,EN|
5. e

Config.:n,l ,m
l
,m
s
1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
6
4s
2
3d
10
4p
6
6. IonicBond:Chargetransferofe

,cation &anion
7. CovalentBond:Shareofe

,noble,smallAEN
8. MetallicBond:e

seanondirtmin.Eata
o
9. PermanentDipole:weakintermolecularbondbtwpermanentdipoles
10. FluctuatingDipole:weakasymmetricalchargeschangeswtime
1
+101
F
2
O
2
N
2
,sp
3
,
Na3s
1
Cl 3s
2
3p
5
electricneutralitydependsona
highlatticeenergy&mp,dec ifsizeinc
( )
2 1
% 1 exp 100
4
A B
ionic character X X
(
= `
(
)
#val.e

| BondE.m.p.covalent|
atomicsize| dipolemomentm.p.b.p.| btwnoblegaspolymersw/oHbond
Atom=Nucleus(Proton+Neutron)+Electrons
at% wt%Relativeatomicmass=massof1moleofatoms
5s
2
4d
10
5p
6
6s
2
4f
14
5d
10
6p
6
7s
2
5f
14
6d
10
7p
6
2n
2
0to7
0to(n1),spdf
l to+ l ,(2 l +1)
+,
Metalgivee NaNa
+
Nonmetalaccepte ClCl

NeAr KrXe Rn
Dipolemoment =qd +ve &ve chargectr CH
3
Cl
HbondingbtwpolarcovalentH
2
Omolecules
Whatisthemass ingramsofoneatomofmolybdenum?
Tutorial1Question1(AtomStructure):

= =

22
23
95.94g/mol
1 (1atom) 1.59 10 g
6.023 10 atoms/mol
Mass of Mo atom
Chapter2AtomicStructureandBonding:
Atom=Nucleus(Proton+Neutron)+Electrons
AtomicNumber=NumberofProtons(=NumberofElectrons)
RelativeAtomicMass=
Mass(g)of1mole(Avogadrosnumber=6.023x10
23
)ofatoms
PeriodicTable:Atomicnumber&RelativeAtomicMass(Qn.1)
Determine:wt% numberofmoles at%(LNe.g.p5,Qn.3)
2
=
Re
Massof1atom
'
lative Atomic Mass
Avogadro s Number
Whatisthechemicalformulaofanintermetallic compoundthat
consistsof49.18wt%Cuand50.82wt%Au?
Tutorial1Question3(ElectronicConfig.):
49.18g
. 0.774mol
63.55g/mol
No of moles of Cu = =
50.82g
. 0.258mol
197g/mol
No of moles of Au = =
. 0.774 0.258 1.032mol Total No of moles = + =
0.774mol
0.75
1.032mol
Mole fraction of Cu = =
0.258mol
0.25
1.032mol
Mole fraction of Au = =
Cu:Au=0.75:0.25=0.75x4 :0.25x4 =3:1 Cu
3
Au
3
[ref.:LNChap2p.5]
For100gofthiscpd,
Tutorial1Question3(ElectronicConfig.):
1
197g/mol 49.25
4
mass of Au mol g = =
49.25 47.66 96.91 Total mass g = + =
4
Cu
3
Au
( )
( )
Atomic mass (g/mol)
mass g
Number of Moles mol =
3
63.55g/mol 47.66
4
mass of Cu mol g = =
49.25
% 100% 50.82 %
96.91
g
wt of Au wt
g
= =
47.66
% 100% 49.18 %
96.91
g
wt of Cu wt
g
= =
Toworkbackwards,
2/4/2013
2
Determinetheelectronconfigurationsforasiliconatom(Z=14)
andagermaniumatom(Z=32).
Explainwhythesetwoelementsdisplaysimilar characteristics.
Tutorial1Question2(ElectronicConfig.):
e

configurationof Si(Z =14): 1s


2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
2
e

configurationofGe (Z=32): 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
6
4s
2
3d
10
4p
2
or1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
6
3d
10
4s
2
4p
2
Bothelementshaveavalenceelectronstructureoftheformxs
2
xp
2
wherex is3 forSiand4 forGe,
(bothbelongtoGp.4inPeriodictable)
soverysimilarcharacteristics.
5
1s
2s 2p
3s 3p 3d
4s 4p4d 4f
5s 5p5d 5f
6s 6p6d
7s 7p
1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
6
4s
2
3d
10
4p
6

36electrons
In a commercial xray generator, a stable metal such as copper
(Cu) or tungsten (W) is exposed to an intense beam of high
energy electrons. These electrons cause ionization events in the
metal atoms. When the metal atoms regain their ground state,
they emit xrays of characteristic energy and wavelength. For
example, a tungsten atom struck by a highenergy electron
may lose one of its K shell electrons. When this happens,
another electron, probably from the tungsten L shell will fall
into the vacant site in the K shell. If such a 2p1s transition
occurs in tungsten, a tungsten K

xray is emitted.
Tutorial1Question4(ElectronicConfig.):
[TBFig.2.2]
6
( )( )
( )
34 8
15
9
6.63 10 J s 3 10 m/s
9.30 10 J
1m
0.02138nm
10 nm
hc
E


A = = =
| |
|
\ .
AtungstenK

xrayhasawavelengthof0.02138nm.
Whatisitsenergy?Whatisitsfrequency?
Tutorial1Question4(Contd):
( )
( )
u


= = =
| |
|
\ .
8
19
9
3.00 10 m/ s
1.40 10 Hz
1m
0.02138nm
10 nm
c
7
[LNChap2p.6]
Tutorial1Question5(ElectronicConfig.):
Describetheelectrontransferprocessthatoccursinthe
formationoftheioniccompoundLi
2
O.
Electropositive :Li:1s
2
2s
1
1e

Li
+
:1s
2
Electronegative: O:1s
2
2s
2
2p
4
+2e

O
2
:1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
Li
+
+Li
+
+O
2
Li
2
O
8
Li
+
Li
+
O
2
Li Li O
+
+ +
+ +
[c.f.TBFig.2.10forNaCl]
+ + +
[LN:Noble gas:s
2
p
6
,Metals:1s #ofvalencee

s3,Electronegativity:| ]
2/4/2013
3
Tutorial1Question6(IonicBonding):
IftheattractiveforcebetweenapairofSr
2+
andO
2
ionsis1.29x
10
8
NandtheionicradiusoftheO
2
ionis0.132nm,calculatethe
ionicradiusoftheSr
2+
ion innanometers.
2
1 2
net attractive repulsive 2 1
0
4
n
Z Z e nb
F F F
a a tc
+
= + =
( )( )( )
( ) ( )( )
tc
t

= =

= =
2
19
2
1 2
0
12 2 2 8
0 attractive
10
2 2 1.6 10 C
4
4 8.85 10 C / N m 1.29 10 N
2.672 10 m 0.2672nm
Z Z e
a
F
= + = = =
0 0
0.2672nm 0.132nm 0.135nm a r R r a R
9
c
o
=Permeabilityoffreespace,b&nareconstants
[LNChap2p.2223]
Tutorial1Question7(CovalentBonding):
Useschematicdiagramstodepictthecovalentbondingarrangement
ineachofthefollowingmaterials:
(b)C
2
H
6
(ethane)
(c)C
2
H
3
Cl(VinylChloride) (d)Si(diamondstructure)
#ofcovalentbonds: # ofvalenceelectrons(sharetoreachs
2
p
6
)
No.ofvalenceelectrons:H:1 O:6 C:4 Cl:7 Si:4
Si
Si
Si
Si Si Si Si Si
Si
Si
10
c.f.C
2
HCl
3
(Chloroform)
(a)H
2
O
8
O:1s
2
2s
2
2p
4 6
C:2s
2
2p
2 17
Cl:1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
5
14
Si:1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
2
(LewisDiagram)
Usetheconceptofsecondarybondstrengthtopredictwhichmemberofeachpairof
materialsbelowhasahigher meltingtemp.
Matls Typeof 2
o
bond Size Ans: m.p. (
o
C)
(a)
C
2
H
4
WeakVan der Waals Similar Lower 169C
C
2
H
2
F
2
Permanentdipolefrom
highly electrove F(EN=4.1)
Similar Higher 144or
165C
(b)
H
2
O
Permanentdipolew more
electrove O(EN=3.5)
+HBonding
Similar Higher 0C
H
2
S
Permanentdipolewith
electrove S(EN=2.4)
Similar Lower 85.5C
(c)
C
3
H
8
organicmolecules
composedofcarbonand
hydrogen V.d.W. only
Smaller (orshorter)
molecule
Lower 189.7C
C
12
H
26
organicmolecules
composedofcarbonand
hydrogen V.d.W. only
Largermolecule
canformalarger
numberofdipoles
Higher 9.6C
11
Tutorial1Question9(SecondaryBonds):
12
SecondaryBonding
Aspecialcase:hydrogenbonding
(a) It occurs between molecules in which hydrogen is covalently bonded to fluorine
(F), oxygen (O) and nitrogen (N).
(b) For each HF, HO and HN bond, the single hydrogen electron is shared with the
other atom. Thus, the hydrogen end of the bond is essentially a positively charged
bare proton, which is capable of a strong attractive force with the negative end of an
adjacent molecule.
H Cl H Cl
secondary
bonding
Fluctuating
dipole
Polymer
Permanent
dipole
Covalent vander Waals
+ +
Chap.3Cyrstal Structure
1. CrystalStructure,SpaceLattice,UnitCell,Amorphous
2. 14Bravais Lattices:Cubic,Tetragonal,Orthorhombic,Rhombohedral,Hexagonal,Monoclinic,Triclinic
3.
4. AtomicPackingFactor Interplanar spacing
5. AtomsPositions
6. CrystallographicDirtn:Start&End,End start(orwalk),Integer,Sqr Bracket
7. MillerIndices:Origin,Intercept,Inverse,Integer,Bracket,(hkl)(hki l)
8. VolumeDensity(g/cm
3
),PlanarDensity(Ctr),LinearAtomicDensity(Dia.)
9. PolymorphismorAllotropy
10. XRayDiffraction:
1
2 2 2
hkl
a d h k l = + +
( )

u = + +
2
2 2 2 2
2
sin
4
h k l
a
u =2 sin
hkl
d
u
u

2
2
0.5 BCC
sin
0.75 FCC
sin
A
B
t
3
3
4
3
n r
a A A
A
A
A
A
A
B
B B
C
C C
Stacking:ABABvs ABCABC
BCC 2atoms
CN=8
0.68
FCC 4atoms
CN=12
0.74
HCP 6atoms
CN=12
0.74
4 3 = R a
4 2 = R a 2 1.633 = =
c
R a
a
Massu.c./Volumeu.c.
Equiv.#ofatomctr intersected
SelectedArea
Equiv.#ofatomicdiameterintersected
SelectedLength
Integer#ofwavelength BCC:h+k+l =even,FCC:(h,k,l)allevenorallodd
(111),(200)
(110),(200)
HCP(0001)FCC(111)
2/18/2013
1
Thed
130
interplanar spacinginaBCCelementis0.1587nm.
(a) Whatisitslatticeconstanta?
(b) Whatistheatomicradiusoftheelement?
(c) Whatcouldthiselement be?
Tutorial2Question5:
( )
2 2 2 2 2 2
0.1587 1 3 0 0.502
hkl
a d h k l nm = + + = + + =
(a)
( ) 3 0.502 3
4 3 0.2174
4 4
nm a
R a R nm = = = =
(b)
(c) Lattice
Constant
Crystal
structure
Atomic
radius
Qn 5Ans: 0.502 BCC 0.2174
Barium,Ba 0.5019 BCC 0.217
Lead,Pb 0.49502 FCC 0.175
Potassium, K 0.5344 BCC 0.238
Silicon,Si 0.54282 Diamond 0.117
1
Question8:
ThelatticeconstantforBCCtantalumat20Cis0.33026nmanditsdensityis
16.6g/cm
3
.Calculateavalueforitsatomicmass.
( )
3
o
Atomic mass
number of atoms
N m
V a

| |
|
\ .
= =
( )
( ) ( )
3
7 23
2
16.6
0.33026 10 6.023 10
Atomic mass

=

180.08 / Atomic mass g mol =
2
1
8 1 2
8
= + = Number of atoms
a
a
a
1
8
Calculatetheplanaratomicdensityinatomspersquaremillimetreforthe
(111)crystalplaneinFCCgold,whichhasalatticeconstantof0.40788nm.
1 1
sin
2 2
Area of Triangle bh ab u = =
( )( )
2
1 3
2 2 sin60
2 2
o
Area of a a a A = =
1 1
3 3 2
2 6
Number of atoms = + =
( )
( )
2
6
13 2
2 2
3 0.40788 10
1.39 10 /
Number of Atoms
Planar Density
Area
mm
atoms mm

= =

=
3
a
a
(111)
Question9:
1
6
1
2
1
4
1atomicdiameter
4
1
2 1
2
Number of atoms = =
7
6
1
4.3 10
2.33 10 /
Number of Atoms
Linear Density
Length
atoms mm

= =

=
( )
2 2
6
7
2
2 0.3039 10
4.3 10
Face diagonal a a a
mm
mm

= + =
=
=
a
a
Calculate the linear atomic density in atoms per millimetre for the [1 10]
direction in BCC vanadium, which has a lattice constant of 0.3039nm.
1
2
atomicdiameter
| | 110
x
y
z
Draw[110]inBCCunitcell
Question10:
2/18/2013
2
5
Cubicstructure
XRD
2u
A
2u
B
XRDpattern
0.75
0.5
=
3
4
=
2
4
( )

u = + +
2
2 2 2 2
2
sin
4
h k l
a
= + +
2 2 2
hkl
a d h k l
u =2 sin
hkl
d
6
u
u
= =
2
2
sin 0.1092
0.5002 BCC
0.2183 sin
A
B
No. 2u u sinu sin
2
u
1 38.60
o
19.30
o
0.3305 0.1092
2 55.71
o
27.86
o
0.4672 0.2183
Anxraydiffractometer (Wavelengthoftheincomingradiation=0.15405nm)
recorderchartforanelementthathaseithertheBCCortheFCCcrystalstructure
showeddiffractionpeaksatthefollowing2angles:
38.60,55.71,69.70,82.55,95.00and107.67.
(a)Determinethecrystalstructureoftheelement.
(b)Determinethelatticeconstantoftheelement.
(c)Identifytheelement.
Question11(Contd):
(a)
( )

u
= + + = + + =
2 2 2 2 2 2
0.15405
1 1 0 0.3296
2sin
2sin 19.3
o
nm
a h k l nm
(b)
( )

u = + +
2
2 2 2 2
2
sin
4
h k l
a
7
Anxraydiffractometer (Wavelengthoftheincomingradiation=0.15405nm)
recorderchartforanelementthathaseithertheBCCortheFCCcrystalstructure
showeddiffractionpeaksatthefollowing2angles:
38.60,55.71,69.70,82.55,95.00and107.67.
(a)Determinethecrystalstructureoftheelement.
(b)Determinethelatticeconstantoftheelement.
(c)Identifytheelement.
Question11(Contd):
Lattice Constant(nm) Crystalstructure
Qn 11Ans: 0.3296 BCC
Magnesium, Mg 0.32094 HCP
Niobium,Nb 0.33007 BCC
Tantalum,Ta 0.33026 BCC
Zirconium,Zr 0.32312 HCP
(0.30to0.34)
(c)
1. Start&End
2. End start
(orwalk)
3. Integer
4. Sqr Bracket
8
y
x
z
(0,0,1)
Coordinates:(x,y,z)
(0,1,0)
(1,0,0)
(0,0,0)
x
x, y, z
(0,1,0)
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3
Drawdirectionvectorsinunitcubesforthefollowingcubicdirections:
9
Question1:
(

111
(

113
(

121
(

110 (a) (b) (c) (d)
y
x
z
(0,0,1)
(0,1,0) (0,0,0)
x
(b)
1. Start&Endpositions:
2. End start(orwalk):
3. Integer:
4. Sqr Bracket:
( ) ( ) ( ) 1, 1,0 0,0,0 1, 1, 0 =
1 1 0
(

1 1 0
(

1 1 0 (

1 1 0 (

x
x
( ) ( ) ( ) 1,0,0 0,1,0 1, 1, 0 =
x
Drawdirectionvectorsinunitcubesforthefollowingcubicdirections:
10
Question1(Contd):
(

111
(a) (

110
(b)
(

113
(d) (

121
(c)
y
x
z
1 1 3
3 3 3
( ) 1, 1, 0
11
Question2:
Whataretheindicesofthedirectionsshownintheunitcube:
(e)
1. Start&Endpositions:
2. End start(orwalk):
3. Integer:
4. Sqr Bracket:
(1,1,0)
1
,0,1
4
| |
|
\ .
1
,0,1
4
| |
|
\ .
( )
1 3
,0,1 1,1,0 , 1, 1
4 4
| | | |
=
| |
\ . \ .
( )
3
4, 1 4, 1 4 3, 4, 4
4
| |
=
|
\ .
(1,1,0)
3 4 4
(

12
Question2(Contd):
Whataretheindicesofthedirectionsshownintheunitcube:
(g)
1. Start&Endpositions:
2. End start(orwalk):
3. Integer:
4. Sqr Bracket:
1
1,0,
4
| |
|
\ .
1 1 1
1,0, 0,1, 1, 1,
4 2 4
| | | | | |
=
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
( )
1
1 4, 1 4, 4 4, 4, 1
4
| |
=
|
\ .
4 4 1
(

1
0,1,
2
| |
|
\ .
1
1,0,
4
| |
|
\ .
1
0,1,
2
| |
|
\ .
2/18/2013
4
13
Question2(Contd):
Whataretheindicesofthedirectionsshownintheunitcubebelow:
Subtractingorigincoordinates
fromemergencecoordinates
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
x y z
Origin: 1 1 1
Intercept: 1 1
Inverse: 1 1 0
Integer: 1 1 0
Bracket:
14
1. Origin
2. Intercept
3. Inverse
4. Integer
5. Bracket
y
x
z
(0,1,0)
(1,0,0)
(0,0,0)
x
x y z
Origin: 0 0 0
Intercept: 1 1
Inverse: 1 1 0
Integer: 1 1 0
Bracket: ( ) 1 1 0
(1,1,1)
x
( )
1 1 0
{ } h k
Family
| | h k
( ) h k

Forcubic,
15
Question3:
(a)
1. Origin
2. Intercept
3. Inverse
4. Integer
5. Bracket
x y z
Origin: 1 0 1
Intercept: 1
Inverse: 1 0 3
Integer: 1 0 3
Bracket:
( )
1 0 3
y
x
z
x
1
3

(1,0,1)
WhataretheMillerindicesofthecubiccrystallographicplanesshownbelow:
16
Question3(Contd):
WhataretheMillerindicesofthecubic
crystallographicplanesshownbelow:
(0,0,0) x y
x
z
( )
( )
= +
= + =

= + = =
| |
= + = = =
|
\ .
1 1
0
4 4
2 1 8 3 5
1
3 4 12 12
5 1 1 12 3
0
12 4 4 5 5
y ax b
a b b
a a
y x x
(c) x y z
Origin: 0 0 0
Intercept:
Inverse: X 3 4 X 3 0 X 3
Integer: 5 12 0
Bracket:
( )
5 12 0
1
4
3
5

5
3

2/18/2013
5
17
Question3(Contd):
x
x
(0,0,0)
Top
view
x x y
x
z
( )
( )
= +
= + =
+
= = =
| |
= = = =
|
\ .
3 3
0
4 4
1 3 4 9 5
1
3 4 12 12
5 3 3 12 9
0
12 4 4 5 5
y ax b
a b b
a a
y x x
(c) x y z
Origin: 0 1 0
Intercept:
Inverse: X 9 X 9 0 X 9
Integer: 5 12 0
Bracket:
( )
5 12 0
3
4

4
3

9
5
5
9
(0,1,0)
18
Question3(Contd):
(b) x y z
Origin: 0 1 1
Intercept: 1 1
Inverse: 1X2 1X2 X2
Integer: 2 2 3
Bracket: ( )
2 2 3
y
x
z
x
2
3

(0,1,1)
(0,1,0)
x
x
y
WhataretheMillerindicesofthecubic
crystallographicplanesshownbelow:
3
2

(d) x y z
Origin: 0 1 0
Intercept: 1 1
Inverse: 1 1 2
Integer: 1 1 2
Bracket:
( )
1 1 2
1
2
19
(a)
Question4:
y
x
z
DrawinunitcubesthecrystalplanesthathavethefollowingMillerindices:
( )
111
( )
213
( )
121
( )
102 (a) (b) (c) (d)
(a) x y z
Origin: 0 1 1
Intercept:
Inverse: 1 1 1
Integer:
Bracket:
( )
1 1 1
x
(0,1,1)
y
x
z
x
x
x
x
Originat
20
(b)
Question4(Contd):
y
x
z
DrawinunitcubesthecrystalplanesthathavethefollowingMillerindices:
( )
111
( )
213
( )
121
( )
102 (a) (b) (c) (d)
(b) x y z
Origin: 0 0 1
Intercept:
Inverse: 1
Integer:
Bracket:
( )
1 0 2
(0,0,1)
y
x
z
x
x
x x
x
x
1
2

1
2

Originat
2/18/2013
6
21
(c)
Question4:
Drawinunitcubesthecrystalplanesthathavethefollowing
Millerindices:
( )
111
( )
213
( )
121
( )
102 (a) (b) (c) (d)
(c) x y z
Origin: 0 1 1
Inverse: 1 1
Bracket:
( )
1 2 1
1
2

y
x
z
(0,1,1)
y
x
z
x
x
1
2

x
x
x
(d)
y
x
z
(0,0,1)
y
x
z
x
x
1
2 x
x
x
1
3

(d) x y z
Origin: 0 0 1
Inverse: 1
Bracket:
1
2
1
3

( )
2 1 3
Originat Originat
1. Origin
2. Intercept
a
1
,a
2
,a
3
,c
3. Inverse
4. Integer
5. Bracket
(hki l )
h+k=i
1
1
x
y
Intercept:
x=1
y=1
Intercept:
a
1
a
2
a
3
c
1 1
11
1
1
a
1
a
2
+a
3
a
3
22
1
23
x
x x
DrawthehexagonalcrystalplaneswhoseMillerBravais indicesare:
Question6:
( )
1 0 1 1
(a) (b) (c)
( )
0 1 1 1
( )
1 2 1 0
(a) a
1
a
2
a
3
c
Origin: 0 0 0 0
Intercept:
Inverse: 1 1 1
Integer:
Bracket:
c
a
1
a
2
a
3
a
3
( )
1 0 1 1
(b)
(c)
24
c
c
(b) a
1
a
2
a
3
c
Origin: 0 0 0 0
Intercept:
Inverse: 1 1 1
Integer:
Bracket:
( )
0 1 1 1
(c) a
1
a
2
a
3
c
Origin: 0 0 0 0
Intercept:
Inverse: 1 1
Integer:
Bracket:
( )
1 2 1 0
1
2
Question6(Contd):
Drawthehexagonalcrystalplaneswhose
MillerBravais indicesare:
2/18/2013
7
DetermineMillerBravais indicesofthehexagonalcrystalplanesinthefigues below:
25
Question7(Contd):
(b) a
1
a
2
a
3
c
Origin: 0 0 0 1
Intercept: 1 1 1
Inverse: 1 1 0 1
Integer: 1 1 0 1
Bracket:
( )
1 1 0 1
(b) a
1
a
2
a
3
c
Origin: 0 0 0 0
Intercept: 1 1 1
Inverse: 1 1 0 1
Integer: 1 1 0 1
Bracket:
( )
1 1 0 1
c
a
1
a
1
a
2
DetermineMillerBravais indicesofthehexagonalcrystalplanesinthefigues below:
26
c
Question7:
(c) a
1
a
2
a
3
c
Origin: 0 0 0 0
Intercept: 1 1 1
Inverse: 1 1 0 1
Integer: 1 1 0 1
Bracket:
( )
1 1 0 1
(a) a
1
a
2
a
3
c
Origin: 0 0 0 0
Intercept: 1 1
Inverse: 0 1 1 0
Integer: 0 1 1 0
Bracket:
( )
0 1 1 0
27 28
AreaofparallelogramAEDC=CDxBC
CD=a=2R
( )
0
3
cos 30 2 3
2 2
BC
BC = R R
R
= =
( )
2
3 2 3 6 3
c
V HCP x Rx Rxc R c = =
a
a
60
o
A
B
C
2
1 1
sin sin60
2 2
o
Area of ABC ab a u A = =
( )
2
2
1 3
2 3
2 2
R R = =
( )
2 2
6 3 6 3
c
V HCP x R xc R c = =
Equilateral
Triangle
VolumeofHCPunitcell:
Chap.4Solidification&Imperfections
1

=
1
2
n
N
=
L
C
d
n M
V
G
r
A
=
2
*
1. HomogeneousNucleation:
2. HeterogeneousNucleation:
3. Growth,GrainRefiner,GrainBoundaries(polycrystalline),
SingleCrystalCreepresistance
4. Substitutional solidsolution:Substi.Solvent,distort,
Solubility| ifAdia.<15%,=valence,~ EN&Crystal
5. Interstitialsolidsolution:fitinvoids,verysmall,CinFeharden
6. Vacancy,(self)interstitial,Schottky defect(cation +anionmissing),
Frenkel defects(cation interstitialsite)
7. Edgedislocation,Screwdislocation,
Burgersvectors,Dislocationline
8. Grainboundaries,Freesurface,Twinboundary,Tiltboundary,Stackingfaults
9. ASTMgrainsizenumbern
10. TEM(Transmission),SEM(Scanning),STM(ScanTunneling),AFM(AtomicForce)
ol.
urf.
grow redissolve
Electricalneutralityforioniccrystal
Preventdislocationmovement
WeakathighTsinglecrystal
S
L
Reactive
Nano matls
Displacedatomsstop
dislocationmovement
Alignededge
dislocation<10
o
ABCABABABCABC
#ofgrains
Inch
2
at100x
Ave.grain
diameter
n
L
:#ofgrains/length
C=1.5M:Magnification
OpticalM:Polished+etched,GBasgroovesdark
Nucleatingagentlowersfreeenergyrequiredforstablenucleus
r
vacancy
2
1. 2.
3.
4. Diffusionrate:solid<liquid<gas
5. Vacancy(substitutional)diffusion:solidsolubility,m.p.(bondstrength)| Q| ,
activationenergy=activ.energytoformvacancy+activ.energytomove( T)
6. Interstitialdiffusion:atomsfr 1interstitialsitetoanother,smallerthanmatrix
7. SteadyState:nochangeinconcentration
overtime,fluxJ
8. Diffusivity: vacancy<interstitial,ImperfectorT| D|
BCC>FCC,C| D+
9. NonSteadyState:Concentration
changeswtime
10. IndustrialApplications:(i)CaseHardening:Cintosteel,carburizing,surfaceharden
whileinteriormalleable,hardtodeform(lockplanes)+hardtocrack(compression).
(ii)ImpuritiesdiffuseintoSi:diffuseBintoSitomakeptypesemiconductor.
Chap.5Diffusion
C
x
3/11/2013
1
Calculate the number of atoms in a critically sized nucleus for the
homogeneous nucleation of pure iron. Assume AT (undercooling) = 0.2 T
m
.
Tutorial3Question1(Nucleation):
( )
( )( )
( )( )( )

= =
A A A

= =
*
7 2
10
3
2 2
0.2
2 204 10 J / cm 1808K
9.72 10 m
2098J / cm 0.2 1808K
m m
f f m
T T
r
H T H T
( )
3
3 10 27 3
4 4
vol.ofcriticalsizednucleus * 9.72 10 m 3.85 10 m
3 3
r x t t

= = =
For 1criticallysizednucleus,
LatentheatoffusionAH
f
=2098J/cm
3
,Surfaceenergy =20410
7
J/cm
2
,
MeltingtemperatureT
m
=1808K,latticeconstantBCCa=0.28664nm.
r*
3
Tutorial3Question1(Contd):
( )
3
3 9 29 3
vol.of1unitcellofFe 0.28664 10 m 2.355 10 m a

= = =

= =
29 3
29 3
Averagevolume/atom(includesspaceardatom)
2.355 10 m
1.178 10 m
2

= =

27 3
29 3
vol.ofnucleus 3.85 10 m
327atoms
Volume/atom 1.178 10 m
For1BCCFeunitcell,
NumberofAtoms
in1nucleus=
Calculate the number of atoms in a critically sized nucleus for the
homogeneous nucleation of pure iron. Assume AT (undercooling) = 0.2 T
m
.
LatentheatoffusionAH
f
=2098J/cm
3
,Surfaceenergy =20410
7
J/cm
2
,
MeltingtemperatureT
m
=1808K,latticeconstantBCCa=0.28664nm.
4
h
x
y
Calculate the radius of the largest interstitial void in the BCC o iron lattice. The
atomic radius of the iron atoms in this lattice is 0.124nm, and the largest
interstitial voids occur at etc., type positions.
Tutorial3Question2(Interstitial):
( )
1 1
4 2
, , 0
| | | |
= + =
| |
\ . \ .
2 2
2 2
5
4 2 16
a a
h a
h =R
Fe
+R
void
ForBCCstructure,
= = =
void Fe
0.160nm 0.124nm 0.036nm R h R
R
Fe
R
void
5
( )
= = = =
4 0.124nm 4
3 4 0.286nm
3 3
R
a R a
( ) = = =
2
2
5 5
0.286nm 0.160nm
16 16
h a
6
3/11/2013
2
[AdaptedfromMST5001LecturenotesChap2]
Interstitialsite inFCCunitcell(Extra)
7
Describe and illustrate the edge and screwtype dislocations.
What types of strain fields surround both types of dislocations?
Tutorial3Question3(Dislocation):
Line imperfection caused by an extra
half plane of atoms between two
normal planes of atoms.
Line imperfection created by applying
upward and downward shear stress
to regions of a perfect crystal
separated by a common plane.
EdgeDislocation ScrewDislocation
Tension
Compression
Shear
Dislocationline
Dislocationline
8
[AdaptedfromMST5001LecturenotesChap4]
9
Dislocations:BurgersCircuit(SF/RH)(Extra)
Edgedislocation
definesenseofDislocationline
closedcircuitbyRHrule
vectorfromStarttoFinish Burgersvector

T
[AdaptedfromMST5001LecturenotesChap4]
10
3/11/2013
3
If there are 400 grains per square inch on a photomicrograph of a ceramic
material at 200x, what is the ASTM grainsize number of the material?
Tutorial3Question4(Grainsize):
[LNChap4p36]
| |
= =
|
\ .
2
2 2
100
200
400grains/inch 1600grains/inch
100
x
x
N
x
( )( )

= = = = + =
1 1
2 1600 2 ln1600 1 ln2 10.64 1 11.64
n n
N n n
[TBCD:Tutorials Grain
size.htmlorTBExample4.5]
11
a) Calculatetheequilibriumconcentrationofvacanciespercubicmeterin
purecopperat850
o
C.Assumethattheenergyofformationofavacancy
inpurecopperis1.00eV,constantC =1.
b) Whatisthevacancyfractionat800
o
C?
Tutorial3Question5(Vacancy):
(AtomicmassofCu=
63.54g/mol;
DensityofCu=8.96g/cm
3
;
Avogadrosconstant=
6.02x10
23
atoms/mol;
Boltzmannsconstant=
8.62x10
5
eV/K)
( )( )

(
(
=
(
+

=
5
5
1eV
VacancyFraction= 1 exp
8.62 10 eV / K 800 273
2.02 10
v
n
N
K
(b)
12
a) Calculatetheequilibriumconcentrationofvacanciespercubicmeterin
purecopperat850
o
C.Assumethattheenergyofformationofavacancy
inpurecopperis1.00eV,constantC =1.
b) Whatisthevacancyfractionat800
o
C?
Tutorial3Question5(Contd):
(AtomicmassofCu=63.54g/mol;DensityofCu=8.96g/cm
3
;
Avogadrosconstant=6.02x10
23
atoms/mol;Boltzmannsconstant=8.62x10
5
eV/K)
( )

= = =

23
28 3
3
3
3
8.96 6.023 10 atoms /mol
8.49 10 /
. . 63.54g /mol
100
1
1
A
N g x
N x atoms m
A M
cm
cm
m
( )
( )( )

(
(
=
(
+

=
28 3
5
24 3
1eV
8.49 10 atoms /m exp
8.62 10 eV /K 850 273
2.77 10 vacancies / m
v
n
K
| | | |
= =
| |
\ . \ .
exp exp
v v v
v
n E E
C n NC
N kT kT
13
WriteequationforFicks firstlawofdiffusion,anddefineeachterminSIunits
Tutorial3Question6(Ficks law):
| |
| |
= =
| ` ` |
) \ . \ . )
2
2 3
atoms m atoms 1
InSIunitform,
s m m s m
dC
J D
dx
where
J =Flux,netflowofatoms
D =Diffusitivity, DiffusionCoefficient
=Concentrationgradient
dC
dx
[LNChap5p13to14]
Steadystatecondition
14
3/11/2013
4
Consider the gas carburizing of a gear of 1018 steel (0.18 wt%) at 927
o
C.
Calculate the time necessary to increase the carbon content to 0.35 wt% at
0.40 mm below the surface of the gear. Assume the carbon content at the
surface to be 1.15 wt%. D (C in iron) at 927
o
C = 1.28x10
11
m
2
/s.
| |
=
|

\ . 0
2
S X
S
C C x
erf
C C Dt
55.9017
0.8247 erf
t
| |
=
|
\ .
:
Co=0.18wt%
T=927
o
C
t=?
Cx =0.35wt%
x=0.4x10
3
m
Cs=1.15wt%
D=1.28x10
11
m
2
/s
( )( )

| |
|
=
|

|
\ .
3
11 2
1.15 0.35 0.4 10 m
1.15 0.18
2 1.28 10 m / s
x
erf
x t
Tutorial3Question7(Diffusion):
= = =
3400
3400sec 56.67mins
60
s
t
s
=
55.9017
0.9587
t
15
z erf (z)
0.95 0.8209
z 0.8247
1 0.8427
16

=

=
1 0.8427 0.8247
1 0.95 0.8427 0.8209
0.9587
z
z
z erf (z)
0.95 0.8209
z 0.8247
1 0.8427
17
The diffusivity of copper atoms in the aluminium lattice is 7.50x10
13
m
2
/s at
600
o
C and 2.50x10
15
m
2
/s at 400
o
C. Calculate the activation energy for this
case in this temperature range. Given R = 8.314 J/molK.
| |
=
|
\ .
0
exp
Q
D D
RT
( ) ( )

( | |

= ( |
|
+ +
(
\ .
13 2
15 2
7.5 10 / 1 1
exp
8.314 / 600 273 400 273 2.5 10 /
m s Q
J mol K K K m s
=
3
139.3 10 J /mol Q x
| |

|
( | |
\ .
= =
( |
| |
( \ .

|
\ .
0
1 1
2 1 2
0
2
exp
1 1
exp
exp
Q
D
RT D Q
D R T T Q
D
RT

Tutorial3Question8(Diffusion):
18
Thankyou!
Chap.6Mechanical
1
t o | = cos cos
r
o =
0
F
A
c

=
i 0
0
l l
l
o =
T
i
F
A
c = =
0 i
0
ln ln
T
i
A l
l A
t
t u

= = = = tan
S a
G
A h
o
c
= E
{ }
{ }
(12): 111 110
(3): 0001 1120
FCC
HCP
o o = +
y o
k
d
(Coldwork(loadr.t.)createmoredefects(dislocations,atomsmove)&elongategrains,
dislocationmovementhinderedbyGB&otherdislocations,Annealingremovedislocations
(deform2000%,>0.5Tm+slowstrain+5m+strainsensitive
(resistivity|),GBsoften,grainsslideandelongated)
(<5nm<GZ<100nm,highTS,
hardness,o
y
.If<5nmE+ GB)
(ElasticYield
PlasticMax.
NeckingFracture)
(higherthan
engineering)
(Area)
(hardest,ceramics)
(toughest,metals)
(mostductile,
polymer)
(%ElongationorReductionArea,
extentofplasticdeformation)
(dependsonmodulus&bondstrength,resistancetoplasticdeform)
(max.stresspoint)
(startofplasticdeform)
(slipoccurswhentr> oycoscos| )
(dislocationmovesonclosepacked
plane,singlecrystal slipband)
(bondstrength)
d:grainsize
1. Elasticdeformationvs Permanent,Uniaxial TensileForce
2. EngineeringStress,Strain ShearStress
3. TrueStress,Strain
PoissonRatio
4. TensileTest:ElasticModulus 0.2%offsetYieldStrength
UltimateTensileStrength
Ductility Toughness
Hardness
5. SlipMechanism SlipSystems
6. ResolvedShearStress:
7. HallPetch Equation:
8. StrainHardening:
9. SolidSolutionStrengthening:
10. Superplasticity Nanocrystalline
Soluteatomscreatestressfield(atomicsizedifference),hinderdislocation
movement.Clusteringofsoluteatomsalsoimpededislocationmovementfurther.
(ideal)
GZmoreGBo
y
dislocaoncantcross
GB,isotropic,lostcorrosioncreepresistance
ExplanatoryNotesforQn.3
5
3/25/2013
1
Engineering stressstraindatawereobtainedatthe
beginningofatensiletest0.2%Cplaincarbonsteel.
(a) Plottheengineeringstressstraincurve
(b) Determinethe0.2percentoffsetyieldstress
(c) Determinethetensileelasticmodulus
Tutorial4Question1(o c ): o (k psi) c (in./in.)
0 0
15 0.0005
30 0.001
40 0.0015
50 0.0020
60 0.0035
66 0.004
70 0.006
72 0.008
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009
E
n
g
i
n
e
e
r
i
n
g

S
t
r
e
s
s

(
1
0
0
0

p
s
i
)
EngineeringStrain(in./in.)
(a)
0.2%(c =0.002)
yieldstress
=66x10
3
psi
o
c
= =
=
3
7
30 10 psi
0.001
3.0 10 psi
x
E
(b)
(c) [LNChap6p89]
2
A 0.505in.diameter aluminum alloy test bar is subjected to a load of 25,000 lb
f
. If the
diameter of the bar is 0.490 in. at this load, determine
(a) the engineering stress and strain and (b) the true stress and strain.
( )
( )
t
t t
t
| |
= = = =
|
\ .
= =
2 2
2 2
0
2
2
0.505
0.200in
2 4
0.490
0.189in
4
i
d
A r
A
Assumenovolumechange, = =
0
0 0
0
i
i i
i
A l
A l A l
l A
o = = =
3
2
0
25000lb
125 10 psi
0.200in
f F
x
A
c

= = = =
i 0 0
0 i
0.200
1 1 0.058
0.189
l l A
l A
o = = =
3
2
25000lb
133 10 psi
0.189in
f
T
i
F
x
A
c
| |
= = = =
|
\ .
0 i
0
0.200
ln ln ln 0.057
0.189
T
i
A l
l A
(a)
(b)
=0.505in
=25000lb
f
0.490in=
Question2(Tensile):
3
Units:psi:poundforcepersquareinch,1psi=6.89x10
3
Pa(orN/m
2
)
a) Why do pure FCC metals like Ag and Cu have low values of critical resolved
shear stress t
c
?
b) What is believed to be responsible for the high values of t
c
for HCP titanium?
For FCC metals like Ag and Cu, slip takes place on the closepacked {111}
octahedral planes and in the close packed directions .
Lower shear stress is required for slip to occur in densely packed planes.
The high t
c
values associated with HCP titanium is attributed to the mixed
covalent and metallic bonding with the atomic lattice structure.
[TB Chap6 p237]
Question3(CriticalResolvedShearStress):
4
110
[TBChap6p236]
Slipsystem:Thesystem(plane+direction)inwhichslipcanoccurinthecrystalstructure
HighestPlanardensity,HighestLineardensity smallestBurgersvector
6
3/25/2013
2
( )
( )
( )
( )
111
111
111
111
(

(

(

110
101
011
u = == + +
= =


1 1 2 2 3 3
cos
, cos90 0
o
u v u v u v u v u v
If perpendicular u v u v
| |
| |
(

110
101
011
| |
| |
(

110
101
011
| | =

1 2 3
u u u u
| | =

1 2 3
v v v v
| |
| |
(

110
101
011
7
= + +

2 2 2
1 2 3
u u u u
u
A stress of 75 MPa is applied in the [001] direction on an FCC single crystal. Calculate
(a) the resolved shear stress acting on the slip system and (b) the resolved
shear stress acting on the slip system.
(111)[101]
(111)[110]


isbtw &SlipDirt F
|

isbtw &
NormalofSlipPlane
F
Question4(Schmids Law):
8
(a)


isbtw &SlipDirt F
|

isbtw &NormalofSlipPlane F
cos 54.7
3
a
a
| | = =
= 45
Facediagonal
|

t o | = = = cos cos 75cos45 cos54.7 30.6MPa


r
Question4(Contd):
9
A stress of 75 MPa is applied in the [001] direction on an FCC single crystal. Calculate
(a) the resolved shear stress acting on the slip system and (b) the resolved
shear stress acting on the slip system.
(111)[101]
(111)[110]
(b)


isbtw &SlipDirt F
|

isbtw &NormalofSlipPlane F

|
t o | = = = cos cos 75cos90 cos54.7 0 MPa
r
cos 54.7
3
a
a
| | = =
= 90
&directiononxyplane z
Question4(Contd):
10
A stress of 75 MPa is applied in the [001] direction on an FCC single crystal. Calculate
(a) the resolved shear stress acting on the slip system and (b) the resolved
shear stress acting on the slip system.
(111)[101]
(111)[110]
asin(a),
3/25/2013
3
A 70% Cu 30% Zn brass wire is colddrawn 20 percent to a diameter of 2.80 mm. The
wire is then further colddrawn to a diameter of 2.45 mm. Definition of cold reduction is
given as:

= =
changeincrosssectionalarea
%coldreduction 100% 100%
originalcrosssectionalarea
o i
o
A A
x
A
a) Calculate the total percent cold work that the wire undergoes.
b) Estimate the wires tensile, yield strengths and elongation from figure (a) in the
appendix
t t
t
| | | |

| |
\ . \ .
=
| |
|
\ .
=
=
2 2
1
2
1
2 2 2
1 1
1
2.80mm
2 2
20% 100%
2
0.20 7.84mm
3.13 mm
d
d
d d
d
t t
t
=
(
| | | |
(
| |
\ . \ .
(

(
| |
(
|
( \ .
=
2 2
2
Total%coldwork
3.13mm 2.45mm
2 2
100%
3.13mm
2
38.75%
(a)
Question5(ColdWork):
11
Figure (a): % Cold work versus tensile strength and elongation for 70wt%Cu30wt%Zn alloy. Cold
work is expressed as a percent reduction in crosssectional area of the metal being reduced.
For Cold Work 39%,
TensileStrength~ 76kpsi
YieldStrength~ 64kpsi
ksi:1000psi
Elongation~ 7%
Question5(ColdWork):
12
A 70% Cu 30% Zn brass wire is colddrawn 20 percent to a diameter of 2.80 mm. The
wire is then further colddrawn to a diameter of 2.45 mm. Definition of cold reduction is
given as:
a) Calculate the total percent cold work that the wire undergoes.
b) Estimate the wires tensile, yield strengths and elongation from figure (a) in the
appendix
Derivetheleverrulefortheamountinweightpercentofeachphaseintwophase
regionsofabinaryphasediagram.Useaphasediagraminwhichtwoelementsare
completelysolubleineachother. Isomorphous
+ =1
L S
X X

= =

0 L
S
S L
w w LO
X
w w LS

= =

S o
L
S L
w w OS
X
w w LS
X:weightfraction
Total B = B in Liquid + B in Solid
Similarly,
( )
( )
= +
= +
= +
=
0
0
0
0
1
L L S S
S L S S
L S L S S
L S S L
w X w X w
w X w X w
w w X w X w
w w X w w
Question6(LeverRule):
13

= = =

0
53 45 8
58 45 13
L
S
S L
w w
X
w w

= = =

58 53 5
58 45 13
S o
L
S L
w w
X
w w
= + = +
= + =
0
5 8
45 58
13 13
17.3 35.7 53 %
L L S S
w X w X w
wt Ni
ExtraSlideonLeverRule&GibbsPhaseRule:
14
=
=
=
=
0
1300 ,
53 %
58 %
45 %
o
S
L
At T C
w wt Ni
w wt Ni
w wt Ni
Forapointino region,
1+F=2+1 F=2
WecanchangeTemperature&
Composition(wt%Ni)independently,the
phasewillstillremainaso phase.
ForapointinL+o region,
2+F=2+1 F=1
Ifwechangethe1.Temperature,the
compositionoftheLphaseando
phase willbechangedaccordingly.
Hence,wecanonlychangeeitherTor
composition.
Fortheeutecticpoint,
3+F=2+1 F=0
Thetemperatureandcomposition
alreadyfixedbythesystem,wecant
chooseany.
p/s:Tielineisusedin2phaseregiononly
3/25/2013
4
Ag=88wt%
T=1000
o
C
Consider the binary eutectic coppersilver phase diagram. Make phase analyses of an
88 wt% Ag 12 wt% Cu alloy at the temperatures (a) 1000
o
C, (b) 800
o
C, (c) 780
o
C + AT,
(d) 780
o
C AT. AT is assumed to be less than 1
o
C. In the phase analyses, include:
(i) The phases present; (ii) The chemical compositions of the phases; (iii) The amounts
of each phase; (iv) Sketch the microstructure by using 2cmdiameter circular fields.
wt% cm
10 1.25
8 1
Question7(PhaseDiagram):
15
(a)T =1000
o
C
(i)Phasespresent: Liquid
(ii)Compositionofphase: 88wt%Ag
(iii)Amountofeachphase: (iv)Micro
structure
Ag=88wt%
T=1000
o
C
= wt%ofliquidphase 100%
16
T=800
o
C
(b)T = 800
o
C
(i)Phasespresent: Liquid Beta|
(ii)Compositionofphase: 78wt%Ag 93wt% Ag
(iii)Amountofeachphase: (iv)Micro
structure
Ag=88wt%
93 88
wt%ofliquidphase 100% 33.3%
93 78

= =

88 78
wt%ofbetaphase 100% 66.7%
93 78

= =

17
(b)
93 78
L
(c)T=780
o
C +AT
AT<1
o
C
(c)T = 780
o
C+AT
(i)Phasespresent: Liquid Beta|
(ii)Compositionofphase: 71.9wt%Ag 91.2wt% Ag
(iii)Amountofeachphase: (iv)Micro
structure
Ag=88wt%
91.2 88
wt%ofliquidphase 100% 16.6%
91.2 71.9

= =

88 71.9
wt%ofbetaphase 100% 83.4%
91.2 71.9

= =

18
3/25/2013
5
(d)T = 780
o
C AT
(i)Phasespresent: Alpha o Beta|
(ii)Compositionofphase: 7.9wt%Ag 91.2wt% Ag
(iii)Amountofeachphase: (iv)Microstructure
Ag=88wt%
T=780
o
C AT,AT<1
o
C
91.2 88
wt%ofalphaphase 100% 3.8%
91.2 7.9

= =

88 7.9
wt%ofbetaphase 100% 96.2%
91.2 7.9

= =

19
Os=30wt%
T=2600
o
C
Consider the binary peritectic iridiumosmium phase . Make phase analyses of a 70 wt% Ir
30 wt% Os alloy at the temperatures (a) 2600
o
C, (b) 2665
o
C AT, (c) 2665
o
C + AT. AT is
assumed to be less than 1
o
C. In the phase analyses, include: (i) The phases present; (ii) The
chemical compositions of the phases; (iii) The amounts of each phase; (iv) Sketch the
microstructure by using 2cmdiameter circular fields.
Question8(Peritectic):
20
(a)
Os=30wt%
T=2600
o
C

= =

40 30
wt%ofliquidphase 100% 45.4%
40 18

= =

30 18
wt%ofalphaphase 100% 54.6%
40 18
(a)T = 2600
o
C
(i)Phasespresent: Liquid Alpha o
(ii)Compositionofphase: 18wt%Os 40wt% Os
(iii)Amountofeachphase: (iv)Microstructure
21
(a)
Os=30wt%
T=2665
o
C AT
(b)T = 2665
o
C AT
(i)Phasespresent: Liquid Alpha o
(ii)Compositionofphase: 23wt%Os 43wt% Os
(iii)Amountofeachphase: (iv)Microstructure
43 30
wt%ofliquidphase 100% 65.0%
43 23

= =

30 23
wt%ofalphaphase 100% 35.0%
43 23

= =

22
3/25/2013
6
Os=30wt%
T=2665
o
C +AT
(c)T = 2665
o
C+AT
(i)Phasespresent: Liquid Beta|
(ii)Compositionofphase: 23wt%Os 61.5wt% Os
(iii)Amountofeachphase: (iv)Microstructure
61.5 30
wt%ofliquidphase 100% 81.8%
61.5 23

= =

30 23
wt%ofbetaphase 100% 18.2%
61.5 23

= =

23
Ni=4.2wt%
T=1517
o
C AT
Consider an Fe 4.2 wt% Ni alloy that is slowly cooled from 1550 to 1450
o
C. Determine
the amount of o phase and phase, respectively, at a temperature of 1517
o
C AT. Assume
AT to less than 1
o
C.
Question9(Peritectic):
24
Ni=4.2wt%
T=1517
o
C AT
4.2 4
wt%of phase 100% 66.7%
4.3 4


= =

o

= =

4.3 4.2
wt%of phase 100% 33.3%
4.3 4
o
o
o o

+
+
Peritectic:L+
RHside:L+
LHside:L+
L
25
L
[LNChap7p15]
Eutectic L o +|
Eutectoid o | +
Peritectic o +L |
Peritectoid o +|
Monotectic L1 o +L2
26
27
27
Martensite:
Metastable phaseconsisting
ofsupersaturatedsolid
solutionofCinBCCorBCC
tetragonaliron.
Causedbyrapidcoolingof
austeniticsteelintoroom
temperature(quenching).

Pearlite
(layeredo +Fe
3
C)
Bainite
(nonlayered
Pearlite)
M
s
M
f
Martensite (bct)
250
o
C
550
o
C

o +Fe
3
C

o +Fe
3
C
723
o
C
IsothermalTransformationDiagramofEutectoidplaincarbonsteel
(0.8wt%C)
350
o
C
upper
lower
650
o
C
coarse
fine
Time (s)
ForTutorial5Question2
Chap.8MetallicAlloys
1
1. Eutectoid(0.8wt%C,ifnothyper/hypo pro ) AusteniteFCC(at723
o
C)
o FerriteBCC0.02wt%C+Cementite/IronCarbideFe
3
C6.67wt%C
2. Martensite:Quench to<Ms,HardCatedgeBCT,Msdec withC
3. Isothermal:Pearlite (layero +Fe
3
C),Bainite (discont.Fe
3
C+o),Martensite
4. Tempering:Reheatmartensite Fe3Cppt ino matrix,toughness
Martempering:Quench tojustaboveMstouniform,quenchb4bainite
Austermpering:Quench tojustaboveMstoformBainite
5. Plaincarbonsteels:10xx(x:carbon),strengthenbymartensite,crackoxidizedbrittle
6. StainlessSteels:Ferritic: 1230wt%Cr,<0.15%C,BCCo lowstrengthmagnetic
Martensitic:1217%Crcorrosionresist+ 0.15to1%Cenlarge regionmartensite strength|
Austenitic:720%Ni tillr.t.Columbium,insteadofCr,formcarbidenointergranular corrosion
7. Castirons(13%Si):White(Fe
3
Cnotgraphite),Gray(C&Si| graphiteflakesdamping),
Ductile(BulleyeMgreactwithandremoveS&Onoflake),Malleable(heatwhitetoFe
3
Cgraphite)
8. PrecipitationStrengthening:Solutionh.t.QuenchAging
Finedispersedprecipitatesinmatrixhinderdislocationmovementhardness|
Al 4%Cu:515
o
Cquenchholdat130
o
C
GP1(smallCucluster)GP2(biggerstillmatrixstructure)
u(stillverysmall,maxHV)u (CuAl
2
)(bigtotallydifferentstructure)
Utilizedec ofsolubilitywithdec T,190
o
CfastersizebiggerHV+
Overagestrength+
Chap.9Polymers
18
1. Polymerization:Chain:freeradical,Stepwise:Condensationbyproduct,Network:functionality
2.
3. Vinyl,Vinylidene,zigzag,entangled,secondarybondsbtwchains,550nmcrystallineregions,
Copolymers(random,alternating,block,graft)
4. Thermoplastics:PE:CH
2
=CH
2
,HD:littlebranching,chainsclosepack,inccrystallinity strength
PVC:CH
2
=CHCl,strongstrengthstrongdipole,brittleCl steric hindrancerepulsiondec flexibility
PP:CH
2
=CHCH
3
,CH3restrictrotationincstrengthhardnessstabilitydec flexibledensity
PS:CH
2
=CH ,bulky,rigid,inflexible,brittle,dimensionstable
PTFE:CF
2
=CF
2
,smallregularFdense,strongdipolechemicalresistancehighm.p.
5. Thermosetting:covalentbondnetworke.g.Phenolics rigidstablecreepchemicalresistance
6. Elastomers (Rubbers):Vulcanizationcrosslinking isoprenegreatdimensionrecoveryincstrength
7. SolidificationofThermoplastics:
8. DeformationofThermoplastics:
9. EffectsofTemperature:
10. StrengtheningofThermoplastics:incmolecularwt.(notmuchincbeyondcritical),inc
crystallinity (effectivepacking),pendant(hinderchainslippage),polar(molecularbondingbtw)
=

Molecularmassofpolymer
DP=
Massofamer
i i
m
i
f M
M
f
4/8/2013
1
Ferrite
Cementite
orIron
carbide
Eutectoid
Pearlite
Hypo Eutectoid Hyper
0.8wt%C
o +Fe
3
C
Proeutectoid Fe
3
C+Pearlite
Proeutectoid o +Pearlite
Pearlite

= +

6.67 0.8 5.9
6.67 0.02 0.8 0.02 100
x x
Because6.67,0.8,0.02areinwt%already
A hypoeutectiod plaincarbon steel was slowcooled from 900C to 723C AT. What is the
carbon concentration (in wt%) in the carbon steel if it contains 5.9wt% eutectoid ferrite at
723C AT? (Hint: see microstructure)
= + + 1.0030 1.0256 0.059
6.65 0.78
x x
= 0.072wt%C x
Ferrite
Austenite
Cementite
x
5.9wt%
Tutorial5Question1:
Fractionof
Eutectoido
Fractionof
Eutectoido +
ProEutectoido
Fractionof
ProEutectoido

Draw timetemperature cooling paths for a 1080 steel on an isothermal transformation


diagram that will produce the following microstructures. Start with the steels in the
austenitic condition at time = 0 and 850C.
(f)100%lowerbainite
1080Steel 0.8wt%C
Eutectoidcomposition

P
B
M
s
M
f
(a) 100%martensite
(c)100%finepearlite
o +Fe
3
C
(e)100%upperbainite

Time (s)
Question2:
o +Fe
3
C

P
B
M
s
M
f
(b)50%martensite
+50%coarsepearlite
(d)50%martensite
+50%upperbainite
350
o
C
upper
lower
650
o
C
coarse
fine
o +Fe
3
C

o +Fe
3
C
250
o
C
550
o
C
723
o
C
Question2(Contd):
1% 100%
o +Fe
3
C
martensite
quench
slowcool
X
4/8/2013
2
CentralLibraryRBR(2hrs)
Callnumber:TA403Smi 2009
Whatisthemicrostructureproducedafteraustempering aeutectoidplaincarbonsteel?
Doesanaustempered steelneedtobetempered?Explain.
After austempering, a eutectoid plaincarbon steel has a bainite microstructure.
Subsequent tempering is not necessary since the austempering results in hardness,
distortion and impact energy values comparable to or better than those associated
with a marquenched and tempered steel.
Austempering :
QuenchAustensite to>Ms,
Heldisothermaltotransformtobainite
Bainite (o +discont.Fe
3
C)
Adv:Improvedductility,resistimpact,
dec distortion
Disadv:needforspecialsaltbath,
limitednumberofsteels
[TBFig.9.34]
Question3:
reheatMartensite at<Eutectoidtemp
Fe
3
Cparticleino matrix
rodlike /Spheroidite
Softer,ductile>martensite
Martempering: Tempering:
QuenchAustensite to>Ms,
HoldtillTuniform,thenslowcool,
finalTempering
Temperedmartensite
Impactenergy>tempered
(Waterquench+Temper) (Marquenching +temper)
[TBFig.9.29] [TBFig.9.33]
Describethefourdecompositionstructuresthatcanbedeveloped
whenasupersaturatedsolidsolutionofanAl4%Cualloyisaged.
Supersaturated o solid solution (FCC)
GP1 zones:
consist of segregated regions in the shape of disks a
few atoms thick (0.4 to 0.6nm) and about 8 to 10nm
in diameter.
They form on the {100} cubic planes
straining the lattice tetragonally and are coherent
with the matrix.
GP2 zones ( u phase):
approximately 1 to 4nm thick and 10 to 100nm in
diameter.
These zones are also coherent with the {100} matrix
and have a tetragonal structure.
[TBp.407409]
CLibraryRBR
Callnumber:
TN690Por
Question4:
Extra:
4/8/2013
3
Supersaturated o solid solution (FCC)
GP1 zones
GP2 zones ( u phase)
u phase:
nucleates heterogeneously and is incoherent with the
matrix.
This phase has a tetragonal structure with a thickness
of 10 to 150nm.
u phase (CuAl
2
):
an incoherent equilibrium phase having the
composition CuAl
2
.
This phase, which forms from u or directly from the
matrix, has a BCT structure.
[PhaseTransformationsinMetalsandAlloysbyD.A.PorterandK.E.Eastering,p297]
Question4(Contd):
Describethefourdecompositionstructuresthatcanbedeveloped
whenasupersaturatedsolidsolutionofanAl4%Cualloyisaged.
Extra:
Determine the mole fraction of polyvinyl chloride and polyvinyl acetate in a copolymer
having a molecular weight of 11,000 g/mol and a degree of polymerization of 150.
av
av
MW (polymer) 11,000g /mol
MW (mer) 73.33g /mol
DP 150
= = =
av PVC PVC PVAc PVAc PVC PVC PVC PVAc
MW (mer) MW MW MW (1 )MW f f f f = + = +
= + +
= + +
=
PVC
MW 3H 2C 1Cl
3 1 2 12 1 35.5
62.5g / mol
= + +
= + +
=
PVAc
MW 6H 4C 2O
6 1 4 12 2 16
86.0g / mol
= =
PVC PVAc
0.539 0.461 f f
DP
[LNChap9p4]
(roughly81+69=150)
1mole=
6.02x10
23
atomsor
molecules
Question5:
Howisitpossibleforapolymerchainsuchasapolyethyleneonetokeepgrowing
spontaneouslyduringpolymerization?
The polymer chains in chain polymerization keep growing spontaneously because the
energy of the chemical system is lowered by the chain polymerization process; the
total energy of newly created polymers is lower than the total energy of the
monomers that have reacted to form them.
Monomerschemicallyreactwitheach
othertoproducelinearpolymersand
asmallmoleculeofbyproduct
[LNChap9p5,6,11]
heat
Question7:
1. ChainPolymerization:
2. Stepwise
Polymerization
(Condensation):
Explainhowdoestheamountofcrystallinity inathermoplasticaffectits
(a)density,(b)tensilestrength
(a) Density increases, due to increase of the packing of polymer chains
(b) Tensile strength increases, due to stronger secondary bonding forces
between the polymer chains that are packed closer together
Question8:
Crystalline
Amorphous
Lamellae
4/8/2013
4
How much sulphur must be added to 70g of butadiene rubber to crosslink 3.0 percent of
the mers? (Assume all sulphur is used to crosslink the mers and that only one sulphur
atom is involved in each crosslinking bond.)
polybutadiene
MW
6H 4C 54g /mol = + =
| |
=
|
\ .
NumberofofmolesofButadiene
70g
= 1.2963
54g /mol
Vulcanization
3
NumberofofmolesofSulphur= NumberofofmolesofButadiene
100

MassofSulphur=0.03 1.2963mol 32g/mol=1.24g
Question6:(lecturehasntcovered)
How does the presence of a methyl group on every other carbon atom of the main
polymer chain affect the glass transition temperature of this material when compared to
polyethylene?
Thesubstitutionofhydrogenatomswithmethylgroups( CH
3
)
increasesthebondstrengthsbyrestrictingtherotationofthepolymerchains;
Consequently,polypropylenehasahigherglasstransitiontemperaturethanpolyethylene.
[MaterialsScienceandEngineering:AnIntroduction,byW.D.
Callister 7
th
edn.p.501CLRBRTA403Cal2007]
Question9:(lecturehasntcovered)
Polypropylene Polyethylene
[MaterialsScience
andEngineering:An
Introduction,byW.D.
Callister 7
th
edn.
p.548]
CentralLibraryRBR
Callnumber:
TA403Cal2007
Extra:FactorsthataffectGlassTransitionTemperatureT
g
:
[MaterialsScienceandEngineering:AnIntroduction,byW.D.Callister 7
th
edn.]
For noncrystalline thermoplastic:
The liquid, upon solidification, changes to a supercooled
liquid that is in the solid state, which is rubbery or flexible
leathery, at temperature below T
m
As the temperature decreases, the polymer shows a gradual
decrease in specific volume until the temperature reaches T
g
.
Below T
g
, the polymer becomes glassy and brittle.
For partly crystalline polymer:
Its specific volume drop abruptly at T
m
, due to more efficient packing as a crystalline solid.
Extra:CharacteristicchangesduringGlassTransition:
Chap.10Ceramics
1 Inorganic insulation brittle stability ionic/covalent
( )
{ }
(

2
% ionic character 1 exp 0 25 100% X X
Oxide(Zr MgAl),SiO
2
,SiC Si
3
N
4
1. Inorganic,insulation,brittle,stability,ionic/covalent
2. AXStructure(+chargebalance):
3. FCCInterstitialsites:Octahedral,Tetrahedralvs HCP
( )
{ }
(
=

%ioniccharacter 1 exp 0.25 100%
A B
X X
+

r
R
0.732 0.414 0.225 0.155
CN=6
NaCl
CN=4
ZnS
CN=8
CsCl
1:1
3. FCCInterstitialsites:Octahedral,Tetrahedralvs HCP
4. CsCl,NaCl,ZnS,Antifluorite,CaF
2
NaCl ZnS CsCl
FCC:4atoms4octahed 8tetrahed
HCP:6atoms6octahed 12tetrahed
5. Corundum(Al
2
O
3
):6O
2
formFCCwithAl
3+
at4among6octahed
Perovskite (CaTiO ): Ferroelectric dipole Ba2+ corners O2 face ctr Ti4+ too small ctr
Li
2
ONa
2
O UO
2
NuclearFuel
emptyoctohed
= + 3 2 2 a r R
= + 2 2 a r R
= +
3
4
a
r R
Perovskite (CaTiO
3
):FerroelectricdipoleBa2+cornersO2 facectr Ti4+toosmallctr,
Graphite:3sp2formcovalentlayer,1pelectronbondbtwlayers ,Spinel (MgAl
2
O
4
)
6. Silicates(SiO
4
2
):tetrahedralislandchain/ring(2corners)
sheet (3 corners) Silica (SiO 4 corners)
iki/Sili di id
sheet(3corners)Silica(SiO
2
,4corners)
7. MaterialspreparationFormDryingSinteringVitrification Thermal:Acidic,BasicRefract.
8 Engineering Ceramics:Al O Si N SiC ZrO Deformation: Ionic Covalent grain size
~wiki/Silicon_dioxide
8. EngineeringCeramics:Al
2
O
3
,Si
3
N
4
,SiC,ZrO
2
Deformation:Ionic,Covalent,grainsize
9. Toughness: ZrO2 9mol%MgO cubictetragonalmonoclinicvolumestopcrack o t =
IC f
K Y a
1
10. Glasses:Structure,Composition, TemperedGlass,ChemicallyStrengthen
q q
| |
=
|
\ .
* exp
o
Q
RT
4/12/2013
1
[BookbyCallister CLRBRTA403Cal2007]
2
3a
3
4
a
Tutorial6Question1:
Calculatethecriticalradiusratioforoctahedralcoordination.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( + = +

2 2 2
2 2 2 r R R R
( ) ( )
( )
( )

+ = =
+ =
+ =
= =
2 2
2
2
2
4 2 2 8
2
2
2 1 0.414
0 414
r R R R
r R R
r R R
r R R
r
= 0.414
R
3
Calculatethedensity ingramspercubiccentimetreofCsI,whichhastheCsCl structure.
IonicradiiareCs
+
=0.165nmandI

=0.220nm.
( ) 3 2 a r R = +
Question2:
( )

= +
= =
8
2
0.165nm 0.220nm
3
0.445nm 4.45 10 cm
a
+
= + I = + =
22
i ll
132.9g /mol 126.9g /mol
m 1 Cs 1 4 32 10 g = + I = + =
unitcell 23 23
m 1Cs 1 4.32 10 g
6.02x10 ions /mol 6.02x10 ion/mol
( )

= = = =

22
3
3 3
8
4.32 10 g
4.90g/cm
4.45 10 cm
m m
density
v a

4
Calculate the planar densities (of Co
2+
, O
2
, Li
+
and Cl

separately) in ions per nm


2
on the
(111) and (110) planes for (a) CoO and (b) LiCl.
Ionic radii are Co
2+
= 0.082nm, O
2
= 0.132nm, Li
+
= 0.078nm and Cl

= 0.181nm.
( )
+ 2
C
(a)CoO
Question3:
(b)LiCl
( )
+
0 078
r Li
( )
( )
+

= =
2
2
0.082
0.621
0.132
r Co
r O
s s 0.414 0.732
r
R
( )
( )

= =
0.078
0.431
0.181
r Li
r Cl
CN=6,NaClstructure
Cl

N
+
5
Na
+
InNaCl structure,both
Cations &Anionsformtheir
ownFCCstructure
4/12/2013
2
2 <0.155
3 0.155 0.225
ZnS
4Zn2+
4S2
AXtypeofCrystalStructure
4 0.225 0.414
6 0.414 0.732
NaCl
4Na+
4Cl
6
8 0.732 1.0
CsCl
1Cs+
1Cl
Calculate the planar densities (of Co
2+
, O
2
, Li
+
and Cl

separately) in ions per nm


2
on the
(111) and (110) planes for (a) CoO and (b) LiCl.
Ionic radii are Co
2+
= 0.082nm, O
2
= 0.132nm, Li
+
= 0.078nm and Cl

= 0.181nm.
(a)CoO(111)plane
Question3(Contd):
( )
2
2
2
2a
h 2a
2
| |
+ = |
|
\ .
( )
( )
| |
= = |
|
\ .
(111)
2
2
1 1 3
2
2 2 2
3
A bh a a
= + =
1 1
Numberofions 3 3 2
6 2
\ .
( )
( )
= +
= +
=
2
2 0.082 0.132
0.428nm
a r R
( ) = =
2
2
3
0.428nm 0.159nm
2
( )
=
=
planar 2
2+ 2 2
2ions
0.159nm
12.6 Co orO ions /nm
7
Calculate the planar densities (of Co
2+
, O
2
, Li
+
and Cl

separately) in ions per nm


2
on the
(111) and (110) planes for (a) CoO and (b) LiCl.
Ionic radii are Co
2+
= 0.082nm, O
2
= 0.132nm, Li
+
= 0.078nm and Cl

= 0.181nm.
(b)LiCl (111)plane
Question3(Contd):
( )
2
2
2
2a
h 2a
2
| |
+ = |
|
\ .
( )
( )
| |
= =
|
\ .
(111)
2 2
1 1 3
2
2 2 2
3
A bh a a
= + =
1 1
Numberofions 3 3 2
6 2
\ .
( )
( )
= +
= +
=
2
2 0.078 0.181
0.518nm
a r R
( ) = =
2 2
3
0.518nm 0.232nm
2
( )
=
=
planar 2
+ 2
2ions
0.232nm
8.6 orCl ions /nm Li
8
(a)CoO(110)plane
N b f i
Question3(Contd):
Calculate the planar densities (of Co
2+
, O
2
, Li
+
and Cl

separately) in ions per nm


2
on the
(111) and (110) planes for (a) CoO and (b) LiCl.
Ionic radii are Co
2+
= 0.082nm, O
2
= 0.132nm, Li
+
= 0.078nm and Cl

= 0.181nm.
(110)plane
( )( )
( )
=
= =
(110)
2 2
2
2 0 428 0 259 nm
A a a
+
+
| | | |
= + + +
| |
\ . \ .
= +
2 2
2 2
Numberofions
1 1 1
2 1 4 2
2 4 2
2 2
Co O
Co O
(b) Li Cl (110) plane
a
2a
( ) 2 0.428 0.259nm
( )

+
=
= +
2+ 2
planar 2
2+ 2 2
2Co 2
0.259nm
7.7Co 7.7 /nm
O
O
9
(b)LiCl (110)plane
( ) = =
2 2
(110)
2 0.518 0.379nm A
( )
= =
+
+ 2
2
2Li +2Cl
5.3Li +5.3Cl /nm
0.38nm
planar
4/12/2013
3
Ce O
2
4Ce
4+
8O
2
Question4:
Calculate the linear density of Ce
4+
and O
2
in ions per nm
2
in the [111] and [110] directions for CeO
2
,
which has the calcium fluorite (CaF
2
) structure.
Ionic radii are Ce
4+
= 0.102nm and O
2
= 0.132nm.
( )
( )
+
= +
= + =
4 2
Ce O
3
4
4
0.102 0.132 0.540nm
3
a r R
a
( )
( )
+
+
| |
+
|
+
\ .
= =
4 2
4 2
L
1
2 Ce 2O
1Ce 2O 2
111
3 3 0 540
10
( )
( )
( )
+

= +
L
4 2
3a 3 0.540nm
1.07Ce 2.14O /nm
( )
( )
+
+
+
| |
+
|
\ .
= = =
4
4
4
L
1
2 1 Ce
2Ce 2
110 2.62Ce /nm
2a 2 0.540nm
CaF
2
4Ca
2+
formsFCC
8F

occupytetrahedralsites
Antifluorite
e.g.Na2O,Li2O
BaTiO
3
Perovskite
CaTiO
3
11
What causes the lack of plasticity in crystalline
ceramics?
Thelackofplasticityincrystallineceramics
is attributed to their Ionic and Covalent
Question5:
isattributedtotheirIonic andCovalent
chemicalbonds.
InCovalentlybondedceramics,
thebondingbetweenatomsis
specific anddirectional.
Specific:betweenthese2atoms,
Directional:mustbeofcertainangle
1234567 1234567
[TBChap11p611613]
Therefore,theywillundergobrittle
fracturesascovalentbondsare
brokenwithoutsubsequentreformation.
(unlikeinmetallicmaterials)
123456 123456
12
For Ioniccrystals,
theslipofoneplaneofionsoveranother
involvesionsofdifferentchargescoming
intocontact,andthusattractiveand
l i f b d d
(110)
(100)
[010]
(

110
[TBp613Fig.11.37]
Question5(Contd):
repulsiveforcesmaybeproduced.
Forexample,intheNaCltypestructures.
Sliponthe{110}familyofplanesinvolvesonlyionsofunlikechargesandhencethe
slipplanesremainattractedtoeachotherbyCoulombic forcesduringtheslipprocess.
Incontrast,sliponthe{100}familyofplanesisrarelyobservedbecauseionsofthe
samechargeswillrepeleachotherwhencomeintocontact.
Hence,therearelimitedslipsystemsinionically bondedceramicswhichleadtothe
lackofplasticityinionically bondedceramics.
Polycrystalline ionicceramicsshowlessplasticitythansinglecrystalsbecausetheslip
cannotcontinueacrossthegrainboundaries.
13
4/12/2013
4
(110)
(100)
(

110
(100)
[010]
(110)
impossible
14
possible
Explain the plastic deformation mechanism for some singlecrystal ionic
solids such as NaCl and MgO.
What is the preferred slip system?
[SimilartoQuestion5]
Question6:
{110} 110
For some singlecrystal ionic solids, such as NaCl and MgO,
compressive stresses at room temperature cause considerable plastic deformation
prior to fracture because planes of oppositely charged ions can slip relative to each
other.
These slip planes, which maintain their attraction through coulombic forces,
t i ll f th li t f N Cl t t t {110} 110 < > typically prefer the slip system for NaCltype structures.
15
How do (a) porosity and (b) grain size affect the tensile strength of ceramic
materials?
a) Porosity: [LNChap10p24]
Question7:
Pores serve as stress concentration points and induce cracks at lower
threshold values.
They decrease the effective crosssectional area for load distribution as
well.
Consequently, as the porosity of a ceramic material increases, the material
tensile strength decreases.
b) G i Si b) Grain Size:
For a porosityfree ceramic, the flaw size, and thus the strength, is solely a
function of grain size
The finer the grain size, the smaller the flaws and the greater the ceramic
tensile strength.
16
structure
(surfacedefects,voids).
[LNlastyear]
17

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