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CHAPTER 3: MATERIALS OF BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION Steel Concrete chiefly used for bridge construction in modern times In this decade,

, fiber-reinforced polymer composites are being increasingly considered for use in infrastructure renewal in general. These lightweight materials can be used in the rehabilitation of deteriorating deck as well as for new superstructures. Steel Almost every component of a bridge is made from structural steel including stringers, floor beams, girders, truss members, cables for suspension and cablestayed bridges, and bearings. the term structural steel refers to the steel elements of the structural steel frame essential to the support of the required loads. ASTM A709 - is listed as one of the suitable structural steel for bridges. - it is characterized by enhanced corrosion resistance and stringent test requirements.

impact

STEEL is mainly an alloy of iron and carbon, with varying amounts of certain alloying elements, such as the following: -Manganese -Silicon -Columbium -Chromium -Phosphorus -Aluminum -Nickel -Nitrogen -Sulfur -Vanadium -Copper -Boron

CARBON the element most responsible for giving steel its useful properties. Three classes of structural steels that are suitable for building and bridges: What makes steel a desirable material for structural use are its mechanical properties of high tensile strength, ductility (ability to flow plasticity), and toughness. Carbon steels High-strength low-alloy steels Alloy steels Carbon Steels Is a class of steel in which the content of the principal strengthening agents are carefully controlled of the following maximums: Carbon, 1.7 %

Manganese, 1.65% Silicon, 0.60 % Copper, 0.60% Depending on the percentages of the carbon content, these steels are further classified as follows [ Salmon and Johnson, 1990; McCormac,1992] Low-carbon steel, carbon < 0.15% Mild-carbon steel, carbon, 0.15 0.29 % (category of structural carbon steels) Medium-carbon steel, carbon 0.30 0.59 % High-carbon steel, carbon, 0.60 1.70 % An increased percentage of carbon raises the yield strength but reduces ductility. The ordinary mild steel, generally referred to as ASTM A36, falls in the mild-carbon category; it has a minimum yield strength of 36 ksi. ASTM A7 - having a minimum yield stress of 33 ksi and used extensively from 1936 to about 1935 [ Gaylord, Gaylord, and Stallmeyer, 1992] High-Strength Low-Alloy Steels Structural steels in this category have yield stresses from 40 to 70 ksi and exhibit well-defined yield points, similar to A36 steel. Steels having a minimum specified yield points of 40 ksi and greater and achieving that strength in the hot-rolled condition, rather than by heat treatment. The term low-alloy is used arbitrarily to describe steels for which the total all alloying elements does not exceed 5 percent of the total composition of steel [McCormac,1992]. Steels in this category includes: (AASHTO, 1992a, 1992b; Merrit, 1972) ASTM A242 ASTM A440 ASTM A441 ASTM A606 ASTM A607 ASTM Grades 709 Grades 50 50 W

Alloy Steels These steels are obtained by heat-treating the low-alloy steels to obtain higher yield strengths, 80 to 110 ksi. The process of heat-treating involves quenching or rapid cooling with water or oil, from atleast 1650 F to about 300-400 F, then tempering by reheating to atleast 1150 F, and then controlled cooling. These steels do not exhibit a well defined yield point like the carbon and low-alloy steels; consequently, their yield strengths are determined by the 0.2 percent offset methods. Requirements for structural steel for highway bridges are covered by AASHTO 10.2.2[1992a]: the specifications designate structural steels by their own material specification using the letter M, followed by a three-digit number; these designations are also expressed in terms of the equivalent ASTM designations. A family of five types of structural steels are specified: 1. Structural Carbon Steel 2. High-strength low-alloy columbium steels of structural quality 3. High-strength low-alloy structural steel with 50-ksi minimum yield point to 5 in. thick 4. High-strength low-alloy, quenched and tempered structural steel with 70-ksi minimum yield point to 4 in. thick 5. High-yield-strength quenched and tempered alloy steel plate, suitable for welding In general, various factors that encourage use of higher-strength steels are Savings in handling, shipping, erection, and foundation costs due to savings in weight Superior corrosion resistance Use of shallower beams, permitting shallower depths of flooring and superstructure In buildings, possible savings in fireproofing because smaller-sized members that can be used

An important and economical use of high-strength steels is in hybrid construction. It involves the use of two or more steels of different strengths ; Higher-strength steels - are used when stresses are higher. Lower-strength steels - low priced steels and are used where the stresses are smaller.

OTHER STEELS Today more than 200 types of steels, with yield stresses in excess of 36 ksi, are reported to be available on the market [McCormac, 1992]. Essentially, these are specialpurpose steels . For example, HY8O is an 8O-ksi yield strength steel that that has been widely used in ship construction; Maraging steels which develop yield strength in the range of 200 to 300 ksi, using a high-nickle-alloy content and a heat treatment to age the ironnickel martensite [Errera]. It is instructive to note that as the strength of steel is increased, price usually increased and ductility is usually decreased. However, the modulus of elasticity, which governs deflections and elastic buckling, is relatively constant of all steels.

CONCRETE According to U.S. National Bridge Inventory (NBI) data complied by the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), prestressed concrete became the most widely used U.S. material in the mid-1970s and this trend continue. Other Factors that will affect the mix design : Durability

Shrinkage Freeze-thaw cycles Environmental conditions The use of high-strength concrete is limited not because of production or availability; rather it is, in some cases, limited because of the prestressing capabilities in manufacturing plants.

Values of modulus of elasticity of concrete, Ec(lb/sq.in) (AASHTO 8.7.1): 1. For Wc (weight of concrete) between 90 and 155 lb/cu.ft.
1.5 Ec wc 33 f ' c

psi

2.

For the normal weight concrete (wc = 145 lb/cu.ft), the following approximate value of Ec (lb/sq.in) may be used:

Ec 57000 f 'c'

psi

When reinforced concrete is exposed to salt or brackish water, deicing salts, or sulphate soils, class S concrete should be used underwater and class A for all other work, unless exceotions are maid 0.45 maximum water-cement ratio Creep influences deflections of concrete structures under sustained loads and loss of prestressed structure

Reinforcing Steel and Bars # 3 and #4 - used for general design

#14 and #18 - used only in exceptional cases Plain Bars are not permitted for load-carrying reinforcement; however both plain bars and smooth wire are permitted for spirals and ties. According to AASHTO 8.3.3 [AASHTO,1992a], reinforcing steel with yield strength in excess of 60,000 lb/sq.in ( Grade (Gr.) 60 steel) is not permitted for bridges. Exemption exist. In some states, Gr. 60 reinforcement only is permitted. Gr. 60 - most commonly used in reinforced concrete. AASHTO Material Specification The following list gives the titles of the governing specifications to which the uncoated reinforcing steel must conform; 1. Deformed and plain billet-steel bars for concrete reinforcement - AASHTO M31 (ASTM A615) 2. Deformed steel wire for concrete reinforcement - AASHTO M225 (ASTM A496) 3. Welded steel wire fabric for concrete reinforcement - AASHTO M55 (ASTM A185) 4. Cold-drawn steel wire for concrete reinforcement - AASHTO M32 (ASTM A82)

5. Welded deformed steel wire fabric for concrete reinforcement - AASHTO M221 (ASTM A497) 6. Low-alloy steel deformed bars for concrete reinforcement - ASTM 706 7. Rail-steel deformed and plain bars for concrete reinforcement AASHTO M42 including supplementary requirement SI ( ASTM A616 including supplementary requirement SI) Prestressing Steels Manufacture in three forms: Wires Strands Bars

AASHTO 9.3.1 [AASHTO, 1992a] requires prestressing steel to conform to the following specifications [AASHTO, 1992,b]: 1. Uncoated stress-relieved wire for prestressed concrete AASHTO M204 2. Uncoated seven-wire stress-relieved strand for prestressed concrete AASHTO M203 3. Uncoated high-strength steel bar for prestressing concrete ASTM A722 Prestressing Wire - ranging in diameter from 0.192 to 0.276 in. - is made by cold-drawing followed by heat treatment for stress relieving to develop the prescribe mechanical properties. Two types of Strands: Low relaxation Stress relieved (normal relaxation) Alloy steel bars - 145 and 160 Round wires - 235, 245 , and 250

COMPOSITE MATERIALS For many years , demands has been growing for materials that are ever stiffer and stronger yet lighter in fields as diverse as the space, aeronautics, automotive, energy, and civil construction industries. Composite materials in this regard represent nothing but a giant step in the ever-constant endeavor of optimization in materials[Chawla, 1987] It is a generic term used to describe a judicious combination of two or more materials to yield a product that is more efficient than the original constituents. It is a combined material created by the synthetic assembly of two or more components a selected filler or reinforcing agent and a compatible matrix binder in order to obtain a specific characteristics and properties. The Operational definition of a composite materials are as follows: o o o It is manufactured. It consists of two or more physically/chemically distinct, suitably arranged or distributed phases with an interface separating them. It has characteristics that are not depicted by any of the components in isolation.

Why Use Composite Materials? Structural materials can be divided into four groups: Metals Polymers Ceramics Composites

o Composites are generally used because they have desirable properties that could not be achieved by either of the constituent materials acting alone. o Light weight, high strength-to-weight and stiffness-to-weight ratios. High energy absorption. o Outstanding corrosion and fatigue damage resistance. Two main Elements of a Composites o The body constituents or matrix It is the part which encloses the composite, giving it its bulk form. o It is the part which encloses the composite, giving it its bulk form. These are the fibers, particles, laminae or layers, flakes and fillers which determine the internal structure of the composite. Composites can be Classified in a number of different ways: 1) By basic material combinations 2) By bulk-form characteristics 3) By distribution of constituents o Homogeneous The constituents are in regular and repetitive patterns. o Graded The constituents have a variable pattern. 4) By function Five General Categories of a Composite Material o Fibre composite composed of fibers with or without a matrix. o Flake composite composed of flat flakes with or without a matrix. o Particulate composite composed of particles with or without a matrix. o Filled composite- composed of a continuous skeletal matrix filled by a second material.

o Laminar composite composed of layer, or laminar, constituents. o Hybrid composites - judiciously selecting different reinforcement types - placing the fibers to obtain the highest strength in a highly stressed locations and directions. o Multifilamentary Superconducting composite - Which envolves Superconductivity, it has a characteristic of a certain metals and alloys. They lose all resistance to elecricity when cooled to within a few degrees of absolute zero. o Carbon fiber composite Constituent Materials o The matrix o Fibres Matrix The matrix forms the body of a composite. The most common types of these are Polymers, metals and ceramics. The matrix performs important dual functions: 1) It acts as binder to hold the fibrous phase. 2) Under an applied force, it deforms and distributes the load to the high-modulus fibrous constituents that actually resist the force. Matrixes can be: o Organic Polymer-matrix composite (PMC) Polymers - Poly- means "many" and -mer means "part" or "segment". Polymers are made up of many molecules all strung together to form really long chains (and sometimes more complicated structures, too). Hygrothermally Sensitive hygrospic (moisture) & thermal (temperature) It means that polymer matrixes can degrade at moderately high temperatures and through moisture absorption.

o Inorganic

Metal-matrix composite (MMC) Strong and tough and the most versatile engineering material. Altough the metal matrixes are higher in density than polymers, they offer greater strength, stiffness and ductility than polymers.

Ceramic-matrix composite (CMC) Fibers Fibers can be designed for specific functions. It has characteristics that makes it possible to achieve certain targets. Such as , Advance fibers, which possess very high strength and high stiffness coupled with low density. It also provides desirable design properties of high specific strength and high specific stiffness. Steel Fibers Carbon steel fibers are used mainly with portland cement concrete matrices and the stainless steel alloy are ussed in the production of refractory materials, Glass Fibers Developed initially for electrical purposes. It is one of the most widely used reinforcing materials because of its high tensile strength. Polymeric Fibers Polymeric fibers are used in very-low-volume fraction, primarily to control cracking in the early stages of casting. Carbon Fibers Are also inert to most chemicals. They are most expensive than most other fibers, but have potential for applications that require high tensile and flexural strength. Low-density, environmentally inert materials that offer high strength and highstiffness at very high temperature. Ceramics has utter lack of toughness, which makes them prone to catastrophic failures. Extremely susceptible to thermal shock and easily damaged during fabrication.

Mechanical Behavior of Composites Analysis of Composite Materials differs from that of Conventional materials. Most metalic materials are isotropic and homogenous, whereas Most composites are anisotropic and heterogenous.

The properties in a composite vary as we move from matrix to fiber and as we change the direction along which fibers are measured. Typically, in a composite having fiber reinforcement in one direction only, the strength and stiffness along the direction of reinforcement would be greater than that in the transverse direction.

In contrast to the thermal behavior of isotropic materials, which exhibit uniform expansion or contraction in all directions, A temperature change in an anisotropic material may induce nonuniform expansion or contraction plus distortion. Micromechanical & Macromechanical Micromechanics refers to the machanical behavior of constituent materials such as fiber and matrix materials, the interaction of these contituents, and the resulating behavior of the basic composite ( a single lamina) Macromechanics on the other hand, refers to the gross behavior of composite materials and structures (in this case, lamina, laminate, and structure).

FIBROUS CEMENT-BASED COMPOSITES

concrete

mortar

Cement paste

Suffer from inherent low tensile strength, low ductility, and low impact resistance. Efforts by Romualdi & Batson.. To improve the flexural strength and ductility of concrete by introducing a small percentage of high strength ductile fibers in low strength, brittle concrete led to the development of a two-phase material fiber-reinforced cement-based composite, also known as fiber-reinforced, or fibrous, concrete, (FRC) . Composite Material (FRC) Cement Paste Mortar Concrete with fibers of asbestos, glass, plastic, or steel.

ACI Committee 544 on FRC defines.. [ACI, 1974b, 1982] fiber-reinforced concrete as, concrete made of hydraulic cements containing fine or fine and coarse aggregate and discontinuous discrete fibers. Continuous meshes, woven fabrics, and long rods are not considerd to be discrete fibretype reinforcing elements. Fiber-reinforced composite was found to provide notable improvements in the areas of shear, impact, ductility under cyclic loading, and fatigue loading. It shows good potential for earthquake-resitant structures [Balguru and Shah, 1992].

APPLICATION OF COMPOSITES Applications on Bridges Application of FRP tendons FRP tendons are available in the forms of glass tendons, carbon tendons, and aramid tendons and rods. A variety of surface textures are possible for FRP tendons : rough, smooth, sand-coated, braided helically wrapped, and so on. Tendons can be round or hexagonal in cross section, with a sleeve over them to contain the rods [ACI, 1995].

Advantages of FRP tendons over steel tendons High specific strength (10-15 times higher than steel) Excellent fatigue resistance of carbon and aramid tendons (which can be as much as three times more resistant than steel) Noncorrosive and nonmagnetic properties, and Low thermal expansion in the case of carbon and aramid tendons [ACI, 1995].

Some recently built bridges with FRP tendons follow: Lunensche-Gasse Bridge, Germany a 21-ft single-span slab bridge built in 1980, 100 rods of glass cable were used Ulenberg-Strasses Bridge, Germany, the worlds first large scale bridge having 70 and 84-ft slab spans this bridge has 59 glass tendons, each with 19 rods. Shinmiya Bridge, Japan, built in 1988, spans 19 ft and is 23 ft wide eigth tendons composed of carbon rods were used for prestressing. Bachigaua Minamibashi Bridge, Japan, a 60-ft, simple-span, precast, hollowgirder bridge built in 1989 post-tensioned with carbon tendons South Yard Country Club Suspension Bridge, Japan post-tensioned in 1990 using flat strips of aramid Hakui Cycling Road Bridge, Japan, built in 1991 its 25-ft span consists of a hollow slab pretensioned with carbon tendons Rapid City Bridge, South Dakota, built in 1992, this 30-ft span bridge is 17 ft wide and consists of three pretensioned girders which support a 7-in thick deck slab. Tsuduke Golf Country Club Bridge, Japan, a 325-ft-long and 12-ft-wide bridge built in 1993-carbon tendons were used to post-tension the bridge

Lugwigshafen Bridge, Germany, a four-span (equal spans) structure having a total length of approximately 280-ft

Pedestrian bridges using FRP structural shapes With advancement in pultrusion technology, FRP structural shapes have become available in several configurations: I-shapes, channels, angles, plates, bars, and rods. Deck slab with GFRP reinforcing bars As an alternative to the commonly used steel reinforcing bars that cause corrosion, GFRP reinforcing bars are now beginning to be used for reinforced concrete decks. Several types of FRP bars made from fibers are polyester or vinyl ester resins. The surface of the FRP bars may be smooth, sand-coated, deformed, helically wrapped, or ribbed sand-coated. The ribbed surface provides a surface texture similar to that of conventional steel reinforcing bars.

The GFRP reinforcing bars offer several advantages over conventional steel reinforcing bars: Noncorrosiveness and high specific strength They are light, nonmagnetic, and possess excellent fatigue resistance GFRP bars are also nonconductive.

The Mckinleyville Bridge, West Virginia the first bridge in the United States to use FRP reinforcing bars for the deck. (a) Courtesy of David Boyajian, Los Angeles. (Left) (b) Courtesy of CFC, Civil Engineering Department, West Virginia University, Morgantown. (right)

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