Abstract
Experimental predictions are derived from first principles for the root-mean-square (RMS)
charge radii of a free Electron, Proton and Neutron to high computational precision [0.0118(fm),
0.8305±0.0001(fm) and 0.8269(fm) respectively]. This places the derived value of Proton radius to
within “0.38(%)” of the average Simon and Hand predictions [0.8335(fm)], arguably the two most
precise and widely cited references since the 1960's. Most importantly, the SELEX Collaboration has
experimentally verified the Proton radius prediction derived herein to extremely high precision as being
[√[0.69(fm2)] = 0.8307(fm)]. The derived value of Electron radius compares favourably to results
obtained in High-Energy scattering experiments [0.01(fm)] as reported by Milonni et. al. It is also
illustrated that a change in Electron mass of “≈ +0.04(%)” accompanies the High-Energy scattering
measurements. This suggests that the Electron radius depends on the manner in which it's measured and
the energy absorbed by the Electron during the measuring process. The Fine Structure Constant is also
derived, to within “0.026(%)” of its “National Institute of Standards and Technology” (NIST) value,
utilising the Electron and Proton radii construct herein. In addition, it is also illustrated that the
terminating gravitational spectral frequency for each particle, as described previously by Storti et. al.,
may be expressed simply in terms of Compton Frequencies.
ote: within this manuscript, “ħ” (i.e. Dirac’s Constant) is applied to Compton Frequencies, whilst
“h” (i.e. Planck’s Constant) is utilised in Compton Wavelengths.
1
rstorti@deltagroupengineering.com
1
1 ITRODUCTIO [1-6]
2 THEORETICAL MODELLIG6
A series of sense checks and rules of thumb were defined in [5] acting as indicators for order-
of-magnitude relationships and results. Considering “ωCP” and “ωCN” as hypothetical boundaries, it
follows that the Sense Checks (“Stη” and “Stθ”) may be formulated utilising the ratio of “ωΩ” (as
defined in [4]) of the Proton and Neutron to their respective Compton frequencies.
Since |ωΩ| → 0 as r → ∞, we might also expect that [Stη,Stθ] → 0 as r → ∞ according to the
“1x2” matrix block as follows7,
ω Ω r π ,mp ω Ω r ν , mn
St η r π , m p St θ r ν , m n
ω CP ω CN
(1)
Where, “mp” and “mn” denote the rest mass of a Proton and Neutron respectively.
When “Stη” is forced to consider RMS charge radii predictions for free Protons as reported by
“Stein8” in [7], tempting assumptions may be inferred. Table (1), illustrates the value of “Stη” in
relation to 4 possible radii configurations. Based on the computed values of “Stη” and “Stθ” as stated in
table (1), we may hypothesise that the accuracy of the RMS charge radius of a free Proton may be
numerically and analytically derived.
By equating the value of “Stη” to the Proton to Electron mass ratio “mp/me”, highly precise
predictions for radius may be articulated. The significance of the radii derivation is not in the precise
results predicted, rather, its significance lies in the fact that the predictions returned are very close to
likely experimental results. This is an important realisation given that the EGM model has been derived
utilising mass systems on a planetary scale. Subsequently, the structural validity of EGM is
qualitatively implied.
2
Electro-Gravi-Magnetics (EGM) is based on Buckingham’s Π Theory. [2]
3
The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) states that the RMS charge radius of a
free Proton to be [2002 Value]: rp = 0.8750 ± 0.0068(fm). [8] Where, “fm” represents femtometre
[1(fm) = 10-15 m].
4
α = 7.297352568x10-3 [2002 Value]. [8]
5
The subscript “e,ε” denotes classical and scattered Electron parameters respectively derived herein.
6
All mathematical modelling and output was formed using “MathCad 8 Professional” and appears in
standard product notation.
7
Also see Appendix (A).
8
Stein is a contributing editor to the American Institute of Physics [“Physics Update”] whom reports
the RMS charge radii to be: 0.805 ± 0.011(fm) and 0.862 ± 0.012(fm). [7,9-11]
2
Stη(rp,mp) Value Description
Stη(0.875(fm),mp) 1783.8 Utilising the NIST 2002 value of “rp” as reported in [8]
Stη(0.862(fm),mp) 1798.7 Utilising the value of “rp” as reported by [7,9,11]
Stη(0.845(fm),mp) 1818.7 Utilising the value of “rp” as reported by [12]
Stη(0.805(fm),mp) 1868.4 Utilising the value of “rp” as reported by [7,9-11]
Stη(0.834(fm),mp) 1832.6 Utilising the Average value of “rp” as reported by [7,9-11]
Table 1, sense checks.
3 MATHEMATICAL MODELLIG
3.1.1 NUMERICAL
Utilising the results defined in table (1), we shall hypothesise that a numerically exact
relationship exists between the ratio of the Compton wavelength of an Electron “λCe” to the Compton
wavelength of a Proton “λCP” and the Proton to Electron mass. Similarly, we shall hypothesise that a
numerically exact relationship exists between the ratio of “λCe” to the Compton wavelength of a
Neutron “λCN” and the Neutron to Electron mass ratio according to the “2x2” matrix block as follows,
λ Ce m p
St η r π , m p St η r π , m p λ CP m e
St θ r ν , m n St θ r ν , m n λ Ce m n
λ CN m e
(2)
Where, “rπ” and “rν” denote values satisfying equation (2) utilising the “Given” function within the
“MathCad 8 Professional” environment. Hence,
[rπ rν] = [0.8306 0.8269] (fm) (3)
Comparing the results for “rπ” to the values illustrated in table (1), it is apparent that “rπ”
compares favourably, within 1.8(%), to the prediction [0.845(fm)] determined by Andrews et. al. [12]
Moreover, considering “rπ” in relation to the predictions derived by Simon [9] and Hand [10], arguably
the two most precise and cited relevant works referenced by science since the 1960’s, [13] we find that
“rπ” is within 0.38(%) of the average Simon and Hand predictions [0.8335(fm)].
3.1.2 ANALYTICAL
Performing the appropriate substitutions from9 [4] into the mass ratio relationships for “Stη”
and “Stθ” in equation (2), useful analytical representations for “rπ” and “rν” may be formed in terms of
Compton wavelengths and particle mass as follows10,
5
4
λ CP λ CP
.
5 K PV r π , m p . m p K PV r π , m p . m p
4 2
c .m 27. m
rπ 4
e. e .
rν 2
128. G. π . h
3 5
8.π λ CN λ CN
4
.
K PV r ν , m n . m n K PV r ν , m n . m n
4 2
(4)
Where, the Refractive Index “KPV” [14] may be usefully approximated to unity according to,
9
See Appendix A: Equation (A2-A8).
10
“c” represents the speed of light in a vacuum. “G” and “h” denote the Gravitational and Planck
constants respectively.
3
G .M
2.
2
r .c
K PV( r , M ) e ≈1
(5)
Utilising the approximations and exact expressions described by equation set (A1) in Appendix A,
equation (4) may be simplified in terms of Compton, Planck (λh,ωh,mh) and particle mass
characteristics. Hence, 3 highly precise analytical approximation forms of “rπ” and “rν” may be written
as follows,
5 5
3 5 2 4
c . ω Ce 27. ω h ω Ce h .m e 27. m h m e
2 4
λ CP 27 λ
rπ . . CP . . . .
2
16. π . λ Ce
2
4 . π . λ h λ Ce
4
4 . ω CP
3
32. π
4 ω 2
CP 16. c . π . m p
3 4.π mp
(6)
5 5
3 5 2 4
c . ω Ce 27. ω h ω Ce h .m e 27. m h m e
2 4
λ CN 27 λ
rν . . CN . . . .
2
16. π . λ
2
4 . π . λ h λ Ce
4
4 . ω CN
3
32. π
4 ω 2
CN 16. c . π . m n
3 4.π mn
Ce (7)
Subsequently, the analytical approximation error relative to the numerically precise result for “rπ” and
“rν” returned by “MathCad 8 Professional” may be shown11 to be trivial.
3.2.1 NUMERICAL
Storti et. al. conjectured in [6] that the mass-energy threshold of a Photon “mγ” based on the
classical Electron radius “re” may be deduced by the summation of a finite reciprocal harmonic series.
Since there are half as many odd harmonics as there are “odd + even” harmonics in a broad Fourier
distribution, as the harmonic cut-off mode “nΩ” tends to infinity, the following relationship was derived
in [6],
mg 1
> . ln 2 . n Ω r e , m e γ
mγ 2
(8)
Where, “mg” represents the odd harmonic spectral mass-energy contribution and “γ” denotes Euler’s
Constant.
Applying Buckingham Π Theory (BPT) in terms of dynamic, kinematic and geometric
similarity to the preceding equation and recognising that the mass-energy terms may be replaced by
“ωΩ”, leads to an expression where “rε” may be numerically determined as follows,
ω Ω r ε , me 1.
ln 2 . n Ω r e , m e γ
ω Ω r e, m e 2
(9)
It is conjectured in [4-6] that the gravitational spectrum of a solid spherical mass may be
characterised by a frequency distribution terminating at “ωΩ”. Subsequently, it follows that IFF “re”
represents a conditional experimental observation dimension, we may conjecture that the radius of an
Electron occupies a range of values dependent on how it is measured as suggested by recent scattering
experiments. [15]
Therefore, the preceding equation represents a robust mathematical condition defining the
lower boundary of the Electron radius that preserves the gravitational nature of the works covered in
[1-6]. Utilising the “Given” function within the “MathCad 8 Professional” environment, a highly
precise numerical approximation for “rε” is determined to be,
r ε 0.0118. ( fm)
(10)
11
The magnitude of error for any line element is less than 10-6(%).
4
3.2.2 ANALYTICAL
An analytical approximation of “α” incorporating “rε” and “rπ” may be obtained utilising
exploratory factor analysis. Applying the radii approximations above, a useful exponential
relationship12 between the Proton and Electron may be defined as follows,
2
rε
α .e 3
rπ
(12)
We shall conjecture that the “2/3” index is a qualitative indicator by considering the derivations in [1]
where it was illustrated that “2/3” relates the experimental relationship function “K0” to “KPV”. This
assumption shall be further developed in the proceeding section.
The calculated results imply that EGM may be a useful tool by which to enhance nuclear
understanding in the fields of Quantum-Electro-Dynamics (QED) and Quantum-Chromo-Dynamics
(QCD). Subsequently, exploratory factor analysis in conjunction with the preceding formulations
suggest that “ωΩ” for a free Electron may be usefully approximated13 as follows,
ωΩ(rε,me) = 2ωΩ(rπ,mp) (13)
Assuming equation (12,13) to be exact representations may provide an opportunity for greater
computational precision of “rε”. This may be achieved by utilising the “Given” function satisfying the
following “1x3” matrix block within the “MathCad 8 Professional” environment,
9
2
rε ω Ω r ε , me rε 1.
5
α .e 3
ln 2 . n Ω r e , m e γ 2
r e ω Ω r π ,mp rπ 2
(14)
14
Returns the result ,
rε = 0.011802(fm) (15)
The mass of the Electron based on its classical radius has been established and scientifically
accepted for many years. However, considering that scattering experiments have cast doubt on its
radius, we may conjecture that the introduction of energy to the state of the Electron during radius
measurements by scattering techniques affects its mass.
It is also well accepted that the mass of a particle increases as its energy state increases leading
to a reduction in its physical dimensions. Subsequently, we may conjecture that “rε” derived herein is
accompanied by “∆me” when “rε” is measured utilising High-Energy techniques as conducted by “Los
Alamos National Laboratories” (LANL) [15] and the Stanford Linear Accelerator (SLAC). [16]
12
To within 0.026(%) of its NIST value based on approximations of “rε” and “rπ” derived herein.
13
To within 0.018(%).
14
“ωΩ(0.011802(fm),me) = 2ωΩ(rπ,mp)” to within 10-6(%).
5
Therefore, the Electron scattering mass “mε” may be determined utilising the “Given” function
satisfying the following “1x2” matrix block within the “MathCad 8 Professional” environment,
ω Ω r ε , mε ω Ω r ε , mε 1.
ln 2 . n Ω r e , m e γ 2
ω Ω r e, m e ω Ω r π , mp 2
(16)
Yields,
∆me ≈ +0.04(%) (17)
Utilising the preceding construct in conjunction with exploratory factor analysis, a simple family
of equations may be formulated expressing the terminating gravitational spectral frequency for a free
Electron, Proton and Neutron explicitly in terms of Compton Frequencies in the form a “1x3” matrix as
follows,
2 2
ω CP ω CN
ω Ω r ε ,me ω Ω r π , mp ω Ω r ν , mn 2.ω Ω r π , mp
ω Ce ω Ce
(18)
4 PHYSICAL MODELLIG
4.1 ELECTRON
Equation (10,15) agrees favourably with the results of High-Energy scattering experiments
reported in [15]. It states that, if the Electron is not a point particle, its physical dimensions are
approximately no larger than “0.01(fm)” and it seems improbable that the Electron has any “structure”.
Theses results strongly support EGM because “nΩ” is a function of radius and mass. Hence, it
may be stated that EGM also implies that structure does not exist beyond “rε” due to the lack of
harmonic modes beyond that dimension. Therefore, we may conjecture that the free Electron radius and
mass varies according to its energy level and may be physically modelled over the following set,
{(r,M): rε ≤ r ≤ re ∩ me ≤ M ≤ mε} (19)
4.2 PROTON
Relating equation (12) to the standard calculation form “α = 2πre / λCe” yields a set of highly
precise physical modelling boundaries for “rπ” in terms of Compton, Planck and exponential
characteristics as follows,
2 5
2 4
rε c . ω Ce 27. ω h ω Ce
. c .e 3
rπ . .
r e ω Ce 4 . ω CP
3
32. π
4 ω
CP
(20)
Therefore, “rπ” may be approximately written as: rπ = 0.8305±0.0001(fm)
4.3 NEUTRON
15
To within 0.3(%).
6
rε
≈π
rπ rν
(22)
If we assume that equation (22) represents an exact analytical boundary solution where “rε” from
equation (15) is utilised in conjunction with “rπ” from equation (6), the result returned for “rν” may be
expressed in terms of Compton, Planck and trigonometric characteristics as follows16,
5
2 4
rε c . ω Ce 27. ω h ω Ce
rπ rν . .
π 4 . ω CN
3
32. π
4 ω
CN
(23)
Therefore, “rν” may be approximately written as: rν = 0.8269(fm)
5 EXPERIMETATIO
6 COCLUSIOS
It has been illustrated that the EGM model of gravity predicts experimentally supported RMS
charge radii values of a free Electron, Proton and Neutron from an almost entirely mathematical
foundation. Experimental predictions have been derived from first principles for the RMS charge radii
of a free Electron, Proton and Neutron to high computational precision. This places the derived value of
Proton radius to within “0.38(%)” of the average Simon and Hand predictions, arguably the two most
precise and widely cited references since the 1960's.
Most importantly, the SELEX Collaboration has experimentally verified the Proton radius prediction
derived herein to extremely high precision [√[0.69(fm2)] = 0.8307(fm)].
The derived value of Electron radius compares favourably to results obtained in High-Energy
scattering experiments conducted at LANL. It has also been illustrated that a change in Electron mass
of “≈ +0.04(%)” accompanies the High-Energy scattering measurements. This suggests that the
Electron radius depends on the manner in which it's measured and the energy absorbed by the Electron
during the measuring process.
The Fine Structure Constant has also been derived, to within “0.026(%)” of its NIST value,
utilising the Electron and Proton radii construct herein. In addition, it is predicted that the terminating
gravitational spectral frequency for each particle, as described previously by Storti et. al., may be
expressed simply in terms of Compton Frequencies.
16
The error on the Left Hand Side (LHS), with respect to the Right Hand Side (RHS) is less than
0.013(%).
7
References
8
APPEDIX A
λ Ce . m e λ Ce . m e
G. h
λ CP λ CN 3
λ h c
h . ω Ce ω CP. m e ω CN. m e 5
me ,mp , mn , ω h c
2.π .c
2 ω Ce ω Ce
G. h
mh
h . ω CP h . ω CN
h .c
2.π .c 2.π .c
2 2 G (A1)
ω Ω ( r , M ) n Ω ( r , M ) .ω PV( 1 , r , M )
(A2)
Ω ( r, M ) 4
n Ω ( r, M ) 1
12 Ω ( r, M ) (A3)
3
2
U m( r , M ) U m( r , M )
Ω ( r, M ) 108. 12. 768 81.
U ω ( r, M ) U ω ( r, M )
(A4)
3.M .c
2
U m( r , M )
4.π .r
3
(A5)
U ω ( r, M ) .
4 4
U ω n PV, r , M n PV 2 n PV
(A6)
h . 4
U ω ( r, M ) ω PV( 1 , r , M )
2.c
3
(A7)
G .M
n PV 3 2 . c . G. M r .c
2
ω PV n PV, r , M . .e
r π .r (A8)
U m( r , M ) 3 . r2 . c4 3 π . r
.
U ω ( r , M ) 4 . h . G 2 . c . G. M
(A9)
3 3
6.r c .
2.
π .r
Ω ( r , M ) 3.c .
h G 2 c . G. M
. .
(A10)
3
3
Ω ( r , M ) c . 6.r c .
2.
π .r
n Ω ( r, M )
12 4 h G 2 c . G. M
. .
(A11)
3 . . .
n Ω r ε ,me 2 c G me
.
n Ω r ε , m e . ω PV 1 , r ε , m e π .r ε
3
ω Ω r ε ,me rε n Ω r ε ,me r e r e
. .
ω Ω r e, m e n Ω r e , m e . ω PV 1 , r e , m e n Ω r e, m e 2 c G m e n Ω r e, m e r ε r ε
3 . . .
.
re π .r e
(A12)
3 3
. 2. π .r ε
c. 6 rε c. 5
3 3
h .G 2 . c . G. m e
3 3 2 3 3 3 9
Ω r ε , me r e r e 4 re re rε rε re re re rε rε re
. . . . . . . . .
Ω r e, m e r ε r ε 3 rε rε re re rε rε rε re re rε
. 2 . 3 π .r
c. 6 re c. e
4 h .G 2 . c . G. m e
(A13)