Case Study 10 - Centrifuge

Solid Separation Systems for the Pig Industry
Case Study 10 Centrifuge
Case Study 10 CENTRIFUGE DECANTER

Contents
CASE STUDY 10 CENTRIFUGE DECANTER .......................................... 10-1
10.1 10.2 10.3 Description of the System....................................................................... 10-3 Manufacturers / Distributors.................................................................. 10-5 Information Sources................................................................................. 10-6
10.4 Performance Data ..................................................................................... 10-6 10.4.1 Industry data on the dual gear centrifuge.......................................... 10-6 10.4.2 Payne (1990) - On-farm piggery trial Western Australia ................. 10-7 10.4.3 Abery (1994) - Piggery wastewater separation, Corowa, NSW ...... 10-8 10.4.4 Piccinini and Cortellini (1987) - Separation of animal wastewaters. 1010 10.4.5 Moller et al. (2000) - Separation of animal wastewaters ................. 10-13 10.4.6 Sneath et al. (1988), Sneath (1988a&b) - Piggery wastewater......... 10-14 10.4.7 Miner et al. (1983) - Separating anaerobic lagoon sludge............... 10-15 10.5 10.6 10.7 Running Costs and Maintenance ........................................................ 10-16 Practical Operating Issues..................................................................... 10-17 Piggery Case Studies.............................................................................. 10-17
10.8 Summary Selection Criteria............................................................... 10-18 10.8.1 Solids removed..................................................................................... 10-18 10.8.2 Capital cost ........................................................................................... 10-19 10.8.3 Operating costs and returns ............................................................... 10-19 10.8.4 Ease of operation.................................................................................. 10-19 10.8.5 Solids management options ............................................................... 10-20 10.9 References ................................................................................................ 10-20 List of Figures Figure 10-1 Schematic diagram of centrifuge decanter............................................. 10-3 Figure 10-2 - Relationship between influent TS concentration and removal efficiency Piccinini and Cortellini (1987)................................................................................ 10-11 List of Photographs Photograph 10-1 Centrifuge Decanter (side view)..................................................... 10-3 April 2002 FSA Environmental Page No.10-1
Photograph 10-2 Centrifuge Decanter (end view) ..................................................... 10-4 List of Tables Table 10-1 - Industry data provided by Westfalia Separators..................................... 10-7 Table 10-2 - On-Farm piggery trial - Payne (1990): data for liquor ............................ 10-8 Table 10-3 - On-farm piggery trial Payne (1990): data for solids ................................ 10-8 Table 10-4 - Piggery wastewater separation trial - Abery (1994) ................................ 10-9 Table 10-5 Solid removal efficiency of piggery wastewater ................................... 10-11 Table 10-6 - Solid removal efficiency of anaerobically digested pig wastewater... 10-12 Table 10-7 - Separated solids chemistry for raw piggery wastewater and anaerobically treated piggery wastewater ........................................................... 10-12 Table 10-8 - Livestock wastewater trial - Moller et al. (2000)..................................... 10-13 Table 10-9 Capital and operating costs of Centrifuge case study.......................... 10-18
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FIGURE 10-1 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF CENTRIFUGE DECANTER

A is wastewater inlet, B the bowl, C the screw, D the conical section, E the beach, F the solids outlet, G the level regulating discs, r1, r2 and r3 are the inside radius, the radius of settled solids, and the liquid radius respectively (Sneath et al., 1988)
PHOTOGRAPH 10-1 CENTRIFUGE DECANTER (SIDE VIEW) 10.1 Description of the System
Solid bowl centrifuges use the force developed under fast rotation to separate the liquid from the solid fraction. Decanter or scroll centrifuges differ from the earlier basket centrifuges in adding a helical screw conveyor, capable of continuously discharging the separated solids from the bowl (Albertson et al., 1991). The conveyor rotates at a slightly higher or lower speed than the bowl, conveying the solids from the stationary zone where the wastewater enters, to the dewatering beach where the solids are discharged. The scroll pushes the collected solids along the bowl wall and
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up the dewatering beach, located at the tapered end of the bowl. The liquid flows around and through the conveyor, over an adjustable weir towards the liquid discharge end. Decanter centrifuge models can rotate in counter-current, or continuous concurrent mode. Those with a concurrent design typically operate at lower speeds, depending on the machine size and separated solids properties.
PHOTOGRAPH 10-2 CENTRIFUGE DECANTER (END VIEW)

The solids content of the separated solids are determined by the length of the dewatering beach, and the differential between the speed of the bowl and conveyor (Albertson et al., 1991). By controlling the differential speed, optimum solids residence time in the centrifuge and the desired water content of the separated solids can be obtained. Newer models control the speed of the bowl as a function of the conveyor torque, with eddy current brakes also used. The best performance is achieved when the flow rate and solids concentration of the influent are standardised. A recent dual-gear drive development provides for the automatic adjustment of the rotation of the scroll relative to the bowl, to account for minor fluctuations in the flow rate and solids concentration of the wastewater (Westfalia Australia). This patented 2-gear drive system reduces the degree of supervision required, and reduces the likelihood of equipment failure due to torque overloading (machine choking). Increased throughput is also possible since the automatic torque-related scroll speed adjustment can allow for the feed rate to be increased without the danger of plugging. Sludges with a high proportion of fine and hydrous particles are more difficult to separate. Sludges prone to flowing will resist being conveyed up the slope (beach) to the solids discharge point. Hence most sludges are preconditioned prior to
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centrifugation using gravity-thickening and the addition of organic polyelectrolytes to produce heavier particles for capture. The key features of the Westfalia Australia centrifuge decanter are listed below. The manufacturer presets many of the components although the operator can control some: Bowl diameter Bowl length Bowl rotational speed Beach angle Beach length Pool depth Scroll rotational speed Scroll pitch Feed point of the sludge Feed point of the chemicals Condition of the scroll blades
10.2
Manufacturers / Distributors
Dual-gear system Westfalia Separators 42-47 Northgate Drive Thomastown Victoria, 3074 Phone: Facsimile: Email: Internet site: 03 9463 1999 03 9464 5455 chrisc@westfaliaseparator.com.au http://www.westfalia-separator.com
Alfa Laval Australia Pty. Ltd. Locked Bag 40 Blacktown Business Centre Blacktown, NSW, 2148 Phone: Facsimile: Email: Internet site: 02 8822 2700 02 8822 2799 brad.smith@alfalaval.com http://www.alfalaval.com
TEMA Engineers Pty. Ltd. PO Box 4335 Milperra DC NSW, 1891 Phone: Facsimile: Email: April 2002 02 9792 3555 02 9792 3134 temaeng@ozemail.com.au FSA Environmental Page No.10-5
10.3
Information Sources
The information presented in this case study is derived from the following sources: Manufacturers product information (including performance test data). Site inspection of units at Weston Bioproducts Moorooka (Feb 2001). Payne (1990) - On-farm performance of piggery wastewater treatment systems in Western Australia. Abery (1994) Trial of various separator devices at Bunge Meat Industries, Corowa, Australia. Piccinini and Cortellini (1987) - Livestock wastewater trial, Italy. Moller et al. (2000) - Livestock wastewater trial, Denmark. Sneath et al. (1988) - Piggery wastewater trial, Britain. Miner et al. (1983) - Anaerobic lagoon wastewater dewatering, Singapore.
10.4
Performance Data
10.4.1 Industry data on the dual gear centrifuge
Solids recovery data provided by Westfalia Australia for digested municipal sludge (Table 10-1) indicates that performance increases as the feed concentration increases. The polymer dose remained relatively constant at around 4.34 g/kg. Recovery of the solid fraction was highest (98.3%) at the highest TS concentration of the feed (4.6%). However, to accommodate the higher TS concentration of the feed the flow rate and therefore the capacity of the centrifuge was reduced from 35 m3/hr to 30.2 m3/hr. The dual gear function patented by Westfalia automatically adjusts the flow rate to maintain the TS concentration of the separated solids relative to the feed TS concentration. A high TS concentration of separated solids from municipal sewage treatment plants is desirable, as landfill is the common disposal option with charges based on weight. Polymer dosing was not used for the separation of solids from piggery and cattle wastewaters. Raw primary wastewaters are the most readily thickened, with activated sludge waste considered the most difficult (Albertson et al., 1991). The relatively high TS concentration of the feed indicates that the piggery wastewater would have been gravity-thickened prior to solids separation (Table 10-1). No solids recovery calculation was provided, but the TS content of the separated solids was very high (30-35%), rendering it readily stackable. The wetter solids produced from the cattle wastewater may indicate the poorer thickening properties of ruminant wastewaters, but the solids content of the separated solids was still sufficiently high to render it stackable (25-30%). In the absence of solids recovery data for the piggery wastewater, further interpretation of the results is difficult.
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TABLE 10-1 - INDUSTRY DATA PROVIDED BY WESTFALIA SEPARATORS

Capacity m3/h Digested municipal sewage sludge 35.0 35.1 40.0 30.3 30.3 30.2 L/hr/m2 3-4 3-4 Feed % TS 2.6 2.7 2.7 3.0 3.0 4.6 Polymer dose g/kg 4.5 4.4 3.6 4.3 4.3 4.5 TS % Separated solids 36.7 34.9 37.9 38.5 38.5 37.8 Solids recovery % 96.7 97.3 96.6 97.5 97.5 98.3
Piggery wastewater Cattle manure
3-6 6-9
Not used Not used
30-35 23-30
n.a. n.a.
10.4.2 Payne (1990) - On-farm piggery trial Western Australia The aim of this trial was to compare the performance of a number of mechanical solid separation devices installed in commercial Western Australian piggeries. Performance characteristics of the different systems could then be compared to indicate their effectiveness in reducing the pollutant loading of piggery waste. Separator systems evaluated included stationary and centrifugal screens, and one decanter type centrifuge. The decanter used (manufactured by Bird) was not dual geared. Adjustment of the inflow rate to match the influent TS concentration with the required TS concentration of the separated solids was under operator control. The decanter centrifuge achieved the highest solids removal percentage, and produced the driest solids fraction. However, the TS removal of 37% (Table 10-2) is substantially lower than that achieved for the municipal digested sludge of 97% (Table 10-1). The separated solids fraction had a similar TS content, averaging 35.4% (Table 10-3). The low TS concentration of the wastewater feed would in part account for the poorer solids recovery, as would the selection of a higher separated solids TS concentration. Gravity-thickening prior to solids separation and adjusting the flow rate to produce a slightly wetter solids would improve the TS removal efficiency. The TS content of the separated solids could be reduced to 25% without unduly altering the handling characteristics. At this TS content, the material would still be stackable. The low recovery values for nitrogen (TKN) and ammonia are as expected, given that a high proportion of the nitrogen is excreted in the urine (soluble). The relatively high total phosphorus (TP) recovery reflects the efficiency of the decanter in removing the very fine organic particles, which contain the phytate P fraction not readily metabolised by pigs (Giusquiani et al. 1998). The recovery of the volatile solids (VS) fraction (42% based on wet weight) indicates that a substantial reduction in the odour generation potential of the liquid fraction has been achieved. However,
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on a volumetric basis, the reduction as indicated by the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is much less, at only 25% (Table 10-2).
TABLE 10-2 - ON-FARM PIGGERY TRIAL - PAYNE (1990): DATA FOR LIQUOR
Fraction type and units of measure
Concentration (% wet wt. or mg/L) Incoming Influent Outgoing effluent Mass (kg/hra) Incoming influent Outgoing effluentb Solids % Removed from liquid influentb
a
TS
% wet wt 1.7 1.1 253 110 93 37
SS
% wet wt 1.2 0.7 183 103 80 44
VS
% wet wt 1.4 0.8 202 119 83 42
TKN
mg/L 1,801 1,590 27.0 23.6 3.4 13
NH4+
mg/L 850 782 12.8 11.6 1.2 9
TP
mg/L 335 238 50.3 35.4 1.5 30
BOD
mg/L 7695 5867 115.4 87.2 28.2 25
an estimated average throughput of 15 m3/hr b based on solids stream mass at 1.48% of incoming wastewater streams
TABLE 10-3 - ON-FARM PIGGERY TRIAL PAYNE (1990): DATA FOR SOLIDS
TS % wet wt Concentration wet wt basis % dry wt basis 35.4 (100) SS % wet wt 31.7 89 VS % wet wt 29.4 83 TKN
mg/L
NH4+
mg/L
TP
Mg/L
BOD
mg/L
4,732 1.34
848 0.24
2,965 0.84
17,901 5.05
10.4.3 Abery (1994) - Piggery wastewater separation, Corowa, NSW The aim of this study was to compare the efficacy of vibrating screens, sedimentation (gravity thickening), centrifugation and dissolved air flotation in series and/or in parallel in reducing the solids loading on anaerobic ponds. The trials were conducted at a commercial piggery, but no details of the age-class or diet of the pigs was given. Piggery wastewater was pumped into a sedimentation tank (capacity 120,000 litres) prior to testing the separation equipment. The sedimentation tank was square in cross-section, 6 m wide and 3 m deep, with one corner sloping to 4 m to facilitate the flow of solids to the pump. A steel mesh cage was used to remove large objects prior to solids separation. The centrifuge was a Sharples P2000 Decanter, with four options on the adjustment of the plate dam (weir) for selection of solids water content. For this trial the second driest solids setting was selected. Operator control was required to match the influent TS content with the flow rate to achieve the required TS content of the separated solids. A polyacrylamide cationic flocculant (10% MW 15-20 million powder costing $6 per kg) was tested prior to centrifugation. SNF Australia Pty. Ltd. conducted on-site tests for the selection of the polymer. The flocculant was added at the sedimentation stage prior to centrifugation. The residence time of the wastewater in the sedimentation tank was 2 hours. A MEX-P portable sludge level detector was used April 2002 FSA Environmental Page No.10-8
to locate the interface between the settled particles and the clarified liquid prior to gravity thickening. No details have been provided on the agitation system used to resuspend the solids, or on the pump used to feed the solid separators. Assuming that the raw wastewater had a TS concentration of 0.8% (quoted in the vibrating screens trial with no pre-treatment), the sedimentation step alone thickened the wastewater to 2.05 and 3.10% (Table 10-4). Results for gravity thickening with increasing rates of polymer dosing are inconsistent. The lowest polymer concentration of 7.2 mg/L achieved a TS concentration of 5.4%, whereas the second highest rate of 19.4 mg/L achieved a concentration of 1.7%. Flocculation involves the formation of a series of molecular bridges between particles (Rushton et al., 2000). The polymer chain is adsorbed onto one particle, and when another comes into close proximity the extended polymer chain is adsorbed onto it. The flocculation reaction is irreversible, and high rates of shear force easily break the molecular bridges. Polymer concentration is critical, as is low shear rate mixing to increase the collision rate of particles. Overdosing can lead to the formation of an adsorbed polymer layer, stabilising the suspension and making it difficult to separate. The results in Table 10-4 for polymer concentrations of 8.5 mg/L and above suggest that the combination of insufficient mixing during the sedimentation step, excessive shear force applied to resuspend the solids in the wastewater and/or overdosing, has interfered with the formation of large flocs.
TABLE 10-4 - PIGGERY WASTEWATER SEPARATION TRIAL - ABERY (1994)

Flocculant
Conc mg/L Cost $/ML
Sedimentation tank
Solids% Over Flow red.% Solids red.% Solids% out
Centrifuge
Solid % TS Liquid % TS Flow red.% Solids red.%
0 0 7.2 8.5 13.6 14.6 19.4 20.9
0.00 0.00 43.4 50.8 81.3 87.5 116.3 125.7
0.53 0.30 0.47 0.20 0.28 0.39 0.28 0.34
15.2 19.4 17.6 14.4 15.7 16.3 15.1 15.5
42.1 53.2 64.7 47.8 57.1 64.1 44.2 61.8
3.10 2.05 5.37 1.47 2.67 4.65 1.72 3.89
38.7 26.7 30.7 32.8 31.2 31.0 31.5 33.6
1.97 1.30 2.07 0.69 1.20 1.90 0.85 1.25
3.3 3.0 11.5 2.3 4.9 9.5 2.8 8.2
39.7 36.6 61.5 52.2 55.0 59.2 50.8 67.8
However, the data does show that gravity thickening alone (settling), to produce a TS concentration of above 2 %, can achieve a solids reduction of 40% (Table 10-4). Increasing the flow rate into the decanter at this TS concentration would improve the recovery percentage, producing wetter solids that would still be stackable. The TS content of the separated solids was 39%, the driest achieved during the trial. Increasing the concentration of polymer improved the solids reduction percentage, despite the less than optimal management of the flocculation process. Improving the management of the flocculation step and matching the flow rate into the decanter with the TS concentration of the feed would improve the performance of the system. Overall solids reductions were approximately 20% without the polymer and increased to about 40% with the use of a polymer. Until the management of the
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flocculation step is improved, conclusions on the cost-effectiveness of polymer addition should not be drawn.
10.4.4 Piccinini and Cortellini (1987) - Separation of animal wastewaters The aim of this study was twofold: To compare the performance of a range of mechanical solid separation systems commonly used in Italian rural industries, and To investigate how the TS concentration and wastewater type affects the performance of each device
The devices compared included stationary, rotating and vibrating screens, and horizontal type centrifuges. Data from the horizontal centrifuges has been included here, to indicate the effect of gravity thickening and polymer addition on performance. The wastewaters tested were raw piggery, raw cattle and anaerobically digested piggery wastewater. Data for the raw and anaerobically digested piggery wastewaters are included in Table 10-5 and Table 10-6 respectively. Two mobile horizontal centrifuge units were tested, Alfa Laval model AVNX 414 B rated at 31 G and Pieralisi model FP 600-RS. The volume of influent and effluent was measured using metal tanks with a capacity of 2.2 m3. The separated solids were collected and weighed. Cationic polyelectrolyte was added to the feed for each centrifuge in accordance with the manufacturers recommendations, decreasing concentrations as the TS concentration of the wastewaters increased. For the raw piggery wastewater, TS concentrations were 1.0, 2.3, 4.7 and 7.3 %. The respective polymer concentrations were 35.1, 4.4, 3.9 and 1.1 kg/t of TS. For the digested piggery sludge TS concentrations were 1.4, 4.5, 5.6, and 6.2 %. The respective polymer concentrations were 8.5, 2.4, 4.5 and 1.6 kg/t of TS. The data presented in each of the tables lists the maximum and minimum values, and the arithmetic mean. Averaging the results does not adequately describe the relationship between the influent and centrifuge performance. However, reference to the maximum and minimum values in the table and to the figure depicting TS removal percentage against feed TS concentration provides more meaningful insights (Figure 10-2). The figure indicates that the relationship between the TS concentration (g/kg) of the feed with and without polymer and the removal efficiency of the centrifuges is not linear. Without polymer a TS concentration of 4.5% (45 g/kg) produces the best solids recovery of 60.5% (Table 10-5). The addition of polymer substantially enhances the recovery of the feed at the lower TS concentrations, but gravity thickening alone to 4.5% produces a better solids recovery than the combination of gravity thickening to 2.3% and adding 4.4 kg/t TS of polymer. The results for the anaerobically digested wastewater show a similar trend, but the addition of polymer is not as effective in improving solids removal. This is as expected, given that digested wastewaters do not flocculate as well as raw wastewaters (Albertson et al., 1991).
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TABLE 10-5 SOLID REMOVAL EFFICIENCY OF PIGGERY WASTEWATER

Wastewater characteristics g/kg, mg/L or mg/kg mina maxa
(1.0%) (4.5%)
Removal % Without flocculant meana min max
Removal % With flocculant meana min
max
81.6 38.1 59.3 60.5 15.0 44.6 75.9 TS (g/kg) 9.7 86.9 49.8 65.1 65.2 17.8 47.5 63.4 VS (g/kg) 5.6 90.7 63.1 73.3 71.7 37.2 57.2 69.9 TSS (g/kg) 4.2 73.2 62.1 69.2 62.8 35.2 51.1 60.7 VSS (g/kg) 3.2 80.2 44.5 57.5 44.0 7.8 31.2 70,080 COD (mg/L) 13,910 57.4 25.0 32.4 32.4 3.4 16.7 3473 TKN (mg/L) 1640 35.0 12.7 20.8 14.6 5.4 10.7 1516 NH4+ (mg/L) 1268 80.5 50.9 68.6 68.4 57.9 64.7 2178 249 TP(mg/kg) a 4 pig wastewaters used in trial had % TS concentrations of 1.0%, 2.5%, 4.5% and 7.5%
Piccinini and Cortellini (1987)
FIGURE 10-2 - RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INFLUENT TS CONCENTRATION AND REMOVAL EFFICIENCY - PICCININI AND CORTELLINI (1987)
Centrifugation was effective in removing TSS (Table 10-5: 72% removal without polymer and 91% for the 4.5% TS concentration feed). This is also reflected in the high recovery of phosphorus, bound as phytate in the finer wastewater particles, and in the reduction in the COD. The removal percentage maxima were 44% without polymer and 80% with for the raw wastewater, and 60% without and 70% with polymer for the digested wastewater.
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TABLE 10-6 - SOLID REMOVAL EFFICIENCY OF ANAEROBICALLY DIGESTED PIG

WASTEWATER
Wastewater mina
(1.4%) TS (g/kg) VS (g/kg) TSS (g/kg) VSS (g/kg) COD (mg/L) TKN (mg/L) NH4+ (mg/L) TP(mg/) 14.1 7.1 5.4 3.8 13,700 1,530 1,158 238
a
maxa
(5.5%) 62.4 43.1 55.4 39.5 61,580 2,970 1,351 998
Removal % Without flocculant meana min max

43.4 45.5 53.7 6.3 3.6 11.2 67.0 71.0 80.0
Removal % With flocculant meana min Max

58.4 62.2 70.9 14.5 13.1 31.8 80.2 85.8 91.0
41.3 25.4 7.9 32.3
5.3 1.7 3.7 14.8
59.6 39.3 12.0 49.9
61.5 33.7 17.1 33.1
52.5 8.1 10.7 16.0
70.0 49.0 23.5 50.2
4 digested pig wastewaters used in trial had % TS concentrations of 1.4%, 4.5%, 5.5% and 6.2%
- Piccinini and Cortellini (1987) According to the authors, the addition of polymer to the wastewaters did not significantly affect the chemical composition of the separated solids. Hence, the data were combined and presented in the one table (Table 10-7). For both the raw and anaerobically digested separated solids, the TS concentration is very high (range of 22.4 - 27.3% for the raw wastewater and 21.2 - 25.2% for the anaerobically digested wastewater). At these concentrations the solids would be stackable, readily stored and composted. The difference between the minimum and maximum values for the recovery of solids from both the raw wastewater and the anaerobically digested wastewater emphasises the need to adjust the TS concentration of the feed and the flow rate for cost-effective centrifugation (Table 10-7). The solids recovery values varied from 12 to 244 kg of solids per cubic metre of raw wastewater, and from 12 to 264 kg of solids per cubic metre of anaerobically digested wastewater.
TABLE 10-7 - SEPARATED SOLIDS CHEMISTRY FOR RAW PIGGERY WASTEWATER

AND ANAEROBICALLY TREATED PIGGERY WASTEWATER
Raw pig wastewater a mean TS % VS (%TS) TKN (%TS) Total P (%TS) Quantity (kg solids /m3 of waste)
a
Digested pig wastewater a mean 21.2 72.9 3.1 1.4 147.0 min 17.3 69.1 2.6 0.8 12.0 max 25.2 78.0 4.2 1.6 264.0
min 16.3 69.9 2.3 0.9 12.0
Max 27.3 83.9 5.1 3.5 244.0
22.4 80.3 3.4 2.4 119.0
Data with and without polymer addition were combined by the authors
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10.4.5 Moller et al. (2000) - Separation of animal wastewaters The paper compared the efficiency of different solids separators in removing as much as possible of the nutrient content of livestock wastewaters in the solid fraction. The aim was to produce a sufficiently dry solid for ease of transportation to regions with low animal densities. The mechanical devices tested included a stationary screen, three different screw presses, a 2-stage separator, a belt press and two different decanter type centrifuges. The conventional mass balance calculation used to measure separation efficiency was adjusted to provide a reduced efficiency index. The equation developed gave a value of 1 for complete TS removal, and 0 for no removal. Capital costs, the interest rate, the period of depreciation, maintenance and repair costs, as well as electrical usage were also used to calculate the economic aspects of solids separation for each of the systems tested. Both pig and cattle wastewaters were tested. However, the data used for the decanter calculations were from two different studies, with no information provided on the characteristics of the wastewaters (Table 10-8). The authors based the economics of separation on a pig farm with an annual production of 4,000 tons of animal wastewater, corresponding to the annual production of 8,000 pigs. They concluded that the cost of wastewater treatment with a decanter centrifuge was five times more expensive than treatment with a stationary screen. However, if the removal efficiency for total phosphorus is set as a key factor, then the cost is only 25% higher. The decanters are more effective in removing the fine particles, and produce a drier solids fraction. As expected, none of the equipment could transfer dissolved nitrogen (ammonium nitrogen) from the liquid to the solid fraction, but decanters were the most effective in transferring the organic nitrogen fraction. The authors concluded that mechanical screening systems were not effective in removing total phosphorus and organic nitrogen from wastewaters. On this basis they favoured screw press and decanter systems, despite their higher capital costs. The cost of manure treatment with a screw press and a decanter centrifuge were $1.25 and $6.30 per tonne respectively, for a farm producing 4,000 tons of wastewater annually. They concluded that farms with a larger livestock production, or contract manure separator operators servicing several farms would reduce the cost of treatment substantially.
TABLE 10-8 - LIVESTOCK WASTEWATER TRIAL - MOLLER ET AL. (2000)

Decanter type
SKSNh450 Pieralisi
Wastewater type
Cattle Pig Anaerobically digested
Energy kWh Reduced separation efficiency index tonne-1 TS TN TP

4.0 2.9 2.2 0.36 0.64 0.74 0.11 0.19 0.14 0.40 0.43 0.82
Data for the centrifuges only are presented (Table 10-8). Although not indicated by the authors, we assume that the sludge was gravity thickened and that polymer was not added prior to solids separation. The efficiency of solids separation, both for TS, and total phosphorus (TP) is very high. Given that 1 represents 100% removal, the values of 0.64 and 0.40 respectively for the pig wastewater indicate that a high proportion of the finer particle fraction of the wastewater was removed. The low April 2002 FSA Environmental Page No.10-13
total nitrogen (TN) value is to be expected, given that a high proportion of the nitrogen is in the soluble phase as ammonium nitrogen. Only the organic nitrogen fraction, locked up as protein in the finer particles of the wastewater, would have been removed (Giusquianii 1998).
10.4.6 Sneath et al. (1988), Sneath (1988a&b) - Piggery wastewater The authors of these papers found that whilst the potential of decanters to substantially reduce the solids content of wastewaters was well documented, the performance of the machines over the range of TS contents characteristic of pig wastewaters was not. Neither did the literature adequately document how changes in the operating settings of the centrifuge affected the properties of the separated liquid and solid fractions. In a series of three papers the authors examined the performance of a decanting centrifuge (Sneath et al., 1988), the economic impacts of centrifugation on wastewater storage (Sneath, 1988a), and the economic effects on aerobic methods of odour control (Sneath, 1988b). The decanting centrifuge used in this study was an Alfa Laval NX 314. The beach and weir configurations of the centrifuge could be adjusted through 8 positions. During this study three positions were compared, regulating the volume of liquid retained in the bowl at 8.8, 12.5 and 18.9 litres respectively. No details on the pig type or production system producing the wastewater was given, except that the raw wastewater had a flow rate of 8.75 t/h and a TS content of 7%. For the trials, the wastewater was diluted to provide a thick raw wastewater (about 4.5% TS) and dilute (about 2% TS) feed for centrifugation. Three flow rates (10, 6.5 and 4 t/h) were also used, but the rotational speed of the bowl was not adjusted. The authors found that neither the liquid level in the centrifuge nor the raw wastewater flow rate had any significant effect on the TS content of the separated solids. However, as the TS content of the wastewater decreased, the TS of the separated solids increased (P= 0.001). In this paper removal or separation efficiency was calculated as the ratio of mass of TS or of suspended solids (SS) in the separated solids to the mass of TS or SS in the raw wastewater. In general, the amount of TS removed in the separated solids was directly proportional to the TS concentration in the wastewater. Within the range of wastewater TS concentrations and flow rates tested, no evidence of the reduction in solids removal percentage described by Piccinini and Cortellini (Section 10.4.4 and Figure 10-2) for high TS concentrations of feed were observed. Similarly, the reduction in the liquid mass after centrifugation was directly proportional to the TS content of the raw wastewater. The effect of centrifugation was to remove particles that were smaller than 0.15 mm. The results of wet sieving indicated that 53% of the raw wastewater particles were larger than 0.15 mm (the pore diameter of the sieve used). Indeed, in the centrifuged liquid fraction (centrate) only 2% of the particles were larger than 0.02 mm. Removal of particles as small as this explains the improved removal of organic nitrogen and total phosphorus as presented in Table 10-5, Table 10-6 and Table 10-7.
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In summary, the decanter was able to remove 61% of the TS with an influent wastewater TS concentration of 8%. This produced solids of with a TS content of 27%. Reducing the influent concentration down to 2% TS reduced the separation efficiency down to 43%. The TS content of the separated solids was 30%. The decanter was also able to remove up to 73% of the SS contained in the raw wastewater diluted to 1.9% TS and up to 65% of the SS contained in the raw wastewater at 8% TS. The corresponding TS content of the solid fraction produced was 30 and 27% respectively. Reducing the raw wastewater flow rate to the centrifuge from 10 to 4 t/h increased the separated solids TS content by up to 3% and increased the solids removal efficiency. The decanter used did not have a dual gear facility, hence all adjustments to the flow rate for the maintenance of the higher solids content of the separated solids were under operator control. With respect to the economics of operation, Sneath (1988a) concluded that the costs of centrifugation could only be justified for an 8000 head piggery if the solids could be sold for Aus$70 per tonne. Installation and capital costs were Aus$106,000. However, when odour became the key determinant centrifugation was rated as more effective than aeration for a 30 day storage requirement for an 8,000 head herd (Sneath 1988b). The centrifuge is not considered cost-effective for herds of 2,000 head. In all cases, except when wastewater from a small herd needs storing for only 5 days, the cost of treating and storing piggery wastewater reduces as the TS content of the wastewater increases. In the Australian context, wastewater is stored for much longer than 30 days. Even for herds of less than 8,000 head, if odour generation is a key impediment to development, then the improved TS, total phosphorus and total nitrogen removal efficiencies may justify the higher capital costs.
10.4.7 Miner et al. (1983) - Separating anaerobic lagoon sludge The objective of this trial was to evaluate the performance of a decanter centrifuge to dewater and desludge an anaerobic pond. The anaerobic pond was receiving solids from a piggery, with the sludge occupying over 90% of the pond volume. A twostage variable speed eccentric screw pump (Mono Pump model MD82 with a 3.7 kW 5 hp variable speed drive) and a pump suction PVC line of 6m in length and 75 mm diameter was used to extract the sludge. The pressure line from the pump to the decanter was a 100 mm diameter flexible hose. For the polymer feed studies Zetag 92 as a 0.1% aqueous solution was fed directly into the inlet pipe of the decanter using a variable speed peristaltic pump from a 0.380 m diameter vertical cylindrical tank. Flow rate, bowl speed, differential speed of the bowl and scroll, and beach length within the centrifuge were varied. The sludge pumped from the lagoon had a TS concentration of 7 to 10%. The eccentric screw pump was able to handle this highly viscous liquid, and was selfpriming. Solids produced from the decanter ranged from 14.7% to 30.5% TS. There was no relationship between polymer dosage and solids dryness. Solids recovery from the decanter ranged from less than 60% to over 99.5% depending on the operating conditions being evaluated. Without the use of the polymer solids
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recovery rates were greatly reduced unless the flow rate of the feed was reduced to less than one third of the hydraulic capacity of the decanter. Increasing the bowl speed from 1150 RPM to 2200 RPM whilst maintaining a differential speed of 3 or 3.5 RPM and a beach length of 80 mm at a flow rate of 0.8 to 1.8 m3/hr increased the TS content of the solids from 19 to 24%. Increasing the flow rate from 1.9 to 3.7 m3/hr increased the TS concentration of the solids from 23 to 28%. As with the previous study, varying the beach length and the differential speed did not affect the quality of the separated liquid (centrate). However, the quality of the liquid was very sensitive to the use of polymer and the feed flow rate. The best quality was achieved with a flow rate of less than 1 m3/hr, producing a suspended solids concentration of below 10,000 mg/L. In practice the solids produced were stackable, and sufficiently stable to avoid odour generation and vermin attraction. The decanter, pumps and supporting equipment cost Aus$157,000, with an hourly operating cost of Aus$30 based on 1800 operating hours per year. Power cost at a tariff rate of Aus$0.15/kWh was Aus$2.10/hr. Labour requirements were estimated at Aus$33.00 per hour. At a flow rate of 1.0m3 per hour, feed TS of 10% and with no polymer the dewatering costs are Aus$392/t TS, equating to Aus$8.80 per pig marketed (assuming each pig contributes 13.5 kg dry, digested lagoon sludge. At a flow rate of 3.0 m3/hr, feed TS of 10%, polymer used at 2 kg/t the dewatering cost is Aus$290/t dry solids and $3.80 per pig marketed. The author concluded that desludging piggery ponds with a decanter was feasible, but only economic where there is no opportunity for local land application for farming purposes. Where land is limiting and odour generation is a key issue, decanters can produce a readily handled, inoffensive solid and a relatively odourless, clarified liquid.
10.5
Running Costs and Maintenance
Decanter type centrifuges do not function efficiently on feeds with a low and widely fluctuating TS concentration. The presence of particles larger than 3-5cm, may also block and damage the equipment. Hence the use of a sump for gravity thickening, and a coarse screen to remove particles larger than 5cm would improve separation performance and reliability. The sump should include an agitation system, to resuspend the solids after gravity thickening. Wastewaters thickened to 3-5% TS concentration will still be pumpable, once the sump is agitated to resuspend the particles in solution. For most piggeries, the decanters will not be operating continuously. At the end of each operating cycle, flush water should be used to reduce the solids build-up on the scroll and weir mechanisms between cycles. Otherwise maintenance is restricted to lubricating the main bearings every 100 hours of operation, checking the gearbox oil, lubricating the conveyor bearings and checking the v-belts and solids discharge brushes for wear every 1,000 hours. Foundation bolts and vibration dampers should be checked every 4,000 hours. After about 5-6,000 operating hours the scroll may show signs of wear. Westfalia Australia has a scroll exchange program, where clients can purchase a reconditioned replacement and receive a credit on their old scroll. Alfa Laval has service kits available for purchase, consisting of those parts most likely to be replaced at intermediate or at major equipment servicing. April 2002 FSA Environmental Page No.10-16
10.6
Practical Operating Issues
Provided that the TS concentration is uniform and within the preferred TS concentration range, the flow rate into the decanter and the weir plate can be adjusted during commissioning to set the throughput for the required separated solids TS content and solids recovery performance. Once set, if the flow rate and TS concentration of the feed remains uniform, very little adjustment after commissioning will be required. A major advantage of the patented dual gear system (Westfalia Australia) is that the machine automatically adjusts the scroll rate for minor fluctuations in the flow and TS concentration of the feed, to maintain the desired separated solids output. Hence, the requirement for uniform feed properties is not as exacting as for other decanter makes. The weir mechanism is also comparatively simple, allowing a relatively unskilled operator to adjust the throughput and separated solids properties of the decanter on-site. In practice, the Westons Bioproducts factory undertakes an annual major service on the centrifuges (replacing bearings), and a weekly lubrication schedule. The centrifuges remove starch using only gravity thickening, removing 80% of the starch particles having a diameter of 60-200 . The TS concentration of the separated solids is 52-54%. The settling tanks used for gravity thickening have a capacity of 27,000 L with a maximum 2 hour residence time (modified rainwater tanks). The dual gear centrifuges are the easiest to maintain (Westfalia Australia), given the automatic adjustment for variations in the feed flow and TS concentrations. For decanters without this feature the flow rates and TS concentration of the feeds must be monitored and adjusted by the operator.
10.7
Piggery Case Studies
Four piggery case studies have been analysed. These are a 200-sow and a 2000-sow unit operated under low flushing (5 L/SPU/day) and high flushing (25 L/SPU/day) regimes. Capital and operating costs were estimated using data supplied by the manufacturer. It was assumed that power costs $0.13/kWhr and labour costs are $25/hr. Table 10-9 provides summarised capital and operating costs. A coarse screen (5mm) is assumed to also be installed to remove larger solids particles.
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TABLE 10-9 CAPITAL AND OPERATING COSTS OF CENTRIFUGE CASE STUDY

Item Units 200-sow low-flush 200-sow high flush 2000-sow low-flush 2000-sow high flush
No of pigs SPU 2134 2134 21340 21340 Flushing L/SPU/day 5 25 5 25 Hosing L/SPU/day 1 2 1 2 Total effluent a ML/yr 9 25 85 250 Effluent flow (24 L/s 0.27 0.79 2.7 7.9 hr) Solids content of % TS 3.1% 1.2% 3.3% 1.2% effluent Solids t/yr 270 290 2800 2940 Data ALDEC Centrifuge Decanter Flowrate L/s 0.6 1.4 4.4 11.7 Operation hrs/day 11.7 13.7 14.6 16.3 hrs/yr 4,270 5,000 5,340 5,950 Solids Removal b % 30 20 30 20 t/yr 80 58 840 590 Capital cost c $ 115,000 115,000 152,500 235,000 $/ML treated 13,460 4,600 1,780 940 /yr $/t solids 1,430 1,980 180 400 removed /yr Operating Cost kWhr/yr 70,500 94,920 98,820 110,030 $/yr (power) 9,170 12,340 12,850 14.300 Labour hr/day 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.0 $ /yr (labour) d 4,560 4,560 9,130 9,130 $/yr (main) e 2,000 2,000 4,000 5,000 Total $/yr 15,730 18,900 25,970 28,430 $/ML treated 1,840 760 300 114 $/ t solids 195 325 31 48 removed a Total effluent includes flushing water, hosing water, manure and drinking water wastage. b While the manufacturer claims a higher solids removal percentage, this figure is adopted until better data is available. c Capital cost includes a shed to cover the centrifuge and a manure collection sump with pumps and agitator. A coarse screen is also installed to remove larger particles. d Labour for monitoring and maintenance costed at $ 25/hr e Routine maintenance of pumps and agitators
10.8
Summary Selection Criteria

10.8.1 Solids removed
The solids removal efficiency of centrifuges improves substantially if the feed wastewater has a high TS concentration. Most researchers either gravity settled the wastewater or used a polymer. The TS removal efficiency on a mass balance basis measured by Payne (1990) was only 37%. However, this was due to a lower influent TS concentration of 1.7% (not pre-thickened) and the separated solids had a high TS concentration (35%). Abery (1994) tested the performance of a centrifuge with and April 2002 FSA Environmental Page No.10-18
without flocculant using gravity settling. He showed that gravity settling alone, without flocculant reduced the TS by about 40%. The centrifuge only removed 3540% of the settled solids, giving an overall reduction in TS of about 20%. With the addition of a polymer during the gravity settling phase, overall solids reductions improved to about 40%. Piccinini and Cortellini (1987) showed removal efficiencies (concentration basis) ranging from 15-60% and 38-82% with and without the addition of a polymer respectively. These wide variations were due to wide variations in influent concentration (1-7.6%). Sneath et al. (1988) was able to remove 61% of the TS with an influent wastewater TS concentration of 8%. Reducing the influent concentration down to 2% TS reduced the separation efficiency to 43%. The removal efficiency used for these case studies is assumed to be 20% for the wastewater with 1.4% TS concentration and 30% for the wastewater with 3.1% TS concentration. No gravity thickening was factored into the case studies. 10.8.2 Capital cost From Table 10-9, the capital cost could range from $115,000 for a 200-sow piggery and $152,500 to $235,000 for a 2000-sow piggery. Capital costs include a centrifuge, coarse screen, shed, pumps, sumps and agitators. Higher capital costs are associated with the higher throughput of wastewater. The throughput could be lowered by gravity thickening the wastewater to obtain a TS concentration of 5%. The removal efficiency is likely to increase to approximately 50%, thus reducing the capital cost per tonne of solids removed. 10.8.3 Operating costs and returns From Table 10-9, the operating costs could range from $760 to $1,840 per ML of effluent treated for a 200-sow piggery to $115 to $305 per ML of effluent treated for a 2000-sow piggery. Operating costs per tonne of dry solids removed range from $195 to $325 for a 200-sow piggery and $31 to $48 for a 2000-sow piggery. The lower costs reflect economies of scale with larger piggeries. Operating costs include power, labour and routine maintenance of pumps and agitators. Removal efficiencies could be increased if the wastewater was firstly gravity thickened and a TS concentration of 5% was fed to the centrifuge. This would also reduce the throughput of wastewater and lower operating cost per tonne of solids removed. With the TS removal efficiency increased to 50%, the operating cost would be substantially reduced. 10.8.4 Ease of operation Provided the centrifuge is feed is at a constant flow rate and TS concentration, once commissioned centrifuges require very little supervision and maintenance. The dual geared decanters are even easier to operate, with the differential between the bowl and scroll speeds automatically adjusted to compensate for minor fluctuations in the flow rate and TS concentration of the feed. The solids could be gravity fed into a hopper for batch collection, or onto a conveyor with minimal risk of odour generation or seepage.
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Solid Separation Systems for the Pig Industry 10.8.5 Solids management options
Decanter centrifuges produce the very dry solids, with the potential of removing the greatest proportion of total nitrogen and total phosphorus. In practice provided that the solids content is over about 20%, the solids will be stackable, readily handled for composting. In practice the production of very dry solids is at the expense of the recovery of the finer particle fractions containing most of the organic nitrogen and phosphorus. Producing solids with a higher TS content (over 25%) would only be advantageous if long distance off-site transport was required.
10.9
References
Abery R. 1994. An evaluation of methods of effluent treatment at Module 5, Corowa. Bunge Meat Industries, Corowa, NSW. Giusquiani P.L., Concezzi L., Businelli M. and Macchioni A. 1998. Fate of pig sludge liquid fraction in calcareous soil: Agricultural and environmental implications. Journal of Environmental Quality 27:364-71. Moller H.B. Lund I. and Sommer S.G. 2000. Solid-liquid separation of livestock slurry: efficiency and cost. Bioresource Technology. 73. 223-229. Payne R.W. 1990. On-farm performance of pig effluent treatment systems in use in Western Australia. Final Report to the Research Advisory Committee, Western Australia Pig Industry Compensation Fund. Department of Agriculture, Western Australia. Piccinini S. and Cortellini L. 1987. Solid-liquid separation of animal slurries. in Agricultural Waste Management and Environment Protection. Vol(1). pp219-29. Proceedings of 4th International Scientific Centre of Fertilisers Symposium. Braunschweig, Federal Republic of Germany 11-14 May 1987. Rushton A., Ward A.S. and Holdich R.G. 2000. Solid-liquid filtration and separation technology. Second edition, WILEY-VCH. Sneath R.W., Shaw M. and Williams A.G. 1988. Centrifugation for separating piggery slurry 1. The performance of a decanting centrifuge. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research. 39, 181-190. Sneath R.W. 1988a. Centrifugation for separating piggery slurry 2. Economic effects on slurry storage. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research. 39, 191-197. Sneath R.W. 1988b. Centrifugation for separating piggery slurry 3. Economic effects on aerobic methods of odour control. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research. 39, 199-208.
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Case Study 10 - Centrifuge

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Solid Separation Systems for the Pig Industry