There are 13 components in this category.

Strain Energy
Strain energy due to bending and deflection calculated using Calculus

Macaulay's Method
Describes the Macaulay Method for calculating the deflection of Beams

Moments of Area
The calculation of deflections using Moments of Area

Deflection Coefficients
This section covers deflection coefficients including deflection due to shear and the use of the graphical methods

Cantilever Beams
Formulae for the shear and deflection of Cantilever Beams under a selection of differing loadings

Built in Beams II
Shear and Deflection formulae for Built in and Continuous Beams

Bending Appendix 1
Stress and deflection formulae for simple supported beams

Built in Beams
The bending of Built in Beams, which are fixed at both ends.

Simply Supported Beams

Shear and Deflection Formulae for Simply Supported Beams

Multiple Continuous Beams

The deflection of Continuous Beams with more than one span.

Elastic Foundations
The deflection of beams where the foundations are not rigid.

Portal Frames
Bending Moments for Portal Frames

Shear Stress in Beams

An analysis of Shear Stress in Beams of various cross sections.

Strain Energy Due To Bending.

Consider a short length of beam Strain energy of the length (1) under the action of a Bending Moment M. If f is the Bending at a distance y from the Neutral Axis, then the Stress on an element of the cross section of area is given by:-

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

For the whole beam (6)

The product EI is called the flexural Rigidity of the beam

Example 1:
A simply supported beam of length l carries a concentrated load W at distances of a and b from the two ends. Find expressions for the total strain energy of the beam and the deflection under load.

The integration for strain energy can only be applied over a length of beam for which a continuous expression for M can be obtained. This usually implies a separate integration for each section between two concentrated loads or reactions.

For the section AB. (7)

(8)

(9)

(10)

Similarly by taking a variable X measured from C (11)

Total (12)

(13)

But if

is the deflection under the load, the strain energy must be equal to the work done

by the load if it is gradually applied. (14)

(15)

For a Central Load (16)

Hence (17)

It should be noted that this method of finding deflection is limited to cases where only one concentrated load is applied ( i.e. doing work)and then only gives the deflection under the load A. For a more general application of strain energy to deflection see Castigliano's Theorem. This can be found under Engineering Materials Curved Beams.

Example 2:
Compare the strain energy of a beam, simply supported at its ends and loaded with a uniformly distributed load, with that of the same beam centrally loaded and having the same value of maximum bending moment. (U.L.) If l is the span and EI the Flexural Rigidity, then for a uniformly distributed load w, the end reactions are (18) and at a distance x from one end:-

Using Equation (6) (19)

(20)

(21)

(22)

Using Equation (13) fro a central load W (23)

The Maximum Bending Stress

and for a given beam depends upon the maximum

Bending Moment. ( See Engineering materials Shear Force and Bending Moments) Equating maximum Bending Moments:(24)

(25)

Using Equations (22) and (23), the ratio (26)

(27)

Using Equation (25) (28)

Example 3:
A concentrated load W is gradually applied to a horizontal beam simply supported at its ends, produces a deflection y at the load point. If this falls through a distance h onto the beam find an expression for the maximum deflection produced. In a given beam, for a load W, y = 0.2 in. and the maximum stress is 4 tons/sq.in.. Find the greatest height from which a load of 0.1 W can be dropped without exceeding the elastic limit of 18 tons/sq.in. (U.L.) The loss of Potential Energy by the load = The gain in Strain Energy by the beam

i.e. (29)

where

is the maximum deflection caused by dropping the load W onto the beam and P is

the equivalent gradually applied load which would produce the same deflection. But a gradually applied load of W would produce a deflection of y and hence by proportion :(30)

or (31)

Substituting in equation(29) (32)

or (33)

(34)

The Energy equation for dropping 0.1W is:(35)

But the equivalent gradually applied load and hence the deflection maximum stress i.e. (36)

is proportional to the

(37)

Substituting in equation (34) (38)

(39)

Thus (40)

Deflection by Calculus
In "Bending Stress" equation (3) it the general equation on bending was written. From this it can be seen that:(41)

And that in terms of the co-ordinates x and y (42)

The sign depends upon the convention for axes. For beams met with in normal engineering practice the slope is everywhere very small and may be neglected in comparison to 1 in the denominator.

Taking y as positive upwards, under the action of a positive Bending Moment, the curvature of the beam is shown in the diagram. It can be seen that dy/dx is increasing as x increases.

Hence (43)

or (44)

Thus provided that M can be expressed as a function of x equation(43) can be integrated to give the slope dy/dx and the deflection y can be found for any value of x. Two constants of integration will be involved and these can be found by substituting known values of slope or deflection at particular points. A mathematical expression is thus obtained for the form of the deflected beam. ( Also known as The Elastic Line Notes on Application Take the X axis through the level of the supports. Take the origin at one end of the beam or at a point of zero slope.

For built in or fixed end beams or when the deflection is a maximum. the slope dy/dx=0 For points on the X axis( Usually the supports) the deflection y = 0 For those working in Imperial Units. It is convenient to use the following units E in lb./sq.in. ( or tons/sq.in. I in y in in. M in lb.ft (or tons-ft.) x in ft.

After the integration, one side of the Equation

has units

and the other side has units

. Hence in numerical questions, the right hand side has to be multiplied by 144. After the second integration ELy has units 1728 It is possible to differentiate equation (43) and in which case:(45) and the corresponding right-hand side must be multiplied by

(46)

(See the paragraph on the relationship between F M and w in Engineering Materials Shearing Force and Bending Moment.) These forms are of use in some cases although generally the Bending Moment relationship is the most convenient.

Example 4:
Obtain expressions for the maximum slope and deflection of a cantilever of length l carrying (a) a concentrate4d load W at its free end and (b) a uniformly distributed load w along its whole length. (a) If the origin is taken through the free end and the X axis through the fixed end then at a distance x from the origin:-

(47)

And using equation (43) (48)

Integrating:(49)

but (50)

(51)

Integrating again:(52)

At x = l y = 0 (53)

The slope and deflection at the free end ( Where they are at a maximum) are given by the values of dy/dx and y when x = 0 (54)

And the deflection b)

(Note the negative sign indicating downwards)

(55)

Integrating (56)

When x = l dy/dx = 0 (57)

Integrating again:(58)

When x = l y = 0 (59)

Putting x = 0

The Maximum Deflection

The Maximum Deflection

Moments of Area
Contents 1. Summarising The Cases In Which This Method Is Useful, 2. Uniformly Distributed Loads 3. Page Comments The drawing shows the Bending Moment diagram and the shape of a deflected beam between two point P and Q.

The area of the Bending Moment diagram is A and its centroid is at a distance of OY. The tangents at P and Q to the elastic line, cut off an intercept z on OY.

from a chosen line

(1)

Integrating between P and Q (2)

If EI is a constant (3)

i.e. The increase of slope between any two points on a beam is equal to the net area of the Bending Moment diagram between those two points divided by EI If R is the radius of curvature of the beam at some point between P and Q, then the angle between the tangents at the end of a short length tangents on OY is (4) where . The intercept of these

and since the slope everywhere is small:-

(5)

(6)

i.e. The intercept on a given line between the tangents to the beam at any two points P and Q is equal to the net moment about that line of the Bending Moment diagram between P and Q divided by EI

Account has to be taken of positive and negative areas and frequently it is convenient to break down the Bending Moment diagram into a number of simple figures, so that the moment is obtained from

The interecept z is positive when the tangent at Q strikes OY below the tangent at P. This method is only used for particular applications in which it produces a quicker solution than the mathematical treatment. These cases can generally be labeled as those for which a point of zero slope is known. If this point is chosen as "Q"and OY is taken through P then equation (3)reduces to :(7)

And equation (6) gives the deflection of P relative to Q as i.e. The deflection at any point can be found by working between there and a point of zero slope and taking Moments about the point where the deflection is required

It is very helpful in applying these theorems to sketch the approximate shape of the deflected beam and then by drawing the tangents at chosen points it should be clear which intercepts gives the relative deflection (e.g. If OY is taken through Q in the above diagram the intercept does not give the deflection}

Summarising The Cases In Which This Method Is Useful,

Most Cantilever cases ( Zero slope at the fixed end Symmetrically loaded simply supported beams ( The slope at the centre is zero) Built in Beams ( Zero slope at each ends

Uniformly Distributed Loads

For uniformly distributed loads the Bending Moment diagram is a parabola and the following properties of area and centroids should be known.

In the above diagram the surrounding rectangle has an area of bd. and the parabola is tangential to the base. Then (8)

(9)

(10)

(11)

Example 1:
1 Obtain expressions for the maximum slope and deflection of a simply supported beam of span l with a) A concentrated load W at the centre and b) With a uniformly distributed load w over the whole length. In both cases, by symmetry the slope is zero at the centre and the maximum slope and deflection can be found from the area of the Bending Moment diagram over half the beam. i.e. "P" is at the support and "Q" is at the centre of the beam.

a) If A is the area of the Bending Moment diagram for half the beam then:(12)

Using Equation (3) (13)

From Equation (6) The deflection of the support relative to the centre: (14)

(15)

b) The area A of the shaded area of the Bending Moment diagram is given by:(16)

Using equation (3) as before:(17)

From equation (6) the deflection of the support relative to the centre is given by:(18)

(19)

Example 2:
A horizontal cantilever ABC , 15ft long, is built in at A and supported at B 12 ft. from A, by a rigid prop so that AB is horizontal. If AB and BC carry uniformly distributed loads of 0.5 tons/ft. and 1.0 tons/ft. respectively, find the load taken by the prop (U.L.)

If the Bending Moment diagram is broken down into the areas shown in the diagram,each area can be dealt with as a triangle or parabola of standard type. If P is the load on the prop then:(20)

Due to the load on BC the Bending Moment at B is given by:(21)

And at A it is:(22)

The trapezium between A and B can be split into two triangles (23)

(24)

Due to the load on AB the area

is a parabola with a maximum value of

(25)

The slope is zero at the built in end A anad the deflection is zero at B. Hence from equation (6) (26)

For the portion AB about B (27)

Substituting in values (28)

(29)

Example 3:
A horizontal beam rests on two supports at the same level and carries a uniformly distributed load. If the supports are symmetrically placed find their position when the greatest downward deflection has its least value. (U.L.)

Let the distance between the supports be 2l and the overhanging distance d. The the reaction at each support The condition for the greatest downwards deflection to have its least value occurs when the deflection at the ends and the centre are the same, since any variation of the supports from this position will increase either one or the other of these values. Since the slope is zero at the centre then for half the beam about one end Breaking down the Bending Moment diagram into due to the support and due to the load then:-

(30)

(31)

(32)

From which by trial and error

Example 4:
A long steel strip of uniform width and thick is laid on a level floor, but passes over a

2 in. roller lying on the floor at one point. For what distance on either side of the roller will the strip be clear of the ground and what will be the maximum stress induced? Take the density of steel to be For that part of the strip lying on the floor, the reaction balances the weight and since there is no change of slope, there is no Bending Moment in this length. However where the strip leaves the floor there will be a point reaction R and the conditions as if the surplus length had been cut off.

The forces and Bending Mare shown in the diagram. w is the weight of strip per unit length.

Since there is no change of slope between R and the top of the roller, equationg the areas gives:(33)

(34)

Using equation (6) and substituting values from the B.M.diagram (35)

(36)

Substituting in values and putting the width of the strip as p (37)

(38)

Equation (36) can also be obtained by treating the roller as a "fixed end" and taking the difference between the "cantilever" deflections due to R and w. The maximum Bending Moment is at the roller and is using equation (3) (39)

9 there is a point of zero shearing force at l/3 from R but here

(40)

Example 5:
A cantilever of uniform strength is to be turned from a mild steel bar 2 inches in Diameter. A load of 1000 lb. is to be supported from the free end and the maximum stress is limited to 10,000 lb/sq.in. Determine the maximum length of the cantilever and its end deflection. (U.l.) Note The finished cantilever is tapered. The maximum Bending Moment is 1000 lat the fixed end and the strongest section is 2 in. diameter. Applying the Bending Stress formula. (41)

(42)

Let the diameter be d at x in. along the bar from the fixed end, then applying the condition for uniform strength ( i.e. Constant maximum Stress) (43)

(44)

The I value is varying along the bar but the deflection can be found by the Moment-area

Method. using the form about the free end i.e.

. Z gives the end deflection if Moments are taken

Substituting for d from equation (44) (45)

(46)