Goals of Lecture 1-2

EE 332

DEVICES AND CIRCUITS II

Lecture 1 Introduction to Electronics(1)

Explore the history of electronics. Quantify the impact of integrated circuit technologies. Describe classification of electronic signals. Review circuit notation and theory. Introduce tolerance impacts and analysis. Describe problem solving approach

The Start of the Modern Electronics Era

1874

Electronics Milestones
Braun invents the solid-state rectifier. 1906 DeForest invents triode vacuum tube. 1907-1927 First radio circuits de-veloped from diodes and triodes. 1925 Lilienfeld field-effect device patent filed. 1947 Bardeen and Brattain at Bell Laboratories invent bipolar transistors. 1952 Commercial bipolar transistor production at Texas Instruments. 1956 Bardeen, Brattain, and Shockley receive Nobel prize. 1958 1961 1963 1968 1970 1971 1978 1974 1984 2000 Integrated circuit developed by Kilby and Noyce First commercial IC from Fairchild Semiconductor IEEE formed from merger or IRE and AIEE First commercial IC opamp One transistor DRAM cell invented by Dennard at IBM. 4004 Intel microprocessor introduced. First commercial 1-kilobit memory. 8080 microprocessor introduced. Megabit memory chip introduced. Alferov, Kilby, and Kromer share Nobel prize

Bardeen, Shockley, and Brattain at Bell Labs - Brattain and Bardeen invented the bipolar transistor in 1947.

The first germanium bipolar transistor. Roughly 50 years later, electronics account for 10% (4 trillion dollars) of the world GDP

Evolution of Electronic Devices

Microelectronics Proliferation
The integrated circuit was invented in 1958. World transistor production has more than doubled every year for the past twenty years. Every year, more transistors are produced than in all previous years combined. Approximately 109 transistors were produced in a recent year. Roughly 50 transistors for every ant in the world .
*Source: Gordon Moores Plenary address at the 2003 International Solid State Circuits Conference.

Vacuum Tubes

Discrete Transistors

SSI and MSI Integrated Circuits

VLSI Surface-Mount Circuits

Device Feature Size

Feature size reductions enabled by process innovations. Smaller features lead to more transistors per unit area and therefore higher density.

Rapid Increase in Density of Microelectronics

Memory chip density versus time.

Microprocessor complexity versus time.

Signal Types
Analog signals take on continuous values typically current or voltage. Digital signals appear at discrete levels. Usually we use binary signals which utilize only two levels. One level is referred to as logical 1 and logical 0 is assigned to the other level.

Analog and Digital Signals

Analog signals are continuous in time and voltage or current. (Charge can also be used as a signal conveyor.)

After digitization, the continuous analog signal becomes a set of discrete values, typically separated by fixed time intervals.

Digital-to-Analog (D/A) Conversion

Analog-to-Digital (A/D) Conversion

For an n-bit D/A converter, the output voltage is expressed as: 1 2 n

VO = (b1 2

+ b2 2

+ ... + bn 2 )VFS

The smallest possible voltage change is known as the least significant bit or LSB. VLSB = 2 n VFS

Analog input voltage vx is converted to the nearest n-bit number. For a four bit converter, 0 -> vx input yields a 0000 -> 1111 digital output. Output is approximation of input due to the limited resolution of the nbit output. Error is expressed as:

V = v x (b1 2 1 + b2 2 2 + ... + bn 2 n ) V FS

A/D Converter Transfer Characteristic

Notational Conventions
Total signal = DC bias + time varying signal
v T = V DC + V sig iT = I DC + i sig

Resistance and conductance - R and G with same subscripts will denote reciprocal quantities. Most convenient form will be used within expressions.
V = v x (b1 21 + b2 22 + ... + bn 2 n )VFS
Gx = 1 Rx and g = 1 r

Problem-Solving Approach
Make a clear problem statement. List known information and given data. Define the unknowns required to solve the problem. List assumptions. Develop an approach to the solution. Perform the analysis based on the approach. Check the results.
Has the problem been solved? Have all the unknowns been found? Is the math correct?

What are Reasonable Numbers?

If the power suppy is +-10 V, a calculated DC bias value of 15 V (not within the range of the power supply voltages) is unreasonable. Generally, our bias current levels will be between 1 uA and a few hundred milliamps. A calculated bias current of 3.2 amps is probably unreasonable and should be reexamined. Peak-to-peak ac voltages should be within the power supply voltage range. A calculated component value that is unrealistic should be rechecked. For example, a resistance equal to 0.013 ohms. Given the inherent variations in most electronic components, three significant digits are adequate for representation of results. Three significant digits are used throughout the text.

Evaluate the solution.

Do the results satisfy reasonableness constraints? Are the values realizable?

Use computer-aided analysis to verify hand analysis

Circuit Theory Review: Voltage Division

v1 = i s R1
and

Circuit Theory Review: Voltage Division (cont.)

Using the derived equations with the indicated values,

v 2 = i s R2

Applying KVL to the loop,

v s = v1 + v 2 = i s (R1 + R2 )
and

v1 = 10 V v 2 = 10 V

is =

vs R1 + R2

8 k = 8.00 V 8 k + 2 k 2 k = 2.00 V 8 k + 2 k

Combining these yields the basic voltage division formula: R1 R2 v1 = v s v2 = vs R1 + R2 R1 + R2

Design Note: Voltage division only applies when both resistors are carrying the same current.

Circuit Theory Review: Current Division

i s = i1 + i 2
where i1 =

Circuit Theory Review: Current Division (cont.)

Using the derived equations with the indicated values,

vs vs and i 2 = R R1 2

Combining and solving for vs,

RR vs = is = i s 1 2 = i s R1 || R2 1 1 R 1 + R2 + R1 R2
Combining these yields the basic current division formula:

i1 = 5 ma i 2 = 5 ma

3 k = 3.00 mA 2 k + 3 k 2 k = 2.00 mA 2 k + 3 k

i1 = i s

R2 R1 + R2

i2 = i s

R1 R1 + R2

Design Note: Current division only applies when the same voltage appears across both resistors.

Circuit Theory Review: Thevenin and Norton Equivalent Circuits

Circuit Theory Review: Find the Thevenin Equivalent Voltage

Problem: Find the Thevenin equivalent voltage at the output. Solution: Known Information and Given Data: Circuit topology and values in figure. Unknowns: Thevenin equivalent voltage vTH. Approach: Voltage source vTH is defined as the output voltage with no load. Assumptions: None. Analysis: Next slide

Circuit Theory Review: Find the Thevenin Equivalent Voltage

Applying KCL at the output node,

Circuit Theory Review: Find the Thevenin Equivalent Voltage (cont.)

Using the given component values:

Current i1 can be written as: i1 = G1 (v o v s ) Combining the previous equations

v v v i1 = o s + o = G1 (v o v s ) + G S v o R1 RS

vo =
and

( + 1)R S v = (50 + 1)1 k v = 0.718 v s ( + 1)R S + R1 s (50 + 1)1 k + 1 k s

G1 ( + 1)v s = [G1 ( + 1) + G S ]v o
vo = G1 ( + 1) RR ( + 1)R S v vs 1 S = s G1 ( + 1) + G S R1R S ( + 1)R S + R1

v TH = 0.718 v s

Circuit Theory Review: Find the Thevenin Equivalent Resistance

Problem: Find the Thevenin equivalent resistance. Solution: Known Information and Given Data: Circuit topology and values in figure. Unknowns: Thevenin equivalent voltage vTH. Approach: Voltage source vTH is defined as the output voltage with no load. Assumptions: None. Analysis: Next slide

Circuit Theory Review: Find the Thevenin Equivalent Resistance (cont.)

Applying KCL,

i x = i1 i1 + G S v x = G1v x + G1v x + G S v x = [G1 ( + 1) + G S ]v x

Test voltage vx has been added to the previous circuit. Applying vx and solving for ix allows us to find the Thevenin resistance as vx/ix.

Rth =

R1 vx 1 = = RS i x G1 ( + 1) + G S +1
20 k R1 = 1 k = 1 k 392 = 282 50 + 1 +1

Rth = RS

End of Lecture 1