Grammar 2 1.

Formal characteristics

Adjectives

A definition of adjective in terms of meaning might be a word that describes a thing referred to by a noun. However, other kinds of words or phrases can be descriptive (Hes been a success as well as Hes been successful), and not all adjectives are descriptive. A formal definition is in terms of the syntactic and morphological characteristic of adjectives. Adjectives have all or some of the following properties: A. attributive and/or predicative function attributive (modifier of noun) predicative (subject complement) (object complement) That was an extraordinary goal. That goal was extraordinary. I considered it extraordinary.

An adjective used attributively is part of a noun phrase: it modifies the head noun. An adjective used predicatively is not part of a noun phrase but is used after a linking verb to predicate something about the subject or object in the clause. B. modification by adverbs I am very / extremely busy more beautiful, most beautiful bolder, boldest

C. inflectional affixes

D. derivational affixes: typical endings that derive adjectives from other words: denominal adjectives deverbal adjectives fishy, friendly, awesome, awful, careless, devilish understandable. . . readable . . . unputdownable

B and C relate to an important semantic property of adjectives: typically, they are gradable; some have inflected comparative and superlative forms while others are modified by more and most. Not all words commonly recognised as adjectives have all the above characteristics: some only have the attributive function, others only the predicative function, and others may have both functions but with different meanings; some are not gradable and cannot be modified. Further, members of other word-classes may also have some of the above characteristics: adverbs can be modified in the same way (extremely well); a few adverbs inflect (soon, sooner, soonest), and many adverbs are formed with the ly affix. Note also that nouns, too, can be used as modifiers in noun phrases, and can occur predicatively as subject or object complements. But adjective and noun can generally be easily distinguished: Adj (1) a nonsensical story (2) this story is absolutely nonsensical Noun a nonsense story this story is absolute nonsense

In (1), nonsensical has the typical ical adjective ending; semantically it describes the story, whereas the noun modifier is used in classifying the story (i.e. identifies a particular kind of story) In (2), nonsensical is modified by an adverbas are adjectives generally; whereas nonsense, being a noun, is modified by an adjective.

2. Types of adjectives
GRADABLE

(very / *absolutely) (*very / absolutely)

large, rare, pretty, difficult, economical huge, unique, gorgeous, impossible

(scale words) (limit words)

Limit words occupy the opposite extremes of a scale, and are thus modified differently: (absolutely) atrocious (very / pretty) poor (pretty//very) good (absolutely) brilliant

average

The modifier quite can modify both kinds of words, with a different meaning: Her essay was quite (reasonably) good. Her essay was quite (absolutely) brilliant.

gradable adjectives generally have both attributive and predicative functions: a pretty hard question a civil thing to do That question was pretty hard That was very civil of him.

But some are attributive-only in a particular sense: a heavy smoker a hard worker civil law !a smoker who is heavy) !a worker who is hard) (*The law was very civil.)

A few are predicative-only, or occasionally attributive in a different sense: (*an afraid child) (ill fortune) (fond memories) Hes afraid, alive, alone, asleep Hes well / ill now. I feel faint. Shes very fond of him. (specifying) (emphasizing) (classifying)

NON-GRADABLE (*very / *absolutely) main, former, previous, following, sole, only

mere, veritable, utter, sheer atomic, nuclear, geographical, economic

non-gradable adjectives are attributive-only: our main partner a nuclear plant (*Our partner was main.) (*That plant is nuclear.)

3. Comparative and superlative degree: inflection or modification with more/most? 1 syllable 2 syllables, weak vowel ending 3 syllables, derived from 2-syll 2 syllables, [l] or [n] ending other 2-syllable adjs other 3+ syllable adjs participles greater, greatest happier, happiest unhappier, unhappiest humbler, humblest (more real, most real)

more humble, most humble more honest, most honest more difficult, most difficult more loved, most loved

Notes 1 Double marking (more bigger) is generally regarded as non-standard; but there is a famous example in Shakespeare: the most unkindest cut of all (the cut inflicted by Brutus). 2 winningest is recorded in some dictionaries. examples (literal) He was the winningest coach in NBA history; (figurative) She had the winningest smile.

4. Adjective phrase structure Structure: premodifier very head reluctant complement to admit it postmodifier for his age than expected

rather much

childish easier

Adjectives are like verbs in taking complements of the following kinds: PrepPs that-clauses infinitive clauses aware of / surprised at / worried about the delay aware / surprised / worried that he wasnt coming hes eager to learn, happy to be here *He was fond. *She was reluctant. He was fond of her. She was reluctant to leave.

Some adjectives even require a complement:

5. Adjectives and word order In predicative function, adjective phrases do not normally occur in initial position in clauses: the normal word order is SVC, not CVS: The way you breathe is important. *Important is the way you breathe (where important is the subject complement)

Instead, an NP or clause is used, as these are normal in subject position: The important thing What is important is the way you breathe.

Adjectival complements can actually be fronted, but only when they are premodified and clearly linked to a previous idea: There are a number of key points to remember. Especially important is the way you breathe In attributive function, adjectival modifiers tend to occur in a certain order: general before specific opinion before physical description (size-shape-age-colour), then origin then material then classifier a strange tingling sensation fiddling little thin square green tablets important new European financial regulations a French-made stainless steel pressure cooker

Such rules can be rather tedious to work out, yet we seem to apply them unwittingly! postpositive adjectives: adjectives can come after a noun. This occurs with indefinite pronouns. Other cases can be related either to predicative use, or to the fact that the adjective has its own dependents : something good = something which is good the person responsible (for security) = the person who is responsible for security a story too good to be true = which was too good to be true In addition there are certain set expressions: the President Elect, the Governor General, Mother Superior; for reasons unknown

6. Adjectives as head of NP Adjectives occur as head of NP after the: reference is generic: pl., people sg., abstract The poor are getting poorer. The paranormal is fascinating. the unemployed, the English the banal, the comic

Some adjectives have become converted to nouns and are marked as countable or uncountable in the normal way: equal opportunities for (the) blacks and (the) whites newly-weds; Confederates; empties, In this film, good (virtue) triumphs over evil (wickedness). It didnt do me much good Im afraid. (*the black)

(*the good)

An adjective can stand for a NP to avoid repetition if the head noun is uncountable, but with countables one(s) is used as the head: If you dont fancy red wine, we can have white for a change. If there arent any small boxes, bring a big one.

(*bring a big)

7. A variety of adjectival modifiers participles vary in their degree of adjectivalisation; compare: a very moving ceremony a very polished performance a slowly moving /*very moving train a recently polished /*very polished table

adjectives formed by compounding participles with nouns, adjectives or adverbs: good-looking, heart-breaking, heartwarming, nerve-shattering, breathtaking; well-known, hand-made, mass-produced, love-stricken /love-struck, heartbroken, heartfelt note the peculiarity of the -ed suffix added to nouns(!): a walled garden, a skilled worker, a talented artist; multi-faceted, bow-legged, cross-eyed, hard-nosed, broken-hearted, broad-minded, two-faced English does not normally allow adjective phrases that come after a noun to be placed in front of the noun, reordered or not: a man older than herself a house situated in the centre *an older than herself man *an in the centre situated house

However, many frequent phrases can be made into premodifiers, always hyphenated in writing: easy-to-follow instructions, a not-to-be-missed opportunity, a never-to-be-forgotten experience, a do-it-yourself magazine, a take-it-or-leave-it offer, a tell-it-like-it-is approach, a live-and-let-live attitude, a must-have DVD, bottom-of-the barrel wages, a nose-to-the-grindstone work ethic, state-of-the-art technology, up-to-the-minute reports,... etc!