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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION


1.1 Loads on Aircraft and Spacecraft
1.2 Design Loads
1.3 Aerospace Materials
1.4 Description of Aircraft Structures
1.5 Description of Launch Vehicles and Spacecraft Structures
(To be discussed in class)






















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1.1 Loads on Aircraft and Spacecraft

Loads on aircraft

Flight loads
- Maneuver
- Gust
- Buffet
- Flutter
- Pressurization

Power plant
- Thrust
- Torque

Takeoff and landing
- Catapult
- One wheel
- Arrested
- Braking

Ground operation
- Taxing (bumps and turning)
- Towing



Example: Aircraft in pull-up maneuver








M: vehicle mass
2
V
a
R
= : acceleration
V : velocity R : radius of circular path

Newtons second law:

W L Ma =

) ( g a M Mg Ma W Ma L + = + = + =

L
a
W
3
Substructure Loads
Fuselage Maneuver, Braking, Pressurization
Wing Maneuver, Gust Loads,
Vertical Tail Yaw Maneuver, Lateral Gust
Horizontal Stabilizer Pitch Maneuver, Vertical Gust
Control Surfaces Max Control Deflection
Engine Pylon Thrust, Vibration, Reverse Thrust
Main Landing Gear One Wheel Landing, Crash Landing
Nose Gear Landing, Taxi, Towing








Loads on rockets and spacecraft

Axial load due to acceleration

Shear force and moment due to aerodynamic loads

Wind load gust at low altitude and jet stream at 30,000 to 40,000 ft

Dynamic loads (that varies rapidly with time) during launch cause structural vibration
that induces additional stress in the structure.

The main sources of dynamic loads are:
Acoustic - Rocket engine gases passing through the nozzle at high velocity mix
turbulently with the surrounding air.
Shock - engine ignition, engine shutdown, staging, pyrotechnic devices.

Additional sources of vibration are engine pulsation due to uneven burning,
turbine vibration, fuel sloshing and control forces.

Loads in orbit at zero gravity the loading environment is benign and the spacecraft in
orbit can be of lightweight and flexible.

Reentry vehicle aerodynamic loads and heating during reentry


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1.2 Design Loads

Each part of an aerospace structure is designed based on the greatest loads acting on that
part.


Limit load: The largest load that a structure is expected to experience during its lifetime.

Safety factor: A safety factor (SF) is specified to account for uncertainties in material
properties, loading environments etc. 1.5 for inhabited craft and 1.25 for
missiles.


Ultimate load (or design load) = Limit load x SF


A structure is designed such that the ultimate strength (or the failure load) of the structure
is equal to or slightly above the ultimate load.

Ultimate margin of safety =
ultimate strength ultimate load
ultimate load

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Example:

A 600-lb payload is mounted in the upper stage of a launch vehicle. During the boosted
vertical flight phase, a peak acceleration of 9 g is reached. The payload is mated to the
booster by four bolts loaded in shear, each of which has shear strength of 2,126 lb. The
specified factor of safety is 1.25.

Determine

(a) the limit load per bolt,
(b) the ultimate load per bolt, and
(c) the ultimate margin of safety.

Solution:

(a)

a : acceleration
F: Total (shear) force from the bolts to the
payload




Newtons second law

ma F mg =
( ) F ma mg m a g = + = +

max 9 a g =

= + = =
= =


F m g m g
W
g
g
g
g lb
( ) ( )
,
9 1 10 10
600
10 6 000


Limit shear load per bolt: 6 000 4 1500 , , = lb

(b) Ultimate load per bolt: 1500 125 1875 , . , = lb
(c) Ultimate margin of safety: ( , , ) , . 2 126 1875 1875 0134 =


payload
F
mg
a
payload
nose cone
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1.3 Aerospace Materials

Typical materials are aluminum, titanium, steel alloys and composite materials. Important
considerations in the selection of structural materials are specific stiffness (i.e. Young's
modulus per density), specific strength (ultimate strength per density), fatigue resistance,
damage tolerance, corrosion, high temperature property, cost etc.



Table: Specific stiffness and strength & other material properties


material
specific
stiffness
( ) E
(m
2
/s
2
)x10
6

specific
strength
( ) o
u

(m
2
/s
2
)x10
3
elastic or
Youngs
modulus E
(GPa)

density

(g/cm
3
)
tensile
yield stress
o
y

(MPa)
tensile
ultimate
stress o
u

(MPa)
Aluminum
2024-T3
7075-T6

25.9

25.54

161.5
193.5

72
71

2.78
2.78

324
490

449
538
Titanium
Ti-6Al-4V

24.66

207.4

110

4.46

869

925
Steel
AISI4340
300M

25.64
25.64

229.5
238.5

200
200

7.8
7.8

1483
1520

1790
1860
*Values from Marks Handbook



Note:
(1) Steel is susceptible to corrosion.
(2) Titanium is used where temperature is high e.g. the leading edge of supersonic
aircraft wing. Titanium costs more than Aluminum.
(3) Composite materials will be discussed later.



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1.4 Description of Aircraft Structures

1.4.1 Wing and Tail Structures

A wing consists of skin, spars and ribs.
Skin and spars form a closed wing box to carry bending and torsional loads.
Ribs maintain airfoil shape.
Stiffeners are used to stiffen skins and provide additional bending stiffness
Horizontal and vertical tail structures are similar to wing structure.





The leading edge part of a wing section consists of a slat and the actuators.
The trailing edge part of a wing section consists of flaps and ailerons and the actuators.
The wing box occupies 40 50 % of the wing chord.



.




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Wing-to-fuselage
bulkhead frame
Carry-through section
Wing
High wing
Low wing
Mid-wing
Wing
Carry-through section




The left part and the right part of the wing are joined via a carry-through or ring frames

The loads (force and moment) from the wing are transferred to the fuselage through the
bulkheads.
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Variable-incidence mount
Aft
fuselage
Bulkhead
Hinges
Jackscrew
Horizontal tail

Aft fuselage
Hinges
All-moving tail (flying tail): transport
Hydraulics
Horizontal tail

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Aft fuselage
Bulkhead
Right tail
Left tail
Taileron
Right tail
Left tail
.
Flying tail
.


Joint
Vertical tail box
Bulkhead
Flying tail or taileron mount: fighter
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1.4.2 Fuselage Structures

Frames maintain the cross-sectional shape of the fuselage.
Stringers, longerons and stiffeners carry axial loads
Skins carry shear stresses

Frames also provide supports to prevent stringers or longerons from prematurely
buckling


Semi-monocoque structures refer to shells or skins that are reinforced with stiffeners
and/or spars. Fuselage or wing can be considered semi-monocoque structures.



frame
skin
stiffener or stringer or
longeron
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A B
P (Load due to moment) P
Keel beam
A B
A B
P (Load due to moment) P
Keel beam
A B
Section A-A
Keel beam
Wing
Fairing
Keel beam
Main landing
gear
Fuselage
bulkhead
Section B-B
Fuselage
bulkhead
Section A-A
Keel beam
Wing
Fairing
Keel beam
Main landing
gear
Fuselage
bulkhead
Section B-B
Fuselage
bulkhead




The wing carrythrough and wheel wells introduce discontinuities in the fuselage structure
and a loss of bending stiffness.

The keel beam is introduced to compensate for the lost bending stiffness.