Islam and al-Andalus

In this unit you will find out the answers to these questions: What is Islam and what are its five pillars? What territories did the Muslim caliphs rule over during the Middle Ages? What were the characteristics of Islamic political organisation, economy, society, culture and art? What was al-Andalus? What were the characteristics of al-Andalus politics, economy, society, culture and art? Before you start, check you understand the meaning of the words in blue.

KEY WORDS
Islam: submission to God (Allah); Muslim religion, preached by Muhammed pillars of Islam: five obligations that every Muslim must satisfy: profess the faith, pray five times a day towards Mecca, fast during the month of Ramadan, give alms (help people in need), go on a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in a lifetime caliph: highest Islamic religious and political authority al-Andalus: territory Muslims governed in the Iberian Peninsula

Unit summary
Origin and expansion of Islam Muhammed is the prophet of Islam; the pillars of Islam are: profess the faith, pray five times a day, fast during Ramadan, give alms, pilgrimage to Mecca Koran: the holy book of Islam Politic Islamic politics, economy and society Economy Society Muslim cities: alcazaba, medina and arrabales Islamic culture and art Culture Art Political development Economy Al-Andalus Society Cities similar to other Muslim cities Culture Architecture Al-Andalus was an important cultural centre Caliphal, taifa, Almohad and Nasrid kingdom Mathematics, medicine, literature, etc. Especially architecture: palaces and mosques Dependent emirate, independent emirate, Crdoba caliphate, taifa kingdoms, North African dynasties, Nasrid kingdom Major development of agriculture, craftwork and trade Muslims and non-Muslims (Christians and Jews) Territorial expansion; main authorities: caliph, viziers, royal treasurers, emirs, judges Craftwork and trade were particularly important Aristocracy, other free people, slaves

59

KEY WORDS
polytheistic: believing in more than one god Arab: someone from the Arabian Peninsula nomad: person who does not live in one place but moves around merchant: person who buys and sells goods prophet: person with the ability to predict the future and transmit messages from God to humans Muslim: person who professes the Islamic religion fast: not eat or drink Ramadan: ninth month of the Muslim calendar. During Ramadan, Muslims cannot eat or drink after the Sun rises until it sets pilgrimage: travel to a holy place flee (fled): escape from a place Hegira: escape of Muhammed from Mecca to Medina in the year 622, which marks the beginning of the Muslim calendar

Origin and expansion of Islam

Islam originated on the Arabian Peninsula, a land which is mostly a huge desert. At that time, the interior was inhabited by tribes of polytheistic Arab nomads. The main cities of Yathrib (Medina) and Mecca were in the western part and they were a crossroads for the merchant caravans coming from the Far East. Muhammed, the Islamic prophet, was born in Mecca around the year 570. According to legend, the archangel Gabriel appeared before him and told him to preach the religion of Allah (God), that is to say Islam. Muhammeds teachings were written down in the Koran, the Muslims sacred book, which contains Allahs words to Muhammed. It has 114 chapters called suras, written in Arabic. The Koran contains the five obligations of all Muslim believers, which are called the pillars of Islam. They are as follows: Profess the faith: believe that there is only one God (Allah) and that Muhammed is his prophet. Pray five times a day, facing towards Mecca. Fast during the month of Ramadan. Give alms: help people in need. Go on a pilgrimage to Mecca, at least once in a lifetime and visit the Kaaba sanctuary.

Muhammed and his followers

Muhammed began to spread his doctrine in Mecca and soon had some followers. When they began to increase in number, the authorities considered him to be a threat and he was the victim of numerous attacks. For this reason, Muhammed and his followers fled from Mecca and settled in the city of Medina (Hegira). From there, Muhammed organised an army and conquered Mecca in 630. The expansion of Islam continued across the rest of the Arabian Peninsula. Muhammed succeeded in unifying the Arabic tribes and he became their political and religious leader.

60 UNIT 5

Activities
1

In your exercise book, complete the questions with these words: What, Where, Who, When, How many. do Muslims believe in? must they help? times a day must they pray? d) e) f) must they face when they pray? must they fast? must they go on a pilgrimage to at least once in their lives?

a) b) c)
2

Match the questions in activity 1 to the answers below. Ask and answer the questions in pairs. d) towards Mecca e) to Mecca f) the poor

a) the existence of one God, Allah, and his prophet Muhammed b) during the month of Ramadan c) five times a day
3

Listen and answer the questions.

a) In which city is the Kaaba sanctuary? b) What do scientists think the Black Stone is? c) Where do people begin their visit to the sanctuary? d) Who do Muslims believe built the Kaaba? e) Who does this person represent for Christians and Jews?
4

Look at this illustration of the Kaaba sanctuary. In your exercise book, complete the description below using these words: stone, men, turbans, palm, beards, Mecca. The illustration shows a group of Muslim at the Kaaba in . They are wearing long robes of different colours and on their heads. Some of them have long black . In the background, we can see a Muslim who is touching the Black . On each side of the stone there is a tree.

Kaaba sanctuary

Read and listen to the text. Answer the questions in your exercise book.

In the home, Muslim children learn the basic teachings of Islam. In weekend schools, they may learn about the sharia or Islamic law. The sharia includes teachings regarding which foods are permissible and which are not. Pork products, animals with claws (e.g. cats) and alcohol are considered unclean or dangerous, and therefore are strictly forbidden. Permissible meat such as beef, lamb or chicken should be killed and blessed in Gods name according to certain rules. Muhammad declared anything that intoxicates including beer and wine to be prohibited. Islam also prohibits gambling and games of chance. They are considered to be tricks of the devil to distract people from serving God.
J. PORTERFIELD Islamic Customs and Culture Rosen Publishing (Adapted)

a) What is sharia? a type of school b) Muslims can eat: chicken c) Muslims can drink: juice and milk the work of the devil wine and beer. a way to serve God. d) Playing games for money (gambling) is considered: pork. a set of rules

Islam and al-Andalus

61

KEY WORDS
Mongolians: nomadic tribe from central Asia. During the 12th and 13th centuries, they formed a large empire covering part of Europe and Asia Treasury: all the income, taxes and other assets controlled by the State waterwheel: machine used to move water. The Arab version had two wheels. The horizontal wheel was turned by an animal, using a lever. That wheel turned an attached vertical wheel, which had several vessels to collect water from the well irrigation channel: small channel for carrying water to crops tanning: preparation of animal hides for their subsequent use for making different objects tapestry: large piece of woven fabric, of wool or silk, which showed a picture and was usually used to cover walls dinar: Muslim gold coin dirham: Muslim silver coin

Islamic politics, economics and society

2.1. Political organisation

Muhammeds successors (caliphs) continued to conquer territories. The caliphate went through various stages: the orthodox caliphate (632661), the Umayyad caliphate (661750) and the Abbasid caliphate (7501258). From the 10th century, a period of decline began, which ended with the division of the caliphate into independent states. Finally, in 1258, Baghdad was conquered by the Mongolians. The main authorities in Islamic society were the following: The caliph was the highest religious and political authority. The vizier (hayid) was the prime minister. He headed the central administration and the Treasury. Royal treasurers (diwans) collected taxes, which were needed to maintain the administration and the army. Emirs (walis) were the governors of the provinces and the caliphs representatives. Judges (qadis) were responsible for applying the laws; these were based on the rules laid down in the Koran.

2.2. Economy
Agriculture: Muslims used waterwheels and irrigation channels to transport water to the cultivated areas.

Reconstruction of an Arab waterwheel

Craftwork: it was important in the cities, especially for the tanning of hides and the making of tapestries, fine fabrics, jewellery, ivory objects, perfume and weapons. Trade: in the cities, there were markets (souks). For commercial exchange, they used coins (dinar, dirham). The Muslims developed external trading both over land and by sea (gold, ivory, silk, precious stones, spices, etc.).

62 UNIT 5

2.3. Society
Society was organised into the following social groups. Aristocracy: this was composed of people linked to the caliph and emirs. Most members of the aristocracy were of Arabic origin. Free people: this group included government officials, traders, small rural landowners and artisans. They were Muslims, Christians and Jews. Slaves: they worked in agriculture, as domestic servants, etc.

KEY WORDS
mosque: building where Muslims meet to pray botanical science: scientific study of trees, plants and flowers compass: instrument used to find directions, consisting of a box with a magnetic needle that always points to the north

Muslim aristocracy

Islamic society was mainly urban. The cities were made up of different areas. The alcazaba (citadel) was a walled area on high ground. Inside the alcazaba was the alcazar (walis palace). The medina was the central part of the city, surrounded by walls. Inside the medina was the main mosque. Next to it were the souk and the public baths. The arrabales were neighbourhoods outside the city walls and had their own mosques, souks and public baths.

Islamic culture and art

3.1. Culture
The Muslims translated into Arabic the writings of ancient Greek philosophers and scientists, such as Aristotle. In this way, they transmitted this knowledge to the medieval world. There were significant advances in geography, philosophy, astronomy, mathematics, botanical science, medicine and literature. The Muslims introduced the compass and the manufacture of gunpowder and paper to Europe.
Islam and al-Andalus

63

KEY WORDS
tile: flat piece of pottery used to cover walls and floors caliphal ribbed vault: vault composed of intersecting ribs that dont pass through the centre muqarna vault: vault decorated in the form of stalactites calligraphic motif: text from the Koran, poems, etc., written in Arabic

3.2. Art and architecture

Architecture
Architecture was the most important form of artistic expression in the Islamic world. These were the main features: Basic materials (wood, brick) were covered with other materials (tiles, plaster, etc.) to give the impression of greater richness. There were different kinds of arch: horseshoe and semicircular arches, etc. Buildings were usually covered with vaults (caliphal ribbed vault, muqarna vault, etc.) and domes. There was a lot of decoration: geometric patterns, calligraphic motifs, floral and plant designs. The main buildings were: palaces surrounded by gardens with fountains mosques where Muslims met to pray.

Minaret: tower situated at one end of the courtyard, from where the muezzin called people to prayer.

Mihrab: small room situated in the qibla where the Koran was kept.

Qibla: wall facing Mecca towards which all prayers were directed.

Courtyard: entrance area with a fountain in the centre for washing (ablutions). This is a ritual that all Muslim must perform before praying.
Reconstruction of a mosque

Prayer room or haram: room normally covered with a flat wooden roof supported by columns.

Sculpture and painting

Sculpture and painting were not common because Islamic tradition did not encourage the representation of the human form, in order to avoid idolatry.

64 UNIT 5

Activities
6

Match the words in the left column to the definitions on the right in your exercise book.
caliph vizier emir governor of the provinces highest Islamic religious and political authority prime minister

Draw a diagram of Islamic society in your exercise book, using these words: aristocracy, Arabs, free people, government officials, artisans, slaves, small rural landowners. a) Listen and say what the speaker is describing: a mosque, a souk or a palace.

b) Listen again and say which of these things the speaker mentions: combs, earrings, knives, gold, silver, glass, rhinoceros horns, elephant tusks, sandals, silk dresses, bird, monkey. Then translate the words into Spanish.
9 10

What technical innovations did the Muslims introduce into Europe? Explain in your exercise book.

Find the mistakes in these sentences about Islamic architecture and correct them with a partner. Listen and check. a) Islamic architecture is characterised by the use of rich materials like stone. b) In Islamic architecture, arches and vaults were never used. c) The main Islamic buildings were churches and palaces. d) In the interiors of buildings, there was usually very little decoration.

11

Identify the words relating to a mosque described in each sentence.

a) Its a wall facing Mecca. b) Its a tower from where people are called to prayer. c) Its the room where Muslims meet to pray. d) Its the entrance to the mosque where theres a fountain for ablutions. e) Its a small room where the Koran is kept.
12 Look at the images below. Copy and complete the sentences in your exercise book, using these words: centre,

stalactites, cross. a) A muqarna vault is made of pieces similar to b) The caliphal ribbed vault is made of ribs that . without passing through the .

Muqarna vault

Caliphal ribbed vault

Islam and al-Andalus

65

KEY WORDS
Berber: tribe originating from North Africa Moor: historical English term to describe the North West African Muslims who conquered the Iberian Peninsula in the 8th century irrigated crop: crop that receives water via artificial watering systems leatherwork: craft dedicated to making articles from leather inlay: small pieces of wood, mother-of-pearl and other materials set into wood to create a decorative design

Al-Andalus

4.1. Political development

In 711, an army of Arabs and Berbers defeated the Visigoths in the battle of Guadalete. After that, the Moors conquered almost all the Iberian Peninsular territory and named it al-Andalus. There were several different periods in the history of al-Andalus. Dependent emirate: al-Andalus was governed by an emir who was under the authority of the caliph of Damascus. Independent emirate: Abd-al-Rahman I proclaimed himself emir. Politically the emirate was independent of Baghdad, although it continued to recognise the religious authority of the caliph. Crdoba caliphate: the emir Abd-al-Rahman III proclaimed himself caliph in 929 and so al-Andalus became independent of Baghdad both from a political and a religious point of view.

The court of Abd al-Rahman

Taifa kingdoms: at the beginning of the 11th century, al-Andalus was divided into small kingdoms called taifa kingdoms. North African dynasties and Nasrid kingdom: from 1086, al-Andalus was occupied by the Almoravids and the Almohads. They were defeated by the Christians. Only the Nasrid kingdom of Granada was in Islamic hands until the year 1492.

4.2. Economy
Agriculture was the main activity. They introduced new irrigated crops (rice, oranges, lemons and sugar cane). Craftwork was centred on textiles, gold- and silver-smithing, glasswork, paper, weapons, leatherwork and inlay. There was significant development in trade.

66 UNIT 5

4.3. Society
Muslims
Arabs: they were the most important social group. Berbers: they lived mainly from livestock farming. Mulades: most of them were peasants.

KEY WORDS
mulad: Christian who converted to Islam winding: with many curves, not straight oil lamp: clay or metal container with a wick, which can be lit to provide light

Non-Muslims
Christians: those who didnt convert to Islam were called Mozarabs. They lived mainly in cities where they carried out various trades. Jews: they lived mainly through trade, craftwork and finance.

4.4. Life in the cities

There were many cities in al-Andalus. They were similar to other Islamic cities. The streets were winding and irregular. There were different areas: the alcazaba, the medina and the arrabales. The Mozarabs lived in their own neighbourhoods and so did the Jews. Houses were very close together. They were made of adobe and stone. The entrance led into a courtyard. Around the courtyard, were the main room where the family received visitors, the bedrooms and the kitchen. There wasnt much furniture: tables, low seating and large chests. For light, they used candles and oil lamps.

Al-Andalus city

Islam and al-Andalus

67

KEY WORDS
Moorish: historical English term to describe the Islamic art and architecture of North Africa and al-Andalus polylobed arch: arch made of small semicircles mixtilinear arch: arch made of alternating curves and straight lines stilted semicircular arch: semicircular arch that is slightly lengthened at the bottom

4.5. Culture
Al-Andalus was one of the great cultural centres of the medieval world. There were distinguished philosophers, such as the Jewish Maimonides and the Muslim Averroes. In literature, Ibn Hazm was a significant writer. His main work was the Ring of the Dove, a treatise on love. Scholars in al-Andalus wrote important works about botany, such as the Book of Plants. They also translated ancient scientific texts into Arabic.

4.6. Architecture
Islamic architecture was the main form of artistic expression. There were several different periods of Moorish architecture.

Caliphal architecture
It had the following features. Semicircular, horseshoe and polylobed arches were the most common. The caliphal ribbed vault was a common feature. The most distinctive buildings are the Great Mosque at Crdoba, the palace-city of Medina Azahara outside Crdoba and the Bib-al Mardum mosque in Toledo.

Almohad architecture
It had the following features. It tended to be more austere. The typical decoration consisted of panels composed of diamond shapes. The most signicant buildings are the minaret of the Great Mosque of Sevilla, known as the Giralda, and the Torre del Oro, the ancient watchtower attached to the city walls of Sevilla.

Nasrid architecture
It had the following features. The use of basic materials (brick, plaster, wood), which were covered with ornate decoration. The most commonly used arches were the pointed horseshoe arch and the stilted semicircular arch. Columns were very narrow. They used muqarna vaults. The most renowned building is the Alhambra Palace in Granada.

Interior of the Great Mosque of Crdoba

Taifa architecture
It had the following features. The use of basic materials (brick) covered with very ornate decoration. The most common arches were the polylobed and mixtilinear arches. The most representative building is the Aljafera Palace in Zaragoza.
Patio de los Leones at the Alhambra Palace in Granada

68 UNIT 5

Activities
13 In pairs, put these events in order from the first to the most recent:

a) the arrival of Muslims on the Iberian Peninsula b) the arrival of Almoravids on the Peninsula c) division of al-Andalus into taifa kingdoms d) beginning of the Crdoba caliphate e) end of the Nasrid kingdom of Granada.
14 Which of the following crops were introduced by the Muslims into Spain: tomatoes, olives, rice, oranges, vines,

lemons, maize, sugar cane?

15 In your exercise book, compare your house with the houses in al-Andalus described in section 4.4. Mention the

following features: building materials, courtyard, rooms, furniture, lights. Example: My house is made of brick but al-Andalus houses were made of adobe and stone.
16 What type of Moorish architecture do the sentences refer to?

a) The horseshoe arch was one of the most commonly used. b) They frequently used polylobed and mixtilinear arches. c) Muqarna vaults were very common. d) The typical decorative feature was diamond shapes.
17

Look at the photo of the Great Mosque of Crdoba in section 4.6. and answer the questions in your exercise book.

a) Which part of the mosque do you think the photo corresponds to? b) What type of arches are the lower arches? What colour are they? c) What are the columns like?
18 Look at the two photos below and answer the questions in your exercise book.

Aljafera Palace of Zaragoza

Great Mosque at Crdoba

a) What kind of arches are the two on the left? And the one on the right? b) What is the decoration like?
19

Listen and answer the questions in your exercise book.

a) What does the word Alhambra mean? b) What was the official colour of the Nasrids? c) How did they obtain the colouring to dye the materials red? d) What colours were the decorative features of the Alhambra painted?

Islam and al-Andalus

69

Revision activities
1 a) Translate these ingredients: lamb, coriander, ginger, cinnamon, grapes, vinegar, almonds, sugar, stock. 4

Are these sentences true or false? Correct the false ones in your exercise book. a) The Muslims remained on the Iberian Peninsula from 711 until 1492. b) The Berbers were Jews from the north of Africa. c) Ramadan is a building in Islamic architecture. d) The mulades were Christians who had converted to Islam. e) Muslims believe in various gods.

b) Read and listen to the recipe and write the steps in the correct order in your exercise book. Cut the lamb into medium-sized pieces. Add grape juice and vinegar to the stock. Put coriander, ginger, pepper and cinnamon into a cotton bag. Add chopped almonds and sugar to the sauce. Put the lamb in the pan, cover it with water, add salt and let it boil. Take out the bag of spices when the ingredients are cooked. Add two or three onions, cut into small pieces.
2

What are the five pillars of Islam? Who was Muhammed? What different social groups were there in al-Andalus? Explain in your exercise book. Read the text and answer the questions in your exercise book.

Take turns to define the following terms in any order to your partner. Your partner guesses the term. a) al-Andalus b) Mecca c) caliph d) vizier e) Koran f) Hegira

The men and women of al-Andalus wore wide trousers and linen or cotton shirts. On their heads, they wore linen or felt hats. The turban was not common until the Nasrid period. In summer, they usually wore white clothes, in autumn and winter, grey-brown colours. In spring, they wore very colourful clothes. The common footwear was leather boots in winter and sandals in summer.
P. D. CANO Al-ndalus: el Islam y los pueblos ibricos Slex (Translated and adapted)

Look at the photo below and answer the questions in your exercise book.

a) What kinds of clothes did the men and women of al-Andalus wear? What materials were they made of? b) What colour clothes did they usually wear? c) What type of footwear did they use? d) Are any of these clothes or footwear still worn today?

Talking points
8

Imagine you are a Muslim in al-Andalus in the 10th century. Decide where you live, what your profession is, how you dress, what your daily life is like, etc. Take turns to interview your partner about his / her life. Example: A: Where do you live? B: I live in the centre of Crdoba, not far from the Great Mosque. A: What do you do? B: Im a tradesman. I sell spices in the souk.

Mihrab of the Great Mosque of Crdoba

a) What type of arch can you see in this photo? b) What is the decoration like?

70 UNIT 5