SAE TECHNICAL PAPER SERIES

1999-01-0142

An Investigative Overview of Automotive Disc Brake Noise

K. Brent Dunlap, Michael A. Riehle and Richard E. Longhouse
Delphi Chassis Systems

Reprinted From: Brake Technology and ABS/TCS Systems (SP-1413)

International Congress and Exposition Detroit, Michigan March 1-4, 1999

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1999-01-0142

An Investigative Overview of Automotive Disc Brake Noise

K. Brent Dunlap, Michael A. Riehle and Richard E. Longhouse
Delphi Chassis Systems
Copyright 1999 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.

ABSTRACT
Disc brake noise continues to be a major concern throughout the automotive industry despite efforts to reduce its occurrence. As a major supplier of automotive brake components, Delphi Chassis is continually investigating means to reduce disc brake noise. In this paper, experimental and analytical methods are discussed which reduce the occurrence of automotive disc brake noise. Three general categories of brake noise are discussed. These categories are low frequency noise, low frequency squeal, and high frequency squeal. A general description of all three categories and examples of relevant solutions are presented.

can also be used as general guidelines for developing solutions for other low frequency noises FRONT DISC BRAKE GROAN The typical failure mode for front disc brake groan occurs at deceleration rates in the range of 5 to 20 ft/sec2. Lining temperature range from 150 to 250F. Vehicle speeds are between 10 and 20 mph. Some brake burnishing is usually necessary before groan will occur. The noise is normally produced through the entire stop in the most severe cases, but is generally produced during the middle to end of the braking event. The phenomena of sustained front disc brake groan discussed here was produced using NonAsbestos Organic (NAO) lining materials. It is not the intent of this paper to discuss why NAO lining materials seem to be more susceptible to the groan phenomena, but rather to discuss the methods used to reduce its propensity for producing groan. Test Procedure The most important aspect of performing a meaningful experiment, particularly when dealing with brake noise, is to establish a repeatable test schedule. A 20 stop test incorporating the failure mode discussed previously was devised. Interior noise measurements were recorded using both an objective measurement system and subjective means. Accelerometers were located on suspension and brake corner components. A snapshot of the groaning event was captured, and the acceleration levels were ranked to determine areas where detailed operating deflection shapes (ODS) would be generated. An ODS provides insight into the location(s) where modifications to the system could be made which reduce its dynamic response levels. Test Results Interior sound pressure recorded on the Aachen Head measurement system was analyzed using the Binaural Analysis System (BAS). Filtering techniques were used to determine the frequency content of the sustained groan noise event. The noise was determined to be relatively broadband in nature between 100 and 500 Hz. A specific noise peak was present at 240 Hz, but was not a pure tone. Figure 1 shows the sound pressure spectrum averaged over the entire stopping event. Acceleration spectrum shown in Figure 2 correlates with the sound pressure. The ODS performed on the front 1

INTRODUCTION
The purpose for writing this paper is to give the reader a practical overview of automotive disc brake noise through solution technique examples. Over the years, disc brake noise has been given various names that provide some definitions of the sound emitted such as grind, grunt, moan, groan, squeak, squeal, and wire brush. In order to simplify the discussion presented in this paper, brake noise has been divided into three general categories. The three groups presented are low frequency noise, low frequency squeal, and high frequency squeal. The examples presented in this paper outline experimental and analytical methods used to provide insight into noise reduction solutions.

LOW FREQUENCY NOISE

Low frequency disc brake noise typically occurs in the frequency range between 100 and 1000 Hz. Typical noises that reside in this category are grunt, groan, grind and moan. This category of noise is caused by friction material excitation at the rotor and lining interface. The energy is transmitted as a vibrational response through the brake corner and couples with other chassis components. The following section looks at techniques used to characterize this noise and to develop solutions. The specific noise investigated is groan, but the techniques presented

corners is described in Figure 3. The motion of the brake corner is rigid body twisting of the caliper housing, caliper bracket, and knuckle
Power Spectrum 2 110 dBSPL rms

Mag (dB)

Solution Techniques Two solution paths exist for addressing this problem. One consists of modifications to the vehicle response and the other of reducing the forcing function. The response side of the issue was addressed by modifying the stiffness, mass and/or damping of various components along the response path. This was accomplished by changing materials, adding tuned mass dampers, and stiffening suspension components. This solution path produced no favorable results. The modifications shifted the frequency of the noise as much as 100 Hz, but the overall perception of the groan was the same. Based on these results, the only practical approach was to reduce the forcing function. The approach taken was to develop a new lining material that would reduce the occurrence of groan. Lining Study In order to identify the primary characteristic(s) of the lining material that causes groan, several lining materials were evaluated for groan propensity. The purpose of the lining evaluation study was to generate clues that would lead to potential lining properties and/or ingredients that could be identified as the root cause of groan. The most obvious property that historically has been associated with noise is the lining output level. Figure 4 shows the results of groan evaluations on several different lining compounds. The chart shows specific torque for NAO lining materials and semi-metallic lining materials versus groan propensity. It can be concluded that output is not a root cause because low output linings exist which produce groan. This evaluation generated clues that identified lining material ingredients that were associated with groaning and non-groaning linings.
1.5 Yes 1.4 No 1.3

30 100 Hz 500 Hz

Figure 1. Interior Sound Pressure Spectrum - Sustained Groan Event

Power Spectrum 1 30 dBg rms

Mag (dB)

-50 100 Hz 500 Hz Specific Torque 1.2 Vehicle 1 Left Corner Vehicle 2 Left Corner 1.1 Vehicle 1 Right Corner Vehicle 2 Right Corner Groan 1

Figure 2. Lateral Caliper Acceleration Spectrum Sustained Groan Event

0.9

0.8

0.7 NAO B NAO E NAO C NAO D NAO H NAO K NAO A NAO I NAO J Semi-Met F Sem-Met G NAO L NAO M

Lining

Figure 4. Sustained Groan Lining Candidates To better understand the interaction of the raw ingredients on sustained groan, a Design of Experiment (DOE) was developed. The DOE was a four factor - two level designed experiment. The response variable used was the number of stops with caliper acceleration greater than 1 g of acceleration. This response variable was determined to be representative of the level of caliper accelerations generated during customer complaint vehicle evaluations. The experiment was performed using two vehicles that established four independent data samples (two brake corners per vehicle). A twenty stop schedule 2

Figure 3. Operating Deflection Shape of Brake CornerRigid Body Lateral Twist

was used to evaluated each vehicle. Figure 5 shows the results of the full factorial experiments. The values tabulated are the average number of stops with caliper acceleration level greater than 1 g (maximum value = 20). It should be noted that comments describing other type brake noises are also presented. Consequently, a lining type that had low groan propensity was not necessarily good for other brake noises. Figure 6 summarizes the results into a Pareto of Effects." Statistically significant contrasts (i.e., ingredients or combination of ingredients) that influence the propensity for groan are abrasive, lubeabrasive-filler, and filler.
Fiber(+) Lube(+) Lube(-) Abrasive(+) Filler(+) Abrasive(-) 12.75 19.25 1 10.75 0 Fiber(-) Lube(+) Lube(-) 9.5 0
Squeal

of two or more modes of various structures producing optimum conditions for brake squeal. CASE STUDY The case study presented was performed on a front disc brake system. The failure mode for low frequency squeal occurs during low brake deceleration, 4 to 6 ft/sec2, vehicle speeds of 5 to 10 mph, and initial lining temperatures of 30 to 40 F. Squeal no longer occurs after approximately 10 stops. The purpose of this case study was to investigate solution techniques that address the dynamic response issues and not the excitation issues. Test Procedure The same procedure was adhered to with this type of noise as was discussed earlier with low frequency noise. A schedule was established that included 10 forward and 10 reverse stops at speeds less than 5 mph with apply pressures of 100 psi. The stops were performed after an overnight cold soak at temperatures of 30 to 40 F. An objective measurement system consisting of four microphones located at each wheel and a fifth microphone located at the passenger front seat location was used to identify the squeal frequency. Accelerometers were also mounted on both front calipers for correlation purposes. In addition, structural dynamic measurements were taken on the caliper housing, caliper bracket, knuckle, pads, and rotor to characterize damping, stiffness, resonance frequencies and mode shapes. Test Results Sound pressure data captured during a squeal event indicated that the squeal was in the frequency range of 2500 to 2600 Hz. Structural dynamic measurements taken on the rotor and caliper while installed on the vehicle indicated that both had resonances in that frequency range. The mode shapes for rotor and caliper are depicted in Figures 7 and 8, respectively. The rotor resonance occurs at 2640 Hz and is the 3rd nodal diameter mode. The caliper mode occurs at 2546 Hz and is a 1st bending about the bridge.

9
Grunt

Abrasive(+) Filler(-) Abrasive(-)

0.25

0.25

0.5

0.25
Squeal

7.25

6.5

6.25
Grunt

0.5

Number of stops with caliper acceleration > 1g ( Maximum =20)

Figure 5. Sustained Groan Factorial Experiment Results

30 * * * * = Statistically Significant at 95% Confidence Level 25

20

F Value

15

10

0 A L*A*Fil Fil Fib L*A Factors Fib*A C L*A*C Fil*C

+ +

Figure 6. Pareto of Effects for Groan DOE (A=Abrasive,L=Lubricant,Fil=Filler,Fib=Fiber,C =Carbon)

LOW FREQUENCY SQUEAL

Low frequency squeal is generally classified as noise having a narrow frequency bandwidth in the frequency range above 1000 Hz yet below the first circumferential (longitudinal) mode of the rotor. Circumferential modes will be described in the sections pertaining to high frequency squeal. The failure mode for this category of squeal can be associated with frictional excitation coupled with a phenomenon referred to as modal locking of brake corner components. Modal locking is the coupling 3

+ -

Figure 7. Rotor Mode Shape @ 2688 Hz - 3rd Nodal Diameter

HIGH FREQUENCY SQUEAL

One of the most troublesome noise issues in the brake community is high frequency brake squeal. In this paper, high frequency brake squeal is defined as noise which is produced by friction induced excitation imparted on coupled resonances (closely spaced modes) of the rotor itself as well as other brake corner components. It typically is classified as squeal occurring at frequencies above 5 kHz. Several solutions have been developed over the years that can greatly reduce the propensity for squeal, but no absolute solution has ever been comprised. It is not the intention of this paper to be a vehicle for proclaiming to have found the absolute solution, but rather to provide insight concerning the mechanism by which some solution techniques have been successful. DISC BRAKE ROTOR STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS AND HIGH FREQUENCY SQUEAL For a particular brake system there exists particular frequencies at which high frequency brake squeal will commonly occur. These frequencies typically remain constant for a particular brake rotor independent of the rest of the brake system. This lends credence to the theory that the brake rotor is a controlling element in determining the squeal frequency. There are many bending modes of the disc brake rotor throughout the frequency range of squeal, but the squeal frequencies are typically coincident with the circumferential or longitudinal resonance frequencies. This will be explained further with the following case study. Case Study Sample brake squeal data acquired with a dragging brake dynamometer is shown in Figure 10a. This figure displays the frequency and amplitude of squeal for each stop of a randomized pressure and temperature braking schedule. From this figure it is seen that brake squeal occurred at three distinct frequencies. Frequency response function measurements of the rotor disc in the tangential and normal directions are displayed in Figures 10b and 10c. Modal analysis performed upon these and additional measurements identified the resonance frequencies and mode shapes of the rotor disc. Normal direction resonances of the rotor disc exist throughout the displayed frequency range starting with a 2 nodal diameter mode near 1 kHz up through a 12 nodal diameter mode near 15 kHz. The modal density in the tangential direction is much lower. The first three circumferential (tangential) modes of the rotor disc consisting of 1, 2, and 3 nodal diameters are identified by Xs in Figure 10b. A circumferential mode of a disc can be viewed as a compression wave in the disc circumference similar to a longitudinal mode of a solid bar. Directions of motion for normal and circumferential (tangential) direction modes of vibration are illustrated in Figure 11. The rotor disc frequency response function data illustrates the strong relationship between the resonance frequency of the circumferential modes and the frequency of squeal. In most cases of high frequency squeal, the squeal frequency relates to a circumferential resonance frequency of the rotor disc, not a normal direction resonance 4

Figure 8. Caliper Housing Mode Shape @ 2538 Hz Solution Techniques The solution technique developed for this case study was to decouple the caliper and rotor modes. Due to design constraints and timing, rotor modifications were deemed to be a more practical short term solution, however, there is no reason that the caliper could not have been part of the solution. As with any structural dynamic modification, the damping, mass, and/ or stiffness of the rotor can be modified. The simplest modification that could be made due to hardware availability, was to substitute a material change for gray cast iron. This material substitution was classified as damped iron. The goal of this modification was obviously to reduce the amplitude of the rotor response by increasing its damping. Rotor Study The damped iron rotor was tested on vehicles, and the low frequency squeal was eliminated. Further investigation into the mechanism that eliminated the noise indicated that damping did not play a role in the solution. Frequency response measurements in Figure 9 comparing gray iron versus damped iron rotors show that the resonance at 2600 Hz was shifted down in frequency approximately 400 Hz. Damping values measured at those particular frequencies are the same. Therefore, the modulus change of the rotor not its damping characteristic was the key to the noise reduction.
Freq Resp 2:1 Freq Resp 2:1 1000 g/lb Frequencies of Interest Production Gray Iron "Damped Iron"

Mag (Log)

0.01 0 Hz 5 kHz

Figure 9. Frequency Response Measurement of Gray Iron versus Damped Iron Rotors

frequency of the rotor or a resonance frequency of the other brake system components.
Dynamometer Test Sound Pressure Level Peak Distribution 100

tial and normal direction mode of the rotor or a circumferential mode of the rotor and another mode of the brake system must occur. DISC BRAKE ROTOR STIFFNESS, LINING STIFFNESS AND FRICTION A model was constructed to gain an understanding of the relationships between the stiffness of the rotor disc, the stiffness of the brake pad, the coefficient of friction, and the resulting normal and tangential direction response levels. As shown in Figure 12, the brake rotor disc was modeled in a moving reference frame as a continuous beam with stiffness and damping elements in the equivalent normal and tangential directions, and the brake pad was similarly modeled with stiffness and damping terms.
F=k

kRN PAD ROTOR kRT

Sound Pressure [dB]

90

80

70

60

50 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 Frequency [Hz] 10000 12000 14000 16000

(a)
Freq Resp 2:1 Tangential (Y) Direction Driving Point K_PY.DAT

1000 g/lb

Mag (Log)

0.01

0 Hz

8k

16 kHz

(b)

F=KRN(RN-RT)

(a)
K_PZ.DAT

(b)

1000 g/lb

Freq Resp 2:1

Normal (Z) Direction Driving Point

Figure 12. Normal-Tangential Mode Stability Model a) Physical Interpretation b) Model Configuration The model was exercised to generate a stability diagram of pad stiffness versus the coefficient of friction for constant values of rotor stiffness as shown in Figure 13. Based upon this diagram, reductions in pad stiffness or increases in rotor stiffness for the same coefficient of friction will move the operating point to a more stable region. Superimposed on the diagram are current values of stiffness for a brake system with a known propensity for high frequency squeal. The diagram suggests that decreasing the brake pad stiffness to rotor stiffness ratio of this brake system will reduce the squeal propensity.
Coefficient of Friction vs. Pad Stiffness
1 0.9 0.8

Mag (Log)

0.01

0 Hz

8k

16 kHz

(c) Figure 10. Correlation of Brake Squeal Frequencies and Rotor Resonance Frequencies a) Dynamometer Test Squeal Frequencies b) Tangential Direction Frequency Response of Rotor Disc c) Normal Direction Frequency Response of Rotor Disc

Coefficient of Friction

0.7

UNSTABLE REGION
0.6 0.5

Rotor Stiffness
1.00E+06

Current Configuration
0.4 0.3 0.2

1.00E+07 1.00E+08

STABLE REGION
0.1

2 ND Normal Mode

1 ND Circumferential Mode

1.00E+05

5.00E+05

1.00E+06

5.00E+06

1.00E+07

3.00E+07

5.00E+07

7.00E+07

Figure 11. Illustration of the Direction of Motion for Normal and Circumferential Modes of Vibration The frequencies at which high frequency noise occur are related to the circumferential modes of the rotor disc, but the presence of these circumferential modes do not in itself insure that brake noise will occur. For noise to occur, it is expected that cross coupling of a circumferen5

Pad Stiffness

Figure 13. Stability mapping of Coefficient of Friction versus Brake Pad Stiffness for Varying Levels of Brake Rotor Stiffness DISC BRAKE ROTOR DYNAMIC STIFFNESS AND SQUEAL As previously discussed, a parameter that can impact the propensity to squeal is rotor stiffness. In

1.00E+08

Sound Pressure @ 11 kHz above background, dB

the general sense, increased rotor stiffness is directionally correct for reduction in squeal propensity. This can be looked upon as increasing the mechanical impedance of the rotor and therefore making it more resistive in responding to input forces. An associated factor and potentially more significant factor of increased rotor stiffness is the shifting of normal response modes and the resulting reduction in modal density. The reduction in modal density can inhibit the cross coupling of the circumferential and normal modes of the rotor disc as illustrated in Figure 14.
Original
Tangential Mode

of the rotor disc is directionally correct for brake squeal reduction, in this instance modal alignment of the normal and circumferential resonance frequencies were more important than modal density as a single parameter.
Dynamometer Front Brake Squeal Evaluation
50 40 30 20 10 0 Plus 33% Nominal Minus 33%

Rotor Cheek Thickness

(a)
Dynamic Rotor Stiffness at 11 kHz Squeal Frequency Dynamic Rotor Stiffness, N/m x 1e8

Normal Mode f, MODAL SEPARATION

5 4 3 2 1 0

f Modified
Tangential Mode

Normal Mode
dB

Plus 33%

Nominal

Minus 33%

Rotor Cheek Thickness

f2 > f f

(b) Figure 15. Rotor Dynamic Stiffness Study Results a) Dynamometer Sound Pressure Data b) Rotor Stiffness Quantification DISC BRAKE PAD GEOMETRY The sensitivity of brake pad stiffness upon brake squeal has been discussed, and a factor that can affect brake pad stiffness is brake pad geometry. Brake pad geometry can also have an effect upon the brake pad pressure distribution. To investigate potential relationships between brake squeal and brake pad geometry, a case study was performed where varied geometry configurations of the disc brake pad were evaluated. Testing was performing on a dragging brake dynamometer over a wide range of lining temperatures and brake apply pressures. The sketch in Figure 16a displays the various configurations of lining shapes that were evaluated, the rotation direction, and the orientation of the applied moment to the caliper by the braking function. The modified pad shapes were equivalent to a 20% reduction in lining arc length from the baseline configuration. The results of the tests are displayed in Figure 16b.

Figure 14. Sketch of the Effects of Decreased Modal Density and Potential Coupling of Normal and Tangential Rotor Modes A case study was performed in which rotor discs of differing dynamic stiffness were evaluated on a brake system with a known propensity for high frequency squeal. Rotors of increased and decreased cheek thickness (rotor rubbing surface) were utilized to achieve rotor stiffness variations. The resulting sound pressure data from brake dynamometer tests shown in Figure 15a revealed the large influence that rotor dynamics can have upon high frequency squeal. Prior to the test, it was anticipated the noise rankings would correlate to the overall stiffness levels and associated trend of modal density, but the data showed a different result. Tests conducted with the baseline rotor produced the most noise, and tests conducted with rotors of increased and decreased cheek thickness produced lower noise levels. Further analysis of these rotors revealed differences in dynamic stiffness at the predominant squeal frequency. This dynamic stiffness variation is related to the modal alignment of normal and circumferential modes. The dynamic stiffness data is shown in Figure 15b. Though decreased modal density

LHS Caliper Moment

Configurations:
Rotor Rotation
IB pad OB pad

Baseline A: Trailing End Cut B: Leading End Cut

ing of steel and viscoelastic materials, the noise insulator is often viewed as a constrained layer damping treatment. There are typically two schools of thought regarding the mechanism of brake squeal reduction with respect to noise insulators. One is the theory of the gasket effect between the shoe plate and the caliper where the noise insulator affects the mechanical impedance between the brake caliper and disc brake shoe. The other is the damping viewpoint; whereby, the insulator is effective because of the additional damping added to the brake shoe and lining in its constrained layer format. The constructions of some brake noise insulators appear to employ both methods. Each view has their proponents and regardless of which is correct or more correct, the effectiveness of the brake noise insulator is dependent upon pressure, temperature, and frequency. This dependence is a result of the brake noise insulator being constructed of viscoelastic materials. The viscoelastic materials used in brake noise insulators are typically adhesives and rubberlike compounds. The dynamic material properties of these types of materials can vary widely with temperature and frequency. As a result the performance of brake noise insulators, whether supposedly designed to mismatch mechanical impedance or to add structural damping, can vary significantly in the exposed operating environment. A sample of the variation of damping levels with temperature is shown in Figure 17. The data displayed in this figure was acquired from a disc brake pad in a free-free state with different noise insulators applied. As displayed, the level of damping in the assembly can change significantly versus temperature. This data suggests that noise insulators should not be generically applied to brake systems. If damping optimization is applied, the damping in the brake shoe assembly should be optimized for the temperature range at which squeal occurs.
Composite Shoe & Lining Damping vs. Temperature
3rd Bending Mode

Grayed area indicates removed lining material.

C: Inboard LE & Outboard TE Cut D: Inboard TE & Outboard LE Cut E: TE & LE Cut F: Center Slot TE LE

(a) Disc Brake pad Geometry Study Schematic of the Various Test Configurations

Equal Pad Length Experimental Results

Sound Pressure [dB] above background
50

40

30
7 kHz 13 kHz

20

10

0 Baseline TE Cut LE Cut IB LE Cut; OB TE Cut IB TE Cut; TE & LE Cut Center Slot OB LE Cut (~chamfer)

(b) Disc Brake Pad Geometry Study Dynamometer Test Results Figure 16. Significant variation in the noise was observed for the various configurations. Configurations D & E provided significant noise reduction, and lining configuration F exacerbated the noise. The variation in noise performance of configurations A, B, C, & D can be theorized based upon their potential to induce lining sprag on the rotor disc. The tendency of each configuration to sprag is based upon the inboard and outboard balance of the brake pads, the orientation of the caliper moment, and the resulting pressure distribution variation across the arc length of the brake lining. This is very evident in configuration C where the caliper moment will tend to increase the brake lining pressure at the cut edges for the inboard and outboard linings. The increased noise level for configuration F can not be as readily theorized. To explain the results for this configuration and to further the understanding of the other configurations, pressure measurements across the length of the disc brake lining are required. DISC BRAKE PAD NOISE INSULATORS Brake noise insulators are commonly utilized in disc brake systems as a noise fix. The insulators are typically constructed of layers of steel and viscoelastic material applied to the back of the disc brake shoe plate. Because of the layer-

0.060

0.050

Loss Factor [eta]

0.040

0.030

With Insulator No Insulator

0.020

0.010

0.000 50 100 150 200 250 300

Temperature [F]

Figure 17. Variation of Composite Disc Brake Pad Shoe & Lining Damping Versus Temperature An illustration of the potential benefits of a brake noise insulator upon brake squeal is shown in Figure 18. This

figure displays the sound pressure levels for a vehicle built with a wide variety of brake noise insulators. This illustrates the potential gains or losses in noise benefits that can be achieved with a properly tuned brake noise insulator.
Front Brake Noise Level with Various Noise Insulators
City Traffic Squeal Schedule, SPL @ wheel, left-right avg. 40

Low Frequency Squeal 1. The failure mode for low frequency squeal can be associated with frictional excitation coupled with a phenomenon referred to as modal locking of the brake corner. 2. Modal locking is the coupling of two or more modes of various structures producing optimum conditions for brake squeal. 3. Low frequency squeal is classified as noise having narrow frequency bandwidth in the frequency range above 1000 Hz yet below the first circumferential mode of the rotor. 4. A case study on low frequency squeal noise was presented and solution techniques were developed. The techniques addressed the decoupling of the caliper and rotor modes.

Sound Pressure [dB] above background

30

20

10

0 No Insulator Vendor A Vendor B1 Vendor B2 Vendor B3 Vendor C Vendor D1 Vendor D2

Figure 18. Brake Squeal Test Results with Various Brake Noise Insulators

5. The caliper and rotor modes were decoupled by changing the rotor material from gray cast iron to damped iron. This material change shifted the rotor resonance frequency down by 400 Hz. High Frequency Squeal

CONCLUSION
In this paper brake noises were classified into three primary categories: low frequency noise, low frequency squeal, and high frequency squeal. Low frequency brake noise is typically between 100 and 1000 Hz and is most often related to the rotor disc and brake pad frictional interface. Low frequency squeal is categorized by noises in the 1 to 5 kHz frequency range. These noises typically occur at frequencies of coincident modes for brake system components. High frequency squeal occurs in the above the 5 kHz frequency range, and the frequencies of squeal correlate to the circumferential resonance frequencies of the rotor disc. A review of each category of brake noise and its related phenomena are reviewed below. Low Frequency Noise 1. Low frequency noise is caused by friction material excitation at the rotor and lining interface that is transmitted through the brake corner and couples with other chassis components. 2. Front brake groan was determined to be broadband in nature between 100 and 500 Hz 3. Attempts to modify the vehicle response with various structural modifications were unsuccessful. 4. The appropriate solution technique for solving groan was determined to be a lining material modification. 5. A lining study was developed that pin-pointed the major factors in the lining composition which reduced the propensity for groan. These factors were additional filler, abrasive, and fiber, as well as a reduction in lubricant.

1. The frequency of squeal coincides with the circumferential resonance frequencies of the rotor disc. 2. High frequency squeal propensity can be related to the rotor to pad stiffness ratio for fixed levels of friction. 3. Increases in the brake rotor disc dynamic stiffness at problem squeal frequencies can reduce squeal propensity. 4. Disc brake pad geometry and brake pad pressure distribution can have an impact upon brake squeal. 5. Brake noise insulators have the capacity to provide significant reductions in squeal level if properly optimized for squeal conditions.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank Robert Ballinger, Timothy Gillespie, Robert Lamport, William Myers, Sanjiv Tewani, and Julie Biermann-Weaver, for their contributions to this paper.

REFERENCES
1. Matsuzaki, Kikio and Izumihara, Toshitaka, Brake Noise Caused by Longitudinal Vibration of the Disc Rotor, Paper No. 930804 SAE International Congress and Exposition, 1993. 2. Nashif, Jones, & Henderson, Vibration Damping, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1985. 3. Lewis, Thomas M. and Shah, Praful, Analysis and Control of Brake Noise, Paper No. 872240, SAE Truck and Bus Exposition, 1987.