ASSESSMENT AND REPAIR OF BUILDING AND BRIDGES

Prof. Mufid Samarai Sharjah Research Academy Sharjah, UAE

PART ONE
The Concrete Equation Deterioration of Concrete Structures Durability Issues Effect of Materials Deleterious Substances Corrosion of Reinforcement Exercise

Equation of Concrete

Cement+Water+Fine Agg.+Admixture+Mixing+Transportation+Placing+finishing+curing

Strength+Durability+Impermeability+Pleasant Appearance+ Utility+Insulation+Resistance to Chemical Attack+ Resistance to Vibration

Raw Materials
Cement + Water+Fine Agg. + Coarse Agg. +Admixtures

Manufacture
Mixing + Transportation + Placing + Finishing + Curing

Product
Materials / Prof.Mufid Samarai

IMPORTANCE OF QUALITY CONTROL

It is vital to educate the industry and society to the importance of quality control and quality assurance and to realize that the additional cost and effort spent on quality is a greater saving in the long run.

It is a known fact that you seldom improve quality by cutting cost, but you can often cut cost by improving quality.

Good construction is always cheaper than poor construction

Failure of Concrete and Concrete Structures:

There are many causes for the failures of concrete and concrete structures and in most cases it does not mean complete collapse of the structural element, but that it is no longer ,in a proper way, serving the purpose for which it was designed. It is believed that the most common causes of failure and the percentage of its occurrence are as follows: Damages due to Compounds of concrete Damages due to manufacture of concrete Damages due to structural design Damages due to excessive loads Damages due to foundations Damages due to fire, etc. Damages due to collapse of structure 40% 22% 12% 8% 7% 4% 5%

The problem Types of Deterioration

Deterioration & Corrosion

Corrosion is the gradual destruction of material, usually metal, by chemical reaction with its environment.
Causes:
1. Design Failure 2. Physical Damage 3. Poor Workmanship 4. Structural Movement

The problem Construction Defects

Feature Co lour variations Cause Variable aggregates Inclusion of contaminants or deleterious particles Variable surface texture of the formwork Staining from formwork Sugars in some plywood formwork Uneven curing Incorrect alignment of formwork Movement of formwork Air trapped against the formwork Effect Generally only a cosmetic problem

Step in the surface Blowholes

Generally a cosmetic problem, but may lead to reduced cover to reinforcement and long -term durability problems Slight local reduction in cover to reinforcement, depending on the blowholes size, but Generally cosmetic problem,only needs to be filled if film forming protective coating is to be applied Significant local reduction in the protection to the reinforcement, could lead to less of effective concrete section

Honey combing

Inadequate aggregate grading and/or poor compaction

Grout loss
Sand runs on vertical surface Scaling Staining

Inadequate section of formwork

Excessive bleeding

Significant local reduction in the protection to the reinforcement,

Generally a cosmetic problem, but may lead to reduced cover to reinforcement and long -term durability problems. (May also indicate plastic settlement cracks on horizontal surface Cosmetic problem only Cosmetic problem only

Movement of the formwork after compaction thus removing support Rust on formwork before casting: corrosion pre-duets from elsewhere (e.g. starter bars that have been exposed for a period) Failure of curing membrane to break down

Factors affecting durability Internal Causes

Chemical Action Wear

External Causes
Weathering

Freezing & Thawing

Temperature variation

Moisture Variation

Inorganic Salts

Acids

Water

Wind

Traffic

AlkaliAggregate Reaction

Volume Changes

Permeably & Absorption

Effects of Deterioration & Corrosion

1. Frost Attack
2. Chemical Attack

3. Carbonation
4. Alkali-Silica Reaction

5. Chloride Attack
6. Freezing and Thawing

7. Abrasion-Erosion Damage

Specifying for durable concrete

1. Classification of exposure condition 2. Emphasis on low permeabilty - via Concrete cover Mix constituents Compaction Curing 3. Specific requirements - eg Sulphates Chlorides ASR Abrasion Freeze/thaw

Adequate cover
Adequate cover over the reinforcing steel ensures that the diffusion of aggressive species to the steel level is delayed. Rasheeduzzafar et al. (1986), based on their field and laboratory studies, have recommended a safe cover for reinforced concrete structures exposed to various aggressive environments of the Arabian Gulf, as given below:
Exposure conditions Recommended cover thickness (mm) 50

Building components which are permanently exposed to the saltladen corrosive atmosphere Building components which are protected against weather and the aggressive conditions of exposure Concrete components exposed to seawater and footings as well as other main structural members cast against the ground

25 to 38

75

The various "CRETES" according to Dewar

Zone of much poorer quality concrete Zone of poorer quality concrete Zone of poorer quality concrete "COVERCRETE" Zone of generally higher quality concrete "HEARTCRETE" Cross section of a beam "SITECRETE"

Cube compacted & cured in a standard way "LABCRETE"

Durability of RC structures

The durability of a reinforced concrete structure can be related to its permeability to liquids and gases an increase in durability can normally be achieved by a reduction in the water/cement ratio, which reduces both the level and size of capillary pores.

Typical Local Specification for Durability Parameters.

Test Method Water AbsorptionBS 1881 part 122 Water Permeability - DIN 1048 Rapid Chloride Permeability (RCP), ASTMC1202 Limits Maximum 2% at 28 days Maximum 10 mm at 28 days Maximum 2000 coulomb s at 28 days

The problem - Materials

Aggregates ( Coarse & Fine) : contaminated salty aggregates leads to corrosion of steel, unsound ones leads to deterioration of concrete and poorly shaped aggregates (Flaky or elongated) require more water to produce workable concrete. Other aggregates related deterioration: Aggregates Shrinkage and Swelling Aggregates Softening Alkali-Silica Reaction

Contaminated water: used in mixing and curing causes corrosion of reinforcing steel.

Admixtures
concrete mixtures incorporating fly ash, silica fume, or fine cements frequently have a low to negligible bleeding rate, making such mixtures highly sensitive to surface drying and plastic shrinkage, even under moderately evaporative conditions (ACI 234R).
Certain admixtures increase the time of initial setting or reduce the amount of water needed for a given initial slump or both, but such concretes may stiffen faster, sometimes too fast even for a cement and an admixture that separately meet all specifications ,

pulverized-fuel ash (PFA) ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS). condensed silica fume (CSF) metakaolin (MK)

Table : Intrinsic Durability-Enhancing Measures of Concrete in the Region.

Descriptions and Code of practice 1. The Intrinsic Properties of Concrete 1-1. Mix Design Properties Cement Type (ASTM 150) Type 1 Type 11 OPC MSRC Advantages Isolate steel to avoid attack by chloride Isolate steel to avoid attack by chloride Sulfate resistance For cold weather For Mass concrete Sulfate resistance Low permeability Low permeability Disadvantages Spoil by sulfate exposure 5 < C3A< 8

Type III Type IV Type V 1-2. Cement dosage (variable as to structural design) 1-3. Free Water Cement Ratio (DIN 1048 30mm to 60 mm BS5328) 1-4. Use aggregate and dune with low SO3, Mg2O3 & Acids content, (BS 5328) 2. Good workmanship Temperature control, Slump Control, Smooth finish, Preventing water vaporization, (BS 5328) 3. Proper vibration (BS 5328)

R.H.C LH.C. SRC

Not fit in UAE environment Spoil by sulfate exposure Unable to stop Chloride attack Higher heat of hydration Low workability Not always available

300 550 Kg 0.36 up to 0.5

32o int. 45o ext.

Avoid honeycombs to reduce air void as possible stop segregation Prevent sulfate cracks Reduce shrinkage Increase as possible Protection for steel

4. Proper curing 5. Concrete cover

BS8007, CIRIA 91 and Concrete Society Digest 2

Gross simplification Not always safe Crack control not prevention

(Water retaining structure designed to BS 8007)

REMARKS

Concrete with a water permeability coefficient of not greater than 1x1012 m/s and with a moderate to high sulfates resistance binder (ASTM C1157M) is recommended .

Durability of Concrete
Description Cause Component(s) Involved Symptom
Coarse "map -cracking" with viscous fluids erup ting General cracking and softening General etching of surface Cracks with rust stains above location of reinforcements General scaling and sp alling at surface Fine crack p attern roughly p arallel to joints in p avements Cracking and sp alling Alkali-aggregate Reaction of siliceous Aggregate aggregates by alkali ions S ulfate attack Reaction of p aste Paste comp onents with sulfates Acid attack Dissolution by acids Paste (aggregate) Rebar corrosion Rusting of steel Reinforcement

Frost attack D-cracking

Freezing of water in p ores Freezing of water in p ores

Paste Aggregate

Fire damage

Decomp osition of Paste (aggregate) hy dration p roducts and develop ment of internal stresses Thermal cracking Internal stresses from Paste (aggregate) S hrinkage restrained contractions

Localized cracking.

Damage Rating as per RILEM TC 104

Damage Damage rating 1( very slight) 2( slight) 3(moderate) 4(severe) 5(very servere)

Cracks in unreinforced concrete

Plastic shrinkage or settlement, early thermal contraction or drying shrinkage cracks Effects of reinforcement corrosion

Width <1 mm

Width 13mm
Several short cracks

Width 35mm
Many short cracks

Width 5-10mm

Width >10mm with spalling

Many long cracks

Single short crack

Few long cracks

Individual narrow cracks along lines of bars

Several narrow cracks along lines of bars

Wide cracks with edge spalling or hollow areas

Many Wide cracks, some loss of concrete by spalling reinforcement visible and heavily corroded Holes<10mm in diameter

Complete loss of cover concrete protruding Reinforcement, substantial loss of reinforcement section Holes>30mm in diameter

Pop-outs

Three-legged cracks

Pop-outs barely noticeable

Pop-outs noticeable

Surface weathering or erosion

Barely noticeable

Clearly noticeable in patches

Continuous weathering over area<5mm deep

Continuous weathering over area5-10mm deep

Continuous weathering over area>10mm deep

CHLORIDES
Penetration of the chlorides starts at the surface, then moves inward. The rate of penetration is governed by the following factors: a) The amount of chlorides coming into contact with the concrete,

b) The permeability of the concrete, and

c)The amount of moisture present.

tell-tale rust staining

cracking over main steel

Eventually, the concentration of chlorides in contact with the reinforcing steel will cause corrosion when moisture and oxygen are present. As the rust layer builds, tensile forces generated by expansion of the oxide cause the concrete to crack and delaminate. Spalling and delamination occur if the natural forces of gravity or traffic wheel loads act on the loose concrete.

Chloride Diffusion shall be Documented - Deterministic Approach

A (10C) Cs=1.0%

Ccr=0.1%
n=0.30 t0=28 days D0=1010-13 m2/s
0,8 1,2

Chloride concentration [%]

1

Northern Europe Very hot climate Middle East Critical concentration

B (30C) Cs=1.0% Ccr=0.1%

0,6

n=0.30
t0=28 days D0=4010-13 m2/s

0,4

0,2

0 0 20

34.1 40

60 68.2

80

100

120

Distance from surface [mm]

Evaluation

Where

Carbonation

D: Depth of carbonation (mm)

KCR: Rate of carbonation mm/yr1/2 t: Service Life in Years

D KCR t
Evaluation
Chloride

Where t: Service Life in Years S: Concrete cover in mm R= w/c ratio K: Cl- Content of exposure solution in PPM

2.5S t 0.42 R K

1.22

Time for carbonation to reach reinforcement (years)

External concrete sheltered from rain
cover 10 mm 30 mm

w/c 0.7 0.5

5 15

45 135

Enhancements to Chlorides
For structures exposed to chlorides the following enhancements can be considered (Walker , 1998, 1999 & 2000). Note, that some of these measures are also useful in offsetting carbonation. 1. Addition of surface treatments or coatings to prevent ingress. 2. Addition of corrosion inhibitors to the concrete mix to reduce the action of chloride. 3. Addition of coatings to reinforcement to protect its surface. 4. Use non-corroding reinforcement such as stainless steel or possibly fibre composite materials. 5. Catholic protection 6. Where structurally possible use unreinforced concrete.

note: expansive nature of corrosion

Sulfate Attack
The presence of sulfates in soil and ground water has long been a source of attack of concrete below ground. In hardened cement, calcium aluminates hydrate can react with sulfate salts to produce a sulphoaluminate some 27% larger in volume than the solid phase, resulting in gradual disintegration of the concrete. Concrete with a water permeability coefficient of not greater than 1x10-12 m/s and with a moderate to high sulphate resistance binder (ASTM C1157M) is recommended .

sulphates

What is Corrosion of Steel?

the chemical or electrochemical reaction between a material, usually a metal, and its environment that produces a deterioration of the material and its properties.

The electrochemical nature of corrosion

anode +ve

cathode -ve

cathode -ve

Why is Corrosion of Steel a Concern?

When reinforcement corrodes, the formation of rust leads to a loss of bond between the steel and the concrete and subsequent delamination and spalling. If left unchecked, the integrity of the structure can be affected.
Rust has a substantially higher volume than steel-theoretically up more than six times greater, depending on oxygen availability

Stages in Reinforced Concrete Degradation

Degradation of reinforced concrete often happens in the following four stages: Stage 1: Initially, the concrete appears to be sound with relatively little macroscopic cracking and no reddish discoloration from corrosion product formation. Stage 2: Macroscopic cracks have appeared and the concrete surface is stained by reddish corrosion products.

Stage 3: Spalling of the concrete cover over the reinforcing steel is clearly visible, due to the formation of voluminous corrosion products, Stage 4: Severe spalling of the concrete cover over the reinforcing steel is evident, leaving the reinforcing steel bars directly exposed to the atmosphere.

Corrosion of Reinforcement
1. Initiation
Carbonation Chlorides Carbonation and chlorides

2. Propagation

Why Does Steel in Concrete Corrode?

Cracking
Carbonated zone

Rust

Reinforcing Steel

Why Does Steel in Concrete Corrode?

When concrete carbonates to the level of the steel rebar, the normally alkaline environment, which protects steel from corrosion, is replaced by a more neutral environment. Under these conditions the steel is not passive and rapid corrosion begins.
Rust Carbonated Zone

Steel

Cement Matrix

Why Does Steel in Concrete Corrode?

When chloride moves into the concrete, it disrupts the passive layer protecting the steel, causing it to rust and pit.

Corrosion Process

Type of Damage
Transverse cracking Spalling of concrete Corrosion induced
longitudinal cracking Delamination Rust and staining Loss of integrity

Factors that improve Durability

Factors that improve durability
Suitable materials Homogeneous Concrete
Air entraining Workabiliy Water Admixture Placing Compaction Form_work

Good surface finish

Curing
Min. Moisture Loss

Cement

Aggregate

Temperature

Quantity

Mixing

Design Strategies for Durability

Avoid or prevent degradation Reduce environmental loading Non reactive aggregate (AAR) Non-corroding reinforcement Cathodic protection Air entrainment

Service life design

Select the material composition and detailing to resist identified degradation risks for a specific period of time
Multi-Stage Protection Strategy

PART TWO

PART TWO
Evaluation of Concrete Structures Types, causes and evaluation of Cracks Non-Destructive tests Maintenance types and Procedures Exercise

Investigation

The 3-Stage Process Leading

to repair

Investigation- Preliminary Survey

It is a walk around structure & consists of:
Familiarization with type and extent of deterioration Collecting samples of loose concrete or lumps that can be easily pulled out Plan access to hidden areas Set safety requirements Equipment required: notebook, camera, measuring tape, hammer, binoculars, original drawings, papers marked with grid for sketching

Investigation- Preliminary Inspection

Its objective is to develop an initial of the most likely causes of deterioration. It mainly consists of inspecting : Cracks: location, type, orientation, width and Length, (To make cracks more visible, spray concrete with water and avoid noon hours) Deterioration (spalling, pop-outs, discoloration)
Leaks, damp patches or lime-scale Reinforcement corrosion Previous repairs Location and condition of joints Condition of any Bearings

Sample of Preliminary inspection Form

Diagnostic techniques

visual assessment Delamination hammer/chain covermeter - presence of reinforcement chloride analysis phenolphthalein test for carbonation half cell measurements to ASTM C876 resistivity corrosion rate (linear polarisation) permeability ultrasonics petrography radar

EVALUATION OF RESULTS
Correlation differences between the laboratory conditions and site conditions can vary, and this can affect the accuracy of our calibration

The variability of the particular test method, the operator skill and the variability of the concrete under test, control the accuracy with which test results can be calibrated against a particular desired concrete property
Member type Column Wall Beam Slab Typical 28-day wet cube strength cube strength Average 65% 65% 75% 50% in-situ equivalent as % of standard Likely range 55% - 75% 45% - 95% 60% - 100% 40% - 60%

Material Control and construction

Assumed std. devn. of control cube(s)(N/mm2)

Very good Normal Low

3.0 5.0 7.0

Estimated std. devn. of in-situ concrete (s ) (N/mm2) 3.5 6.0 8.5

EVALUATION OF RESULTS
Tests have well-defined procedures and the methods used for the calculation and assessment of different parameters from directly measured values will depend to a large extent on the test method used Variation in properties of hardened concrete tend to be random and requires that the results be analyzed using various statistical tools such as graphical and numerical methods The number of test types, location and points used has a significant bearing on the ease with which the variability of concrete within members and between members can be assessed.
Test method Standard cores Small cores Schmidt hammer Ultrasonic pulse velocity Internal fracture Windsor probe Pull-out Pull-off Break-off No. of individual reading recommended at a location 3 9 12 1 6 3 4 6 5

Test method Cores standard small Pull-out Internal fracture Pull-off Break-off Windsor probe Ultrasonic pulse velocity Rebound hammer

Typical COV for individual member of good quality construction 10% 15% 8% 16% 8% 9% 4% 2.5% 4%

Best 95% confidence limits on strength estimates

10% (3 specimens ) 15% ( 9 specimens ) 20% ( 4 tests ) 28% ( 6 tests ) 15% ( 6 tests ) 20% ( 5 tests ) 20% ( 3 tests ) 20% ( 1 test ) 25% ( 12 tests )

introduction
While concrete look nice when they are new, over time the concrete can chip, crack and crumble. Cracks and potholes form due to the freezing and thawing of water that has seeped through smaller cracks, weed or grass growth in small cracks, and general wear and tear. Regular maintenance will prevent this problem. This is usually easy to do and requires up to a half day to complete depending on the condition and size of your repairs.

SHRINKABLE AGGREGATES

Types of Crack s
AFTER HARDENING

PHYSICAL

DRYING SHRINKAGE CRAZING CORROSION OF REINFORCEMENT ALKALI-AGGREGATE REACTIONS CEMENT CARBONATION

CHEMICAL

FREEZE / THAW CYCLES EXTERNAL SEASONAL TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS EARLY THERMAL CONTRACTION

THERMAL

External Restraint Internal Temperature Gradiets

TYPES OF CRACKS

ACCIDENTAL OVERLOAD

STRUCTURAL

CREEP
DESIGN LOADS EARLY FROST DAMAGE

BEFORE HARDENING

PLASTIC SHRINKAGE

PLASTIC
PLASTIC SETTLEMENT
FORMWORK MOVEMENT CONSTRUCTIONAL MOVEMENT SUB-GRADE MOVEMENT

Plastic settlement Plastic shrinkage

Crazing Shear cracks Alkali-silica reaction

Corrosion Early thermal contraction Long term drying shrinkage

Tensio n bendin g cracks

Plastic shrinkage

Types of Cracking
1. Structural cracks 2. Non structural cracks or Intrinsic cracks

Structural cracks

Non Structural Cracks

Intrinsic or non structural cracks are attributable to chemical or physical changes taken place within concrete. The classification of intrinsic cracks might enable designers and contractors to take measures which will either prevent or control these cracks.
Coincident cracks

Intersecting cracks

Reinforcing bars

Classification of cracks
Cracks maybe separated into two classes for the purpose of deciding upon the type of repair. a) dormant cracks . 1) fine cracks: 2) wide cracks: 3) fractures :

b) live cracks.

The problem Cracking occurring during Construction

Type of defect Typical time of appearance

Plastic settlement cracks

Plastic shrinkage cracks Construction defects Crazing Early thermal contraction cracks Long tern drying shrinkage cracks Chemical attack (including sulfate attack) Damage due to temperature movement (seasonal) Alkali-silica reaction Reinforcement corrosion

Ten minutes to three hours

Thirty minutes to six hours On removal of formwork One to seven days-sometimes much later One day to two or three weeks Several weeks or months Few months up to Several years depending on nature of the materials Probably up to a year ,but may be longer Several years Several years, but may be much shorter

Plastic Settlement Cracks

Plastic Shrinkage Cracks

Plastic Shrinkage Cracking

Surface drying is initiated whenever the evaporation rate is greater than the rate at which water rises to the surface of recently placed concrete by bleeding . The probability for plastic-shrinkage cracks to occur may be increased if the setting time of the concrete is delayed due to the use of slow-setting cement, an excessive dosage of retarding admixture, fly ash as a cement replacement, or cooled concrete concrete mixtures incorporating fly ash, silica fume, or fine cements frequently have a low to negligible bleeding rate, making such mixtures highly sensitive to surface drying and plastic shrinkage, even under moderately evaporative conditions (ACI 234R).

13 2

0.8 0.2 0.0

Crack width and corrosion

There is a relationship between the crack width and corrosion of steel.
Surface crack width (mm) 0.13 0.25 Average depth of corrosion (mm) 0.16 0.16 Average corroded length (mm) 9.2 12.9

0.51
1.27

0.18
0.21

12.8
15.0

>0.05 0.1 0.4 0.5 1.0 1.5

Reducing cracks
Cracking in concrete can be reduced significantly or eliminated by observing the following practices: Use proper subgrade preparation, including uniform support and proper subbase material at adequate moisture content. 2. Minimize the mix water content by maximizing the size and amount of coarse aggregate and use low-shrinkage aggregate. 3. Use the lowest amount of mix water required for workability; do not permit overly wet consistencies.

4. Avoid calcium chloride admixtures.

5. Prevent rapid loss of surface moisture while the concrete is still plastic through use of spray-applied finishing aids or plastic sheets to avoid plastic-shrinkage cracks.

6. Provide contraction joints at reasonable intervals, 30 times the slab thickness.

7. Provide isolation joints to prevent restraint from adjoining elements of a structure. 8. Prevent extreme changes in temperature. 9. To minimize cracking on top of vapor barriers, use a 100-mm thick (4in.) layer of slightly damp, compactible, drainable fill choked off with finegrade material. If concrete must be placed directly on polyethylene sheet or other vapor barriers, use a mix with a low water content.

Testing- Scope and Guidance

Testing is performed in order to obtain sufficient information on the condition of the deteriorated structure so that the appropriate remedial repair method is implemented. The sampling rate, type and location of tests shall include: Different elements (Columns, beams, Slab) Typical deteriorated areas Typical Non-deteriorated areas

Areas with Different exposure conditions

Previously repaired areas

NO TESTS SHALL BE CARRIED OUT UNLESS IT IS KNOWN WHAT THE RESULTS WILL BE USED FOR

Testing Types of Tests & Location

Location: Concrete on top layer tends to be weaker than the bottom one- well distribution shall be maintained

ASSESSMENT OF PROPERTIES
Property under investigation Corrosion of embedded steel Test Half-cell potential Resistivity Linear polarization resistance Cover depth Carbonation depth Chloride concentration Surface hardness Ultrasonic pulse velocity Radiography Permeability Absorption Petrographic Sulphate content Air content Abrasion resistance Cores Pull-out Pull-off Break-off Penetration resistance Maturity Pulse-echo Acoustic emission Thermoluminescence Thermography Radar Reinforcement location Strain or crack measurement Load test Equipment type Electrochemical Electrical Electrochemical Electrochemical Chemical/microscopic Chemical/electrical Mechanical Electromechanical Radioactive Hydraulic Hydraulic Microscopic Chemical Microscopic Mechanical Mechanical Mechanical Mechanical Mechanical Mechanical Chemical/electrical Mechanical/electronic Electronic Chemical Infra-red Electromagnetic Electromagnetic Optical/mechanical/electrical Mechanical/electronic/ectrical

Concrete quality, durability and deterioration

Concrete strength

Integrity and performance

TYPES OF TESTS
Destructive tests: These conventional methods enable the strength of the concrete to be measured by way of cores or cubes cut from the concrete. However, this is not possible in all cases and especially not for slender members. Non-destructive tests: By definition, the strength properties are not measured directly so some other properties are measured and the strength estimated by calibration. Naturally, these methods have the great advantage that concrete is not damaged. For example: Ultrasound test and Schemed Hummer Test. Partially destructive tests: In these tests, the concrete is tested to failure but the destructive resulting is very localized and member under test is not weakened to any significant extent For example Core test. .

Testing Types of Tests & Location

Direct: equipment gives direct result for property being tested Indirect: the required property is determined indirectly

Qualitative: Test will not yield quantitative results

A Range of Techniques used for the Non-Destructive Testing of Concrete

Non-destructive testing of concrete surface methods Vibration methods Radio acive methods Electrical methods Magnetic steel detection Dielectric

surface absorption of water

surface hardness

pulse propagation

x-rays

rays

Neutrons

shock waves Indentation Rebound pulse velocity

ultrasonic Radiography pulse attenuation Radiometry

Microwave absorption

Conductivity Absorption Back -Scater

Resonance

torsional

longitudinal

flexural

damping capacity

damping capacity

Testing Types of Samples

Lump Samples: They are broken small pieces from the structure good for visual examination and chemical testing. Cores: are cylindrical shape samples cut by a drill with hallow barrel tipped with industrial diamond bit. Core diameter for compressive strength can be either 100, 120, or 150 mm Dust Samples: are obtained directly from structures using hand held rotary drills and dust is collected via a shroud around the bit or by skewed tube connected to a plastic bag as shown in the adjacent figure

Testing - Sampling
For elements that contain chloride, it is suggested that 10 % of each elements (Col, Beams, slabs) to be tested with a minimum of 3 from each type. The Building Research Establishment, suggests the following:

Classification of Various Test Methods

Destructive tests. These conventional methods enable the strength of the concrete to be measured by way of cores or cubes cut from the concrete. However, this is not possible in all cases and especially not for slender members.

Non-destructive tests. By definition, the strength properties are not measured directly so some other properties are measured and the strength estimated by calibration. Naturally, these methods have the great advantage that concrete is not damaged

Partially destructive tests. In these tests, the concrete is tested to failure but the destructive resulting is very localized and member under test is not weakened to any significant extent

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity

The ultrasonic pulse velocity technique is based on the ability to measure the propagation velocity of a pulse of vibrational energy which has passed through a concrete medium. Knowing the direct path length between the transducers, and the time of travel, the pulse velocity through the concrete can be obtained.
V= L / T Where: V=Pulse velocity L= Path length, mm T= effective time, microsecods

Property under investigation Corrosion of embedded steel Concrete quality, durability and deterioration Concrete strength Integrity and performance

Test Half-cell potential, Resistivity, polarization Cover depth, Carbonation Linear depth

Surface hardness, Ultrasonic pulse velocity Radiography, Relative humidity,Permeability, Absorption, Sulphate content.Expansion, Air content ,Cement type and content,Abrasion resistance Cores, Pull-out, Pull-off, Break-off Penetration resistance, Maturity Pulse-echo, Dynamic response, Radar Acoustic emission, Thermography Strain or crack measurement, Load test

IN-SITU Testing
Half Cell potential: It measures the electrical potential on the surface of steel to qualitatively estimate the its likelihood of corrosion. Potential P ( mV) P > -200 mV -350< P< -200 Risk of corrosion 5% 50 %

P< -350

95 %

Half Cell Potential BS 1881

Purpose To determine the risk of corrosion in reinforcement. Results Range

Our results They range between -200 and 300mV, then we conclude that there is 50% risk of corrosion

Concrete Chloride Content bS 1881

Purpose Inspect corrosion of reinforcement Result Ranges Not to exceed Max. Chloride content = 0.4% by weight of cement for reinforced concrete, In Gulf only allow for 0.3%. = 0.1% by weight of cement for prestressed concrete Our Results Ranges between 0.04% and 0.1%

TESTING OF CONCRETE
METHOD STANDARDS PRINCIPLE FEATURES

ASTM Rebound hammer C805

BS 1881 Existing concrete,best used comparatively 207 Existing concrete , high variability Existing concrete surface or partially cored New construction or Exsisting concrete

Pull out

C900

Pull off

207

Break off

C1150

207

IN-SITU Testing
Surface Hardness: Rebound (schmidt) hammer: used to indirectly asses the strength of Concrete Near Surface Strength: used to asses the strength of concrete near surface 2) Capo (Cut and Pull-out) 4) Break off Tests

1) Pull out Test 3) Pull off Tests

5) Penetration Resistance Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test: used to assess variation in the strength and presence of Void, Honeycombs

Direct

Semi-Direct

Indirect

correlation between the pulse velocity & cube compressive strength

40 38
Compressive Strength (N/mm2)

36 34 32 30 28 26 24 22 20 4.7 4.8 4.9 5 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 Pulse KM/s

Maintenance Management System

Maintenance is a combination of any actions carried out to retain an item in ,or restore it to an acceptable condition
Policy & Resources Committee

Property Department

Architects

Quantity Surveyor

Engineers

Building Maintenance

Area surveyor

Senior surveyor

Surveyors technicians inspectors

Valuers

Rural Practice

The maintenance of structures is done to meet the following objectives: Prevention of damages and decay due to natural agencies to keep them in good appearance and working condition. Repair of the defects occurred in the structure and strengthen them if necessary.

Necessity of Maintenance
The maintenance of structures is done to meet the following objectives: Prevention of damages and decay due to natural agencies to keep them in good appearance and working condition. Repair of the defects occurred in the structure and strengthen them if necessary. MAINTENANCE is a combination of any actions carried out to retain an item in ,or restore it to an acceptable condition

Types of Maintenance
1. 2. Routine Maintenance (Cyclic Maintenance) Preventive Maintenance (Scheduled maintenance.

3.

Corrective Maintenance (Emergency maintenance.)

Routine Maintenance
Its the service of maintenance attended to the structure periodically. It is done by the fund provided annually for the purpose which is normally 1 % of the cost of construction. This is rendered to meet day to day problem of normal nature and includes the inspection, planning the program and executing the same. It includes white washing, patch repair to plaster, replacement of fittings and fixtures, binding of road surface.

Preventive Maintenance
The maintenance work done before the defects occurred or damaged developed in the structure. It includes through inspection, planning the program if maintenance and exacting the same. It depends upon the specifications, condition and use of structure.

Corrective Maintenance:
It is the maintenance done after the defects or damage occurs in the structure.

When to take action

1
Time to failure

Relative
Time to first spalling Time to first cracking Time to onset of corrosion

deterioration

0.5 0

Corrosion

Time

A summary of a decision making process for investigating and assessing

Routine inspection Required as part of asset management system

Ad hoc inspection because: Evidence of cracking or spalling of concrete Requirement for durability assessment of structure Change of use or ownership

Initial assessment of current state of structure Investigation, testing and durability assessment (These can be different for individual elements of the structure) Determine cause of deterioration and whether it is corrosion related Determine degree of deterioration

Establish: Intended use of structure Design life of structure Residual service lifespan Required performance characteristics

Consider: original design approach Environment and contamination Conditions during construction Conditions of use History of structure

Type A Carbonation

Identification of active deterioration mechanisms Type B Type C Cast-in chlorides Ingressed chlorides

Type D Carbonation & Chlorides

Contributory deterioration mechanisms

Evaluation of deterioration Establish cover depth Establish chloride concentrations Establish depth of carbonation Establish condition of steel Assess structural implications

Monitoring Periodic Continuous

Modeling and prognosis Future chloride concentrations Future depth of carbonation Future corrosion rate of steel

Detailed assessment of condition of structure or element Choose repair and protection principle appropriate to type of durability deterioration process

PART THREE

Purpose and Scope of Concrete Repair

Repairs are performed in various ways on concrete structures in order to extend its service life
End of Service Life Deterioration

Time
Initiation Period Propagation Repair Cycles

4b 40 years-old concrete structures

Where the reinforcement is in lower alkaline condition (pH<10) usually as a result of carbonation, where the depth of carbonation has just passed the reinforcement
Damp environment Dry environment Moderate High Very High Extremely high

Low

Moderate

High

Very high

Extremely high

Where the reinforcement is still within the alkaline zone (pH>10)

Damp environment Dry environment

Low

Moderate

High

Very high

Extremely high

Negligible

Low

Moderate

High

Very high

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.5

Average chloride ion content by weight of cement (%)

Repair techniques
The scope of repair works is summarized as follows:
Replacement of spalled areas Sealing of cracks wider than 0.2mm

Application of Additional Cover

Protective Coating System to Concrete Surfaces Waterproofing System

Bearings

Materials for repair

1) Resin mortars: To resist a wide range of aggressive chemicals. Having the ability to cure under environmental condition. 2)Epoxy mortars: In a well formulated epoxy mortar the shrinkage can be as low as 20 micro strains. 3)Bonding coats: bonding coats are used to promote the adhesion of the repair composition to the concrete substrate.

Details of specimens and test methods utilized to determine the properties of resin-based repair mortars

Property

No. of specimens tested per component

Test method

Pot life
Rate of cure Adhesion Compressive strength Tensile strength Flexural strength Elastic modulus Shrinkage Thermal expansion Chloride permeability Chemical resistance

3
3 3 6 6 6 6 6 6 3 3

]ASTM C 308 [14

]ASTM C 884 [15 ]BS 6319 part 4 [12 ASTM C 579 [16] Method A ]ASTM C 307 [17 ]ASTM C 580 [18 ]ASTM C 580 [18 ]ASTM C 531 [11 ]ASTM C 531 [11 ]ASTM C 1202 [13 ]ASTM C 267 [19

.Details of specimens and test methods utilized to determine the properties of bond coat materials
Property No. of specim ens tested per compon ent 3 3 3 3 3 Test method

Adhesion to steel Sensitivity to steel cleaning Resistance to salt exposure Crevice attack Resistivity

]ASTM D 4541 [21 Non-standard ]ASTM D 1654 [22 ]ASTM G 78 [23 Non-standard

.Details of specimens and test methods utilized to determine the properties of steel primers Property No. of specimens tested per componen t 6 3 Test method

Improvement in bond Chloride permeability

]BS 6319 part 4 [12 ]ASTM C 1202 [13

Carbonation Electrical resistivity

3 3

Non-standard Non-standard

.Details of specimens and test methods utilized to determine the properties of surface coatings
Property No. of speci mens tested per comp onent 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 Test method Specimen size

Adhesion Crack bridging Chloride diffusion Moisture resistance Water permeability Carbonation resistance Chemical resistance

]ASTM D 4541 [21 Non-standard Non-standard Non-standard ]DIN 1048 [24 Non-standard ]ASTM C 267 [19

)x 100 x 300 mm (concrete 62 )x 25 x 250 mm (mortar 25 )mm dia and 50 mm high (concrete 75 )mm dia and 72 mm high (mortar 50 )x 150 x 150 mm (concrete 150 )mm dia and 72 mm high (mortar 50 )x 25 x 25 mm (mortar 25

Sealers and Concrete Surface Coatings

Environment CO2 Sulfate Chloride Preferred concrete surface treatment material Silane/siloxane with acrylic topcoat; acrylic coating Silane/siloxane with acrylic topcoat Silane/siloxane with acrylic topcoat; silane; acrylic coating

Purpose

Suggested coating

Cement-based
Moisture barrier Polymer-modified cement

Resin-based
Epoxy resin

Chloride barrier
Crack bridging CO2 barrier Chemical resistance

Epoxy-modified cement
Polymer-modified cement Polymer-modified cement Polymer-modified cement

Epoxy resin
Epoxy resin Acrylic or epoxy resin Epoxy resin

Repair- Reinstatement with Mortar

1- Breaking Out Spalled Concrete 2- Cleaning The Exposed Reinforcement & Substrate

3- Applying protective Coating to exposed steel

4- Soaking or applying Bonding agent to substrate 5- Install formworks for slurry type mortar 6- Reinstatement with mortar (Patching) 7- Curing

Repair- Reinstatement with Mortar

Methods of Breaking concrete Typical Shutters For Repair

Method of fixing anchors

Repair- Cathodic Protection

It is used to prevent or reduce corrosion rates . It works by connecting the metal reinforcement to another material which is anodic in relation to the metal reinforcements. The metal becomes a cathode and its corrosion is reduced. Two systems are used: Sacrificial anode: It consists of small zinc, or magnesium blocks tie around reinforcements at 50 to 75 cm. They are more reactive than steel and reacts with chloride faster.
Impressed Current System: Inert material (mesh) connected to a DC power supply so that the reinforcement will stay protected in a cathode state

Re-Alkalization & CL- Extraction

Re-Alkalization is an electrochemical treatment for reinstating the passive state around reinforcement. This is achieved by passing an current thru the concrete to then reinforcement using an externally applied anode that is attached to the concrete surface. Chloride Extraction is an electrochemical process for removing corrosive chloride from concrete. It is achieved by applying an electrical field between reinforcement and an external anode mesh. As a result Cl- are transported towards the anode and out of the concrete. Also a high PH is formed and protection of steel is reestablished.

Repair Other Techniques

Coating: Barrier Coating form a film on the surface Ex : Epoxy coating, Acrylic, Polyurethane and Polymer cement coating Pore Blocker: They are solvents that do not form a film on the surface. Instead they penetrate the capillary pores and block them via crystallization. Pore liner: Also do not form a film on the surface. They react with the silica in concrete to create a water repelling compound. Sealer: they form a film on the surface and also penetrate the pores to block them.

Repair Other Techniques

Crack Injection: Resin is injected under pressure through drilled holes that intersecting the cracks in order to close these cracks and prevent contamination from reaching reinforcement. Corrosion Inhibitors:

Calcium Nitrate: they are added to concrete at the time of mixing and reacts with the ferrous of the steel to make a passive stable layer up to certain chloride concentration. They are usually applied at a rate of 2 liters of Calcium nitrate / kg of Chloride concentration per m3 of concrete.
Migrating Corrosion Inhibitors (MCI): Recently developed, they follow the same principles of calcium nitrate but can be applied on the surface of the concrete. It is claimed that they migrate from the surface to the reinforcement to react with it and form on its surface a monomolecular layer which displace any chloride and protect the reinforcement from attack. Rate = 1l/m3

Repairing Techniques
Repairing options
No repair Partial Repair full repair

Repairing process:
Reinforcement Replacement Concrete removal Concrete cleaning Old reinforcement cutting and cleaning Reinforcement Protection Coupling system It is recommended for the deck slab due to limitation of space Straight labs system It is recommended for the wing wall

REPAIR METHOD (Galva shield )

Galva shield XP anodes provide localized corrosion protection in reinforced concrete buildings and structures. The palm-sized anode consists of a galvanic zinc core surrounded by an active cementitious matrix

The Benefits

Can be used in corrosive environments including chloride contaminated and carbonated concrete Extends service life of patch repairs User-friendly and easy to install

Repair to spalled concrete

Install structural supporting system as necessary. Remove spalled concrete in stages observing structural restrictions to a depth of 50mm behind the reinforcement . Delineate the area to a void feathering affects. Welding new pars. Apply epoxy coating to provide adhesion to concrete. Apply replacement concrete of cementations mortar.

Repairing cracks

Repairing Techniques
Repair of cracks:
All cracks are treated the same way except the difference between live cracks and dead cracks Live cracks are sealed with flexible material to support the effect of its movements Dead Cracks are sealed with a cementitious material

Repair failure
shrinkage cracking
debonding

corrosion again evident

Sealing of cracks & joints

Perrier to drilling for injections points ,reinforcement should be located using a cover meter. Spaces between the injections points shall be temporarily surface sealed along the cracks or joints. All injection joints shall be cleaned using oil free compressed air. Injections should start at one end and work progressively along the joints or cracks.

Repairing cracks

1-Chisel out the crack

2-Clean loose material

3-Apply at thin layer of bonding

4-Mix vinyl reinforced patching

5- Variation when repairing a large crack

Tips
Repair concrete cracks when the temperature is above 50 F degrees and overnight temperatures are not expected to drop below freezing the next few nights. Don't do repairs when it's too hot or too windy. The material will dry out too fast resulting in a weak repair. If this is unavoidable, then put plastic over it or shade it. After you repair concrete cracks, it's always a good idea to put a coat of concrete sealer over the area to help prevent water seapage. If your repairs are a darker color than the surrounding concrete, try rubbing it with a flat stone. This will turn it white making it less noticable.

If you plan to acid stain, be sure the caulk or patching used for any repairs contains cement or cementations material. If not the acid won't react and the repairs will be left uncolored.

Protection of Reinforcing Steel

Use of Inhibitors: Inhibitors are normally added to concrete to protect the reinforcing steel. They are widely used as durability enhancing materials for reinforced concrete structures. An ideal corrosion inhibitor is a chemical compound that when added in adequate quantity can prevent corrosion of embedded steel and has no adverse effect on the properties of fresh and hardened concrete. Several inhibitors have been proposed to inhibit reinforcement corrosion in the presence of chloride ions. Lafave (2002) reviewed nearly 50 papers and reports from research on corrosion-inhibiting admixtures used individually in structural concrete. Based on the literature review they arrived at the following recommended optimum admixture dosage for corrosion protection of mineral and chemical admixtures: Silica fume(10 to 15%) cement replacement, Fly ash (25 to 35%) cement replacement, GGBFS (40 to 55%) cement replacement, Calcium Nitrite (15 to 25 L/m3) of concrete. Mineral Corrosion Inhibitors: Mineral corrosion inhibitors that are most commonly used in the UAE are: Silica Fume, Fly ash, and Ground Granulated Blast Furnace (Sabouni, 1999). Chemical Corrosion Inhibitors: The most commonly used chemical corrosion inhibitors is calcium nitrite. Calcium nitrite is typically mixed into concrete as slurry. In concrete, calcium nitrite promotes stabilization of reinforcing steel's natural passivating layer. Nitrite is an inhibitor that reduces the transport of ferrous ions to the electrolyte; in other words, nitrite blocks the current path between adjoining mats of reinforcement. The

Avoid Deterioration by Mixing Stainless Steel with Black Steel

In humid atmosphere
Different electro-chemical potentials leads to Galvanic Corrosion (Bi-metal corrosion)

In alkaline concrete
High pH leads to the same electro-chemical potentials, hence no corrosion !

Coating and alloying of rebars

One of the ways of preventing corrosion of the reinforcing steel is by applying a protective coating on them. Coating of conventional reinforcement with organic or inorganic coatings may also result in the prevention of corrosion by isolating the steel from coming in contact with oxygen, moisture, and chlorides. Epoxy coating and zinc coating (i. e., galvanization) are also utilized. Yet another way of minimizing the steel corrosion is through micro-alloying the same.

corrosion inhibitors
A recent study, on the effectiveness of four types of corrosion inhibitors, calcium nitrite, calcium nitrate, and two organic inhibitors in contaminated concrete, conducted by Al-Amoudi et al. (2003) showed that although all the four corrosion inhibitors investigated were effective in delaying the initiation of reinforcement corrosion. However, calcium nitrite was distinctly efficient in the concrete specimens contaminated with chloride, chloride plus sulfate and sea water
Contamination Chloride (0.8% Cl-) Chloride and sulfate (0.8% Cl- + 1.5% SO3) Sea water Brackish water Unwashed aggregate Preferred corrosion inhibitor 4% calcium nitrite or 4% calcium nitrate 4% calcium nitrite or 3% calcium nitrate 4% calcium nitrite 2% calcium nitrite 4% calcium nitrate

Monitoring
Monitoring is primarily a diagnostic or control process to help understand the in-service performance or management of a structure. It is also a valuable tool in the routine assessment of a structure. Monitoring may be either a periodic or repeated activity, or a continuous recording of data.

The major advantages of continuous monitoring are that:

1. Electrochemical probes embedded in a new structure can give early warning of potential

durability problems, especially in critical areas.

2. Once installed, access is not required again

3.

Retrofitted probes can be used to access the

effectiveness of remedial techniques.

SILOS

Recent Improvements
The increasing availability and use of Mineral Additions (such as microsilica, pfa and ggbfs) as cement replacements Advances in local formulation and production of highly efficient Super Plasticisers which have enabled the Free Water/Cementitious Ratio to be reduced to 0.35, or even less Recognition of the importance of the thickness and the quality of the concrete in the cover zone Improvements in the quality of Epoxy Coated Rebar Improvements and increased use of surface coating materials The availability of Corrosion Inhibitors The increased use of Cathodic protection and prevention systems

REFERENCES
ACI Committee 318 (1999), Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (318M-99) and Commentary (318RM-99), American Concrete Institute, Michigan, USA. ACI Committee 440 (2002), Guide for the design and construction of externally bonded FRP systems for strengthening of concrete structures, American Concrete Institute, Michigan, USA. FIB Bulletin 14, Design and use of externally bonded FRP reinforcement for RC structures. 2001. Macdonald, M. D. and Calder, A. J. J. (1982), Bonded steel plating for strengthening concrete structures, International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives, No. 4, pp. 119127. Meier, U. (1997), Repair using advanced composites. International Conference : Composite Construction - Conventional and Innovative, Innsbruck, Austria, IABSE, pp. 113-123. Neale, K. (2001). Strengthening reinforced concrete structures with externally-bonded fibre reinforced polymers - design manual no. 4. ISIS Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. SAI (2001), Concrete structures, Australian Standard AS3600-2001, Standards Australia International, Sydney, Australia. Teng, J. G., Chen, J. F., Smith, S. T. and Lam, L. (2002). FRP strengthened rc structures. Chichester, England, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. BRE Information Paper-Testing Anti-Carbonation Coatings for Concrete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AASHTQ-,Guide Specifications for Polymer Concrete Bridge Deck Overlays-Reference only. . Corrosion Management , ACI 222R-01-Protection of Metals in Concrete Against Corrosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V BRE Digest 444 Corrosion of Steel in Concrete Part3:ProtectionandRemediation 1679 BRE D53-Guide to the Maintenance, Repair, and Monitoring of Reinforced Concrete Structures-Reference only 1691 i/'ts TR 36-Cathodic Protection of Reinforced Concrete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . CS TR 37-Model Specification for Cathodic Protection of Reinforced Concrete. . . . . . . A Monograph No: 2-An Introduction to Electrochemical Rehabilitation Techniques. . . . . .. . . . . . CPA Monograph No: 4-Monitoring & Maintenance of Conductive Coating Anode Cathodic Protection Systems 1819 CPA Monograph No: 6- The Principles and Practice of Galvanic Cathodic Protection for Reinforced Concrete Structures 1823

REFERENCES
CSA S448. 1-93-Repair of Reinforced Concrete in Buildings-Reference only. . . . . . . . . , . .. . . . . . . . FIP-Guide to Good Practice for Repair and Strengthening of Concrete Bridges-Reference only. . . . . ACt 345.1 R-92 (Reapproved 1997)-Routine Maintenance of Concrete Bridges-Reference only. . . . . . CS TR 33-Assessment and Repair of Fire-Damaged Concrete Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CI 546.1 R-80 (Reapproved 1997)-Guide for Repair of Concrete Bridge Superstructures. . . . . : . . . . . . ACI 546.2R-98-Guide to Underwater Repair of Concrete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ACI 210R-93 (Reapproved 1998)-Erosion of Concrete in Hydraulic Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ACI 210. 1 R-94 (Reapproved 1999)-Gompendium of Case Histories on Repair of Erosion-Damaged Concrete in Hydraulic Structures 1979 USACE EM 1110-2-2002, Chapter 8-Evaluation and Repair of Concrete Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CI362.2R-0D-Gu'de for Structural Maintenance of Parking Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ACPA TB-020.02P- The Concrete Pavement Restoration Guide: Procedures for Preserving Concrete Pavements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ACPA TB-002.02P-Concrete Paving Technology-Guidelines for Full Depth Repair. .. ACPA TB-003.02P-Concrete Paving Technology- Guidelines for Partial-Depth SpaIi Repair ACPA TB-005P- Technical Bulietin-Guidelines for Unbonded Concrete Overlays. . . .. ACPA TB-008.01 P-Diamond Grinding and Concrete Pavement Restoration. .. ACPA TB-007P- Technical Bulietin-Guidelines for Bonded Concrete Overlays. . . . . ... MSHTuide Specifications for Polymer Concrete Bridge Deck Overlays. . . . . . . .. CRA-Standard Method of Measurement for Concrete Repair. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. CS TR 38-Patch Repair of Reinforced Concrete-Subject to Reinforcement Corrosion. . . . .. . ... ICRI Guideline No. 03735-Guide for Methods of Measurement and Contract Types for Concrete Repair Work ACI 22.1 R-93 (Reapproved 1998), Chapter 3-Causes, Evaluation, and Repair of racks in concrete Structures ICRI Guideline No. 03734-Guide for Verifying Field Performance of Epoxy Injection of Concrete Cracks.. ACPA TB-018P-Concrete Paving Technology-Slab Stabilization Guidelines for Concrete Pavements. . . . . p/ ACI 440.2R-02-Guide for the Design and Construction of Externally Bonded FRP Systems for Guide to Surface Treatments for Protection and Enhancement of Concrete. . . .. ... ICRI Guideline No. 03732-Selecting and Specifying Concrete Surface Preparation for Sealers, Coatings, and Polymer Overlays .. 1JSACE TN CS MR 4.4--Cleaning Concrete Surfaces. . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. USAGE TN CS MR 4.3 ER-Removal and Prevention of Efflorescence on Concrete and Masonry ACI 224.1 R-93 (Reapproved 1998), Chapter 3-Causes, Evaluation, and Repair of Cracks in Concrete Structures-Reference only.. VAC1504R-90 (Reapproved 1997), Chapter 7-Guide to Sealing Joints in Concrete Structures.... . ACPA TB-012P-Concrete Paving Technology-Joint and Crack Sealing and Repair for Concrete Pavements ...............