yl:social studies

MAUREEN CAMPBELL
Contributor

HE POLICE are the primary points of contact between the population and the criminal justice system. They are responsive and accountable to the citizens.

Role of the police

developing business strength. This is made possible through developing small business, special research and development, job training and much more. 3. Protecting and regulating the sustainable use of natural resources providing infrastructure. This includes preservation of resources, building roads, industrial estates, schools and hospitals. 4. Enforcing and regulating fair and responsible business practices; included in this are monitoring monetary policy, giving consumer protection and regulating banking practices. 5. Determining and maintaining law and order. This includes the making of laws for order and peace in the society and employing security forces to protect citizens life and property and, thereby, also enforcing the laws.

The responsibilities of the police are outlined in Section 13 of the Constabulary Force Act as follows: The duties of the police under this act shall be to keep the watch by day and night; to preserve the peace; to detect crime; apprehend or summon before a justice, persons found committing any offence, or whom they reasonably suspect of having committed any offence; to serve and execute all summonses, warrants, subpoenas, notices and criminal process issued by any justice in a criminal matter, and to do and perform all duties appertaining to the office of constable. Based on that legislative mandate, the police have defined their role in a mission statement as follows: The mission of the Jamaica Constabulary Force and its auxiliaries is to serve, protect and reassure the people in Jamaica through the delivery of impartial and professional Services aimed at maintenance of law and order, protection of life and property, prevention and detection of crime and the preservation of peace. The purpose of the police is, therefore, to enforce the laws and statutes of their jurisdiction and uphold the law fairly and firmly in order to prevent crime. Police are required to ensure the preservation of peace and public safety through the enforcement of local and national laws, and by providing support and assistance during emergency or crisis situations.

Troy Cockings, product manager, Devices & Handsets at LIME, chats with grade-seven and nine students at Kingston Technical High School on Safer Internet Day.

In order to fulfill these duties, police officers are given extraordinary powers and a wide discretion with which to exercise them. Therefore, the public and the police service have the right to expect the highest professional standards of behaviour from every officer. Police officer must attain these standards and anyone who falls short of these standards will have his or her conduct examined.

ON THE BEAT
Police officers are seen in our country doing the following: 1. Patrolling designated district to ensure the preservation of peace and public safety. 2. Maintaining a positive, visible law enforcement presence in the community. 3. Directing traffic. 4. Administering specialised tests to determine illegal drug or alcohol consumption. 5. Establishing and maintaining professional relationships with the general public. 6. Responding to and documenting reports of crime. 7. Stopping, detaining, identifying and searching persons suspected of criminal activity. 8. Planning, conducting, coordinating and documenting investigations of possible criminal activity.

FUNCTIONAL AREAS ALSO INCLUDE:

 To prevent criminal activities.  To pursue and bring to justice. those who break the law.  To protect, help and reassure the community.  To be seen to do all this with integrity, common sense and sound judgement.  To protect life and property.  To preserve order.  To take measures to bring the offender to justice where an offence has been committed.
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9. Interviewing, questioning and/or interrogating victims/complainants, witnesses, informants and suspects of possible criminal activity. 10. Collecting and preserving evidence. 11. Coordinating case preparation with assigned prosecutors, law enforcement and other personnel. 12. Executing search and/or arrest warrants, using only the appropriate level of physical force necessary. 13. Testifying in court. 14. Referring victims/complainants to appropriate service agencies. 15. Gathering intelligence and other information relating to possible criminal activity. 16. Conducting surveillance operations. 17. Responding to non-emergency, emergency and crisis situations. 18. Establishing control during unusual incidents or civil disorders. 19. Assisting in calming neighbourhood and family disputes. 20. Administering first aid to the injured. 21. Performing other related duties as required...and the list goes on.

b. There are four basic reasons given for punishment, which is partially carried out by the prison system:

RETRIBUTION
Dispense justice which serves to satisfy the victim that the wrongdoer has been punished.

6. Providing social services, public goods and services for the well-being of the community as a whole, such as welfare, infrastructure, vaccination programmes, disaster relief, public parks, basic health care, subsidised housing, public education and public utilities. 7. Managing the finances of the country: this is accomplished through budgeting and thereby controlling the collection of revenue and the spending of money. 8. Raising revenue, directly and indirectly: directly income tax and indirectly through property and goods and service taxation. 9. Defending the nation state: the government maintains an army to defend the country against external hostility.

DETERRENCE
This is to deter the prisoner from recidivism and to deter would-be criminals.

REHABILITATION
Providing counselling, basic educational training and desired values and attitudes.

SOCIETAL PROTECTION
Forms a way of protecting the victim and society from the criminal. c. It helps to instill confidence in the judicial system.

ACTIVITIES
1. Suggest three reasons we need a government and explain what would happen if we did not have one. 2. State four reasons a police force is need in your country. 3. Suggest three ways in which the prison system helps citizens of a country to cope with criminals.
Maureen Campbell teaches at St Hughs High School. Send questions and comments to kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com

WHAT IS THE FUNCTION OF GOVERNMENT?

1. Maintaining international/foreign relations diplomacy, defence and making agreements with other countries for cooperation. 2. Creating job opportunities by

THE ROLE OF THE PRISON SYSTEM

a. The prison system is a societys formal system of social control.

YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | FEBRUARY 19-25, 2013

yl:principles of accounts

Non-profit organisation
ROXANNE WRIGHT
Contributor

PRESENT A worked example of a non-profit organisation. Wherever you see the symbol [>] beside an item, there will be a comment in the reasoning box which will assist you in understanding why a particular step was taken. There is also a detailed example of the workings to arrive at some figures. Pay keen attention to these and you will find it much easier to understand.

QUESTION
The following is a summary of the cash cook of Laymen Sports Club for the year ended December 31, 201: [>1]

The following additional information is available:

SOLUTION
a. Laymen Sports Club Refreshment trading account for the year ended December 31, 2011

YOU ARE REQUIRED TO PREPARE:

a. The refreshments trading account for the year ended December 31, 2011. b. The income and expenditure account for the year ended December 31, 2011. c. The balance sheet as at December 31, 2011. [>4]

REASONING

b. Income & Expenditure for the year ended December 31, 2011

WORKINGS

To ensure that you keep on track with your study of principles of accounts, our next presentation will be sole trader and adjustments. You cannot afford to miss next weeks presentation. See you then.
Roxanne Wright teaches at Immaculate Academy. Send questions and comments to kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com

YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | FEBRUARY 19-25, 2013

13

yl:principles of business

Further questions on profile one

YVONNE HARVEY
Contributor

coins like the JA $5.00 coin will be used to purchase items of small value.

I, ALL. I hope you enjoyed the discussion of the question I presented last week. Please note that these questions are not past CXC questions. They are written by me, based on the syllabus. They carry 20 marks, just as the CXC external questions, and are similar in type. They are intended to give you practice in answering questions similar to what you will see on your external exam papers. This weeks question is based on money, the problems of the barter system and near money. I will stimulate thought on the question and then present a sample answer.

(C) GUIDING YOUR THOUGHTS

Functions of money refer to what money can do and should not be confused with the characteristics or features of money.

ANSWER
Two functions of money are: (1) Money can be used as a medium of exchange (2) Money is a store of value.

Heres this weeks question: (a) Define money. (2 marks) (b) Discuss any three characteristics of money. (6 marks) (c) State two functions of money. (2 marks) (d) Money solved many of the problems of the barter system. Explain how money solved: (i) The problem of double coincidence of wants. (3 marks) (ii) The problem of unequal values. (3 marks) (e) Distinguish between the credit card and the debit card. (4 marks) Total marks: 20

(D) GUIDING YOUR THOUGHTS

Money eliminated most of the problems of the barter system and encouraged trade.

ANSWER
(i) With money people no longer had to walk around and find others who had what they wanted and who wanted what they had. They would simply sell what they had for money or work for money and then buy what they want. This process saved time. (ii) The barter system required that many of the transactions were unequal. For example, a chicken might be given in exchange for a little salt. Money solved this problem because it allowed items to be assigned prices equal to their value and people would just pay exactly what the item is worth.

NCB pays $9.5m for students sitting business subjects

National Commercial Bank Jamaica Limited (NCB), through the NCB Foundation, has paid in full the CXC/CSEC examination fees for students who will be sitting the principles of accounts (POA) and principles of business (POB) examinations in May 2013. This year, J$9.5m was paid to supplement the fees of 4,374 students from 113 schools across the island. Since the inception of the CXC/CSEC POA and POB Fee Sponsorship Programme in 2003, more than 70,000 student entries have been funded by the NCB Foundation. The programme was established to assist students at the secondary level in meeting the minimum qualification requirement for entry to a tertiary institution. To be accepted into a tertiary institution, students must have passed a minimum of five CXC subjects; currently the Ministry of Education provides subsidies for four subjects. The foundations commitment to pay for both POA and POB therefore helps qualified students to sit a total of at least six subjects free of cost. The NCB Foundation continues its unwavering commitment to education through financial contributions and volunteer support in schools. Education is the gateway for young people from all socio-economic backgrounds to become successful citizens and contributors to the future of our nation. To qualify for the programme, schools must have a 90 per cent sit rate in the respective subject areas and the qualified students averages in both subject areas must be 70 per cent or higher.

(A) GUIDING YOUR THOUGHTS

The barter system brought with it many problems. Eventually it was replaced with the money economy.

(E) GUIDING YOUR THOUGHTS

Both debit and credit cards are regarded as near money and plastic money. They are convenient forms for paying for goods and services, but they are not money. The ease with which they allow us to get money is why they are categorised as near money.

ANSWER
Money is anything that can be used to purchase goods and services and settle debts. Money today consists of notes, coins and bank deposits.

ANSWER (B) GUIDING YOUR THOUGHTS

A characteristic of money is a feature of money; it is what money is. The early forms of money had some of the essential characteristics, but for something to be called money it had to be generally acceptable even if it had no other characteristic. When a credit card is used, the holder is actually receiving a loan since the seller gets the money which is later paid back to the credit card company. Each card has a spending limit. Interest is charged if the cardholder does not pay the full amount owing at the end of the month. The debit card, on the other hand, allows the holder to transfer money from his/her account directly to the sellers account and/or receive some of his/her money via an ATM. The money being spent is not a loan. It is his/her own money which was previously deposited in the bank. You can stimulate more thought on the questions above by reading various texts on the topics. See you next week. Money should also be divisible into large and small parts. Large parts, for example JA$ 5,000, are used for purchasing things with a relatively high price and the parts that are small
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Yvonne Harvey teaches at Glenmuir High School.Send questions and comments to kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com

ANSWER
One of the main characteristics of money is that it should be generally acceptable for purchasing goods and services and settling debts. This means that people should want to take it in return for goods and services. Money should also be scarce or limited in supply so that it can maintain its value. If money is too available, it will cause severe inflation and will eventually lose its value.

YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | FEBRUARY 19-25, 2013

yl:office administration

Factory/works control office

part 2
HYACINTH TUGMAN
Contributor

labour, keep the production process running, meet deadlines and reach for better quality. It will show the rate of production that should be attained daily or weekly, and will give details of the factors to be employed in order to achieve this.  Job cost cards These give specific information to the organisation about the cost for producing a particular unit of production. The cost may include utility, labour and materials and salaries.  Time cards These show the time that the worker clocks in and out of work. The time card is usually used with a mechanical clock machine. When the worker arrives at work, it is placed in the machine where the time is printed on it. This is also done at the end of the working day. This card is now used to calculate the number of hours worked per week.  Quality control card It is important that organisations maintain their quality standards, hence persons are employed specially to make checks on finished products, with the help of these cards. Students, I am going to give you a sample of some of these documents. It is important that you learn them and practise filling them out. Continue to familiarise yourselves with all the documents in the factory office. Bye for now.
Hyacinth Tugman teaches at Glenmuir High School. Send questions and comments to kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com

N EVERY business department the duties of the clerk are just as important as his/her superior. These duties involve many activities such as filling and word-processing, but the clerk in the factory office will be involved specifically with the following duties:  preparing documents used in production  progressing chasing  ensuring safety procedures  liaising with other departments  preparing job cards, progress charts  maintaining time cards for workers

In addition to these tasks, the clerk may be asked to organise the hours of work for the factory workers. If production takes place on a 24-hour basis, then it is likely that workers will be placed on a shift system. For this, the clerk will need to place workers on a roster, placing each worker on the shift system and allocating adequate time off. Daily report of how productivity levels and output have gone for that day is very important. This information is used for future planning by management and assists in ensuring that jobs are proceeding according to plan. A progress chaser is what determines each stage of production so that delays do not arise where one stage of production may be slowing up work elsewhere.

DOCUMENTS USED IN FACTORY OFFICE

Job cards Give the details and description of the job and the necessary requirements for it to be carried out. It accompanies each job or batch as it progresses through the stages of production.  Planning master This contains every detail about the entire production process to enhance the use of equipment and

YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | FEBRUARY 19-25, 2013

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yl:chemistry

Avogadros law and molar volume

FRANCINE TAYLOR-CAMPBELL
Contributor

REVIEW OF FACTS
 Avogadros Law states that equal volumes of all gases measured at the same temperature and pressure contain equal numbers of molecules.  The temperatures and pressures usually used are standard temperature and pressure (STP), which is 00C and 1 atmosphere pressure and room temperature (RTP), which is 200C and 1 atmosphere pressure. 1 dm3 of any gas at STP contains the same number of molecules as 1 dm3 of any other gas at STP. 22.4 dm3 of any gas contains L molecules (6.0 * 1023) at STP. This is one mole of the gas and is called the molar volume. At RTP the molar volume is 24 dm3.

(b) Calculate the mass of 4.8 dm3 of (i) N2 (ii) CO2 at RTP. (i) 1 mole of N2 = 28g 24 dm3 at RTP = 28g 4.8 dm3 = (28 * 4.8)/24 = 5.6g (ii) 4.8 dm3 of CO2 at RTP = (44 * 4.8)/24 = 8.8g 2. This question is concerned with the mole and its application. (a) Define the following: (i) Avogadros Law (ii) The mole (iii) The relative molar mass (6 mks) (b) Determine (i) The number of moles of carbon in 18g of carbon (Relative atomic mass: C = 12) (ii) The number of atoms in 18g of carbon (iii) The number of molecules in 4.9g of sulphuric acid (RMM of sulphuric acid = 98) (3 mks) (c) At room temperature and atmospheric pressure (r.t.p.), 1.6g of methane occupy a volume of 2.4dm3. Calculate the relative molar mass of methane. (One mole of any gas at RTP has a volume of 24 dm3) (2 mks)

ANSWERS
2. (a) (i) Avogadros Law states that equal volumes of gases measured at the same temperature and pressure contain equal number of molecules. (ii) The mole is the amount of substance that contains Avogadros number of particles, that is 6.0*1023 particles. (iii) The relative molar mass is the mass of one mole of a substance compared with the mass of one atom of carbon-12. (b) (i) Number of moles of carbon == 1.5 mol (1 mol of carbon has a mass of 12g. Therefore # mol in 18g == 18g/12 gmol-1 = 1.5 mol) (ii) 18 g of carbon == 1.5 mol Now 1 mol has 6.0*1023 atoms, thus 1.5 mol has 1.5 x 6.0*1023 atoms == 9 * 1023 atoms. (iii) # mol in 4.9g of sulphuric acid (H2SO4) = 4.9/98 == 0.05 mol Number of molecules of H2SO4 == 0.05 x 6.0*1023 = 3*1022 molecules. (c) 1 mole CH4 has volume of 24dm3 at r.t.p. Volume of gas = 2.4 dm3 thus # mol = 2.4/24 = 0.1 mol CH4 0.1 mol CH4 has a mass of 1.6g Molar mass or mass of 1 mol = 1.6/0.1 == 16g/mol
Francine Taylor-Campbell teaches at Jamaica College. Send questions and comments to kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com

CALCULATIONS ON MOLAR VOLUME

1. (a) What is the volume of 8g of oxygen at (i) RTP (ii) STP 1 mole of oxygen (O2) = 2 * 16 = 32g 32g = 24dm3 at RTP and 22.4 dm3 at STP Thus 8g = 24/4 dm3 at RTP and 22.4/4 dm3 at STP Volume of 8g of O2 at RTP = 6 dm3 and at STP = 5.6 dm3

yl:english literature

The right methods

BERYL CLARKE
Contributor

N TODAYS class, we are going to reflect on what CXC intends for us to do with this subject. The syllabus tells us that we must consider HOW those who write the novels, short stories and poems make an impact on those of us who read their works. We are therefore to spend time on the methods they use to arouse and keep our interest, how they make us learn about our fellow human beings, how they make us smile, laugh, cry, feel afraid and take sides with the characters they create. CXC wants those who study literature to become aware of the world in which we live, of what makes us human, what makes us similar to and what makes us different from each other regardless of our race or colour or nationality. It means, therefore, that we must get close to the writers by not only finding out all we can about them, but we must read their works with a willingness to learn about people and places and things. We must read in such a way that we get what is written and then try to understand it. If you read a summary or a blurb or some notes, you will not be doing justice to the writer or more importantly as students, to yourself. So let us make a pact right now to read or to finish reading the texts drama, prose and poetry. Do you know that there are a number of skills that CXC wants you develop as you study literature? Yes, by the time you get to

the end of this course, you should be able assess and evaluate situations and persons in the texts you study; be able to understand and analyse actions; to know the words and terms used in literary criticisms, to share your opinions based on judgements you make; to make moral judgements and to write clear, well thought out and properly organised essays in standard English. After several years, we have short stories on the list of texts again and this is where we will start our literary exploration. We always have fun with these abbreviated narratives, after all we can read one two or three times in an hour, sink our teeth into it, tear it apart, put it back together, criticise it, take sides, laugh and have a good time doing so. You may have studied some of them or even all of them in class already and this then may just be revision. Narratives tell stories. These come out of the fertile imaginations of authors. Authors are people with creative urges and abilities and they come from everywhere. Writers are black, brown, white and every shade in between. They are male and female, short, tall, fat and slim. What makes them writers/authors is that they all have stories to tell. Now your knowledge and my description prepare you for the fact that there are millions of stories. There are, as you are aware, different types of narratives. And this is only natural, given the fact that there are so many writers with different ideas, feelings, backgrounds and interests. Please bear in mind

that stories have to be told in some sort of order or at least logically. Since our focus this time is the short story, I want to point out a few things to you as follows:  It is limited in length and range  It usually has only one major character  It may start close to the climax  Often only one incident is dealt with  The plot is not usually difficult. Short stories vary in length. This means that some may only be five pages others sixteen. Such stories, like the novels, can be on any topic or matter, it can be set anywhere even in space or under the ocean, it can be about people, animals, trees or anything the writer chooses. It can take any form a diary or letter, for instance and the narrator can be anyone. The tale can be told in standard language or dialect or a combination of both. When we read a short story we need to contemplate the plot, characters, setting, the language, the themes, symbols and point of view. Please read To Dah-duh in Memoriam by Paule Marshall, for we will begin our discussions next week. Until then, be careful, be a good citizen and God bless!
Berly Clarke is an independent contributor. Send question and comments to kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com

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YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | FEBRUARY 19-25, 2013

yl:english language

Developing your comprehension skills

NATASHA FRANCIS-THOMAS
Contributor

The basic elements which you will need to look for in poems in order to improve your skills are:  The literal meaning  The creation of images  The use of figurative language  The rhythm  The use of rhyme  The tone of the poem and the mood that is created in the poem. Let us now look at some practice exercises so that you can put these skills to the test. The first exercise is a prose passage. Read the passage below and answer the questions that follow. Remember to ask yourself the what, how and why questions. Gradually, every parent becomes aware that his or her child has adult concerns, wants acres of privacy

ELLO, CLASS! This week I wish to focus on developing your comprehension skills. In this syllabus, this topic appears under the heading Understanding. You will need to develop your skill at analysing poetry and short prose passages. Questions on prose passages can be grouped under the headings: What? How? and Why?

and no longer trusts the goodwill of parents in the same old way. These are the biggest of all changes in child-parent relations and are almost always in place by age 13. This shift occurs not because of bad influences and media but because your childs brain has matured and is capable of more independent judgement. Please remember, however, that the change is not locked in place. A young adolescent can bounce back and forth between ages 8 and 13 (and sometimes 15) in a matter of seconds, scorning your values yet, at times, still wanting to sit on your lap. For girls, the central action is their social lives and the intensity of their feelings. No matter how much a girl and her friends are torturing one another with gossip in school or instant messages from home computers, she is convinced that if you knew what she was saying you would disapprove or, even worse, try to interfere and make a bad situation uglier.

What is she talking about with her friends? Social power: whos popular, whos feminine, and whos really weird. Parents: their faults and inability to understand 13-year-olds. Girls are talking about their powerful feelings; they have complex and sometimes overwhelming insights into life. Their joy can be great and is visible, but their despair is hidden in solitary latenight crying, journal entries, weight obsession. Boys are preoccupied by their power and opinion of other boys, their anxiety about whether they live up to the test of masculinity, a new, deeper range of feelings that they may be unable to put into words. In the kitchen, a boy looks down into his mothers eyes and thinks, why is this woman giving me orders? I love her but I am bigger than she is. That perplexes him because he still needs her so much. Boys, like girls, are having a lot of dark nights of the soul in which they see how disappointing adults can be and how unjust society is, they may not be able to put their fears into words, or they do not want to because it makes them feel weak. a) What meaning is conveyed by the word acres in line one? b) Identify two of the biggest of all changes in child-parent relations, according to the writer. c) What does the phrase not locked in place mean? d) What, according to the passage, are causes of the shifts in child-parent relations? e) To whom does the word you in paragraph two refer? f) What, according to the passage, is the preoccupation of (i) girls and (ii) boys? g) Why, according to the writer, are boys perplexed? In next weeks lesson, we will discuss the answers to these questions as well as explore a poetry exercise. All the best!
Natasha Thomas-Francis teaches at Glenmuir High School. Send questions and comments to kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com

WHAT:
This refers to the facts of the passage. What has happened? To whom? By whom was it done? Where did it happen? This is the first level of meaning.

HOW:
This is concerned with the writers technique. These questions encourage us to look at how the writer uses words to cause us to respond in a specific way to what is happening. Questions like How does the writer contrast (a) and (b)? fall into this category. This is the second level of meaning.

WHY:
When the examiners ask What effect does the writer wish to convey when ...? they are trying to get you to express why the author writes as he does. Such questions invite us to examine how effective the writer has been at conveying what he wishes. This is the third level of meaning. Poetry analysis gives some students a warm time in the examination. Do you fall in that category of students? Well, this need not be the case if you spend time developing your skills in understanding poetry. There are three skills which you need to develop in order to perform well. These are to: 1. Understand the different meanings (and levels of meaning). 2. Understand the techniques which the poet uses to convey those meanings. 3. Express what you think, clearly and briefly.

CONTRIBUTED

Jotham Watson (left), captain of Petrojams football team, receives the imposing division one trophy from Wayne Shaw (right), president of the Kingston and St Andrew Business House Football Association and Carl Chang, CEO of Western Sports.
YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | FEBRUARY 19-25, 2013

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yl:biology

Cell division
part 2
MONACIA WILLIAMS
Contributor

ERE WE are together again; another week to mark off the calendar! How are you doing? On top of things and everything is going well? I hope so! Last week, we began our study of cell division by looking at some definitions followed by a look at mitosis. This week, we will continue our study as we look at meiosis.

KEEP IN MIND AS WE PROCEED

 Two types of cell division occur in living organisms; one is mitosis, which occurs in somatic (body) cells and provides for the growth and repair of the organism. The other type is meiosis which occurs in reproductive cells.  Mitosis produces cells that have the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell and meiosis produce cells that have half of the chromosome number of the parent cell.  The cells produced by mitosis are diploid and those produced by meiosis are haploid.

HOW AND WHY DOES IT HAPPEN?

We will see the how as we look at the process and we will discuss the why when we have finished looking at the process.

MEIOSIS
In meiosis there are two divisions: meiosis 1 and meiosis II. Last week, you were told that chromosomes are found in pairs in the nuclei of living organisms. These pairs of chromosomes are known as homologous pairs; one set comes from that male parent and the other from the female parent. The one from the male is said to be paternal and the one from the female is maternal. Let us take a look at the process. The first division of meiosis (meiosis I) is a reduction division with one homologue from each homologous pair going to each new cell. In the second division (meiosis II), the chromosomes divide in the same way they did in mitosis and four cells are produced. The cell divides twice throughout. The diagram below gives a much simplified description of meiosis. Earlier, you were told that we would discuss the why of meiosis. Why is it necessary for the chromosome number to be halved? Think about it. Meiosis produces gametes and gametes join together to produce a new organism in sexual reproduction. What if the male and female gametes of humans had the same 46 chromosomes as the parent? If it were so, what would be the chromosome number of the new organism that is formed? Did you say 92? If you did then you are correct because 46 + 46 is equal to 92! The next one would be 92 + 92 and so on. Can you imagine it? This means that in order to retain the diploid number after the gametes join it is necessary for the chromosome number has to be halved. See you next week!
Monacia Williams teaches at Glenmuir High School. Send questions and comments to kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com

FIGURE 1 SHOWING THE STAGES OF MEIOSIS DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS

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YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | FEBRUARY 19-25, 2013

yl:geography

Proper description of drainage

MARJORIE HENRY
Contributor

HE DESCRIPTION of drainage was started in the last lesson. I have shared with you some 10 questions to help you focus on the details necessary for a proper description of drainage. I have already discussed the first three: (a) How many rivers are there? (b) From where do they originate? (c) How wide are they? I will continue with the discussion on other questions in this weeks lesson.

Radial drainage pattern is found where streams radiate outward (or away from each other) from a central area, as on a volcano or dissected dome. Please note that individual streams may exhibit dendritic and trellised elements. The map below is showing a part of Montserrat. A radial drainage pattern is associated with the Soufriere Hills but, at the same time, individual streams display dendritic elements.

(G) WHICH ARE THE CHIEF RIVERS AND WHICH WAY DO THEY FLOW?
Identify the chief river by the thickness of the blue line. State the name of it and give the general direction in which it is flowing. The Plantain Garden River on the map extract from the last lesson is easily identified as the chief river because of the thick blue line. It is flowing in an easterly direction. The discussion will continue in the next lesson.
Marjorie Henry is an independent contributor. Send questions and comments to kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com

(D) WHAT IS THEIR RELATIVE SPEED?

Here you are to indicate if the river is fast flowing or slow flowing. The nature of the slope will give you an idea of the speed as the contour spacing will indicate whether a gentle or a steep slope is present. The close spacing of the contours indicates a steep gradient. On such a slope the streams are expected to flow quickly. On the other hand, streams are likely to be slow flowing over gentle slopes indicated by wide-spacing contours.

(E) ARE THEY STRAIGHT OR MEANDERING?

Meander refers to the curve formed in the course of a river. In essence, you are trying to find out if the river takes a winding course. The Plantain Garden River shown on the map extract in the last lesson is meandering. Notice also that the river meanders in wide flood plain. Straight flowing rivers are usually also short and are often found in highland areas over steep slopes.

(F) DO THEY SHOW RECOGNISABLE PATTERN?

The drainage pattern of a river is referring to how the streams are arranged on the landscape. Specific Object 13 under Section II Natural Systems in the geography syllabus - indicates that you should be able to describe trellis, radial and dendritic drainage patterns. Let us quickly revise these.

The dendritic pattern shows a tree-like form which branches at random. The tributaries are the branches, with the main stream as the trunk. This pattern is commonly found on homogeneous rock surfaces of uniform resistance. Know how to spell this. My close association with the examination over the years informs me that many students cannot spell dendritic. Trellis is a rectilinear pattern. The minor streams meet the main streams at right angles.
YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | FEBRUARY 19-25, 2013 19

yl:history

Immigration schemes:
Liberated Africans and Europeans
DEBBION HYMAN
Contributor

THE AFRICANS
There were two distinct groups of Africans that were used as labourers in the post-emancipation period. These were the free Africans and the liberated Africans. The free Africans were persons who willingly opted to come and work on the plantations in the Caribbean. The liberated Africans were persons freed by British naval personnel from vessels illegally transporting them to the Caribbean as slaves.

1. DISCUSS TWO reasons the planters turned to external labour sources in the post-emancipation period. 2. Discuss the push and pull factors that led to the migration of liberated Africans and Europeans to the Caribbean in the 19th century.

FREE AFRICANS
Attempts were made to obtain Africans from the Kru Coast and Sierra Leone. The British government was reluctant to grant approval of this scheme as it seemed to be a revival of the slave trade. However, in 1840, approval was granted. At first, they were recruited privately but the British government assumed direct control two years later.

PROBLEMS
1. Very few Africans were willing to come to the Caribbean. There were no catastrophes in Africa which would make them leave. 2. Many who came to the Caribbean did not remain on the plantation. Rather they followed the ex-slaves and settled on lands and became peasant farmers.

LIBERATED AFRICANS
The largest number of Africans who came to the British Caribbean were rescued by the British Navy from slave ships bound for Cuba and Brazil. These Africans were forcibly indentured for up to five years in the Caribbean, primarily in British Guiana, Trinidad and Jamaica.

IMMIGRATION SCHEMES THE EUROPEANS

Due to a decline in the white population, planters sought European immigrants to increase the size of the white population. It was hoped that Europeans would set an example of industry to ex-slaves and as well eventually develop into a middle class. They would settle on available land in the interior, thus forcing ex-slaves off the land and back to the plantations. Jamaica imported the largest number. Europeans also went to Trinidad, British Guiana and St Kitts. These immigrants were mainly Scots, Irish, French and Germans. They were recruited under a bounty system.

PROBLEMS
1. The number of liberated Africans was too small to make a difference to the labour situation. This scheme ended when Cuba and Brazil abolished slavery in 1866 and 1888, respectively. Like the blacks, they abandoned the estates and settled on land.
Debbion Hyman teaches at St Hughs High School. Send questions and comments to kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com

PROBLEMS WITH EUROPEAN IMMIGRATION

Europeans were unsatisfactory as most died when they arrived. They died from tropical diseases, heat stroke, and many drank themselves to death. They also refused to work on the plantations with blacks. Many asked to be sent home or migrated to the United States. Planters also failed to supply proper food, shelter and medical facilities.

THE PORTUGUESE
Madeirans were paid only 3d per day in Madeira and were attracted by higher wages in the Caribbean, especially British Guiana. Many went to Trinidad and a few to the Windward Islands. They were brought in by government bounty. Most came during periods of famine in Madeira (1846-1847). Their numbers decreased after 1847 until the scheme ended in 1882.

PROBLEMS WITH MADEIRAN IMMIGRATION

The Madeirans died in large numbers. They suffered severely from yellow fever, malaria, overwork and inadequate food. The scheme was very irregular and most of them went into trading as soon as their contracts ended. In addition, the Madeiran government objected to the scheme since so many of its citizens were leaving and implemented measures to make it difficult for their recruitment.
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Paul Ebanks (second left), branch manager, First Global Financial Services, presents the GraceKennedy Rural Knockout trophy to Vere Technicals captain Fabian Allen (left), vice-captain and top scorer Kemar Banton, and their coach Dewith Coleman. Vere dethroned STETHS by four wickets on their home ground.

YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | FEBRUARY 19-25, 2013

yl:information technology

Control statements
NATALEE A. JOHNSON
Contributor

OOD DAY, students. This is lesson 22 in our series of Gleaner lessons. In this weeks lesson, we will continue to look at control statements and flow charts.

THE WHILE LOOP

The While Loop syntax is shown below: While Variable not equal to Control_Variable Do Block Statement(s) Endwhile The While loop is an example of an indefinite loop. It facilitates the repetition of a block of instructions until a certain condition is met. No one knows exactly how many times the block statements (instructions) will be carried out. Using the same example of having a bowl of soup with a spoon, no one can tell how many sips you would need to take to fill your stomach. It depends on the size of your stomach and the size of the spoon. The algorithm would look something like this:

EXAMPLE 1

Please note, you use the WHILE loop when you do not know exactly how many times a block of statements will be carried out. In this case, there will be some terminating condition.

EXAMPLE 2
Write a pseudocode algorithm to read a set of integer numbers terminated by 999. The pseudocode should find the sum and average of the numbers. The algorithm should also output the sum and average of the numbers.

THE REPEAT - UNTIL LOOP

The Repeat - Until Loop syntax is shown below: REPEAT Block Statement(s) UNTIL (condition) or REPEAT Block Statement(s) UNTIL <condition is true>

PSEUDOCODE VERSION
Algorithm Sum and Average This program will read a set of integer numbers and calculate the sum and average of the numbers.

The Repeat - Until loop is similar to the while loop except the condition is tested at the end of the loop. Thus, the block of statement(s) will continue to execute as long as the specified condition in the UNTIL statement is false. Using the same example of having a bowl of soup with a spoon, you would continue to sip your soup as long as you have soup in your bowl. We have come to the end of this lesson. See you next week, when we will continue to look at control structures and flow charts. Remember, if you fail to prepare, be prepared to fail.
Natalee A. Johnson teaches at Ardenne High School. Send questions and comments to kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com

YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | FEBRUARY 19-25, 2013

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yl:mathematics

Coordinate geometry
CLEMENT RADCLIFFE
Contributor

 When the axes cut at the origin (0 , 0), the equation of the x axis is y = 0 and for the y axis it is x = 0.  y = 2x + 3 is the equation of a line if for each point (x , y) on the line, the y coordinate is equal to twice the x coordinate of the same point plus 3. The points (2 , 7) and (- 1 , 1) are therefore on the line. This fact about an equation is not usually emphasised but must be clearly noted.  The point (x , y) is on the line y = mx + c if it satisfies the equation. You may show that (1 , - 2) is a point on the line y = 3x - 5 by substituting x = 1 and y = - 2 into the equation. (Substitution shows that - 2 = - 2).  The value of c, the intercept of a line, is found by substituting x = 0 into its equation. Do you know why? If not, please investigate.

Here is another example.

DO expect that by now you are comfortable with finding the length, gradient and midpoint of the line joining two given points. These will be further illustrated by giving you the solution to the homework.

METHODS OF FINDING THE EQUATION HOMEWORK

Given the points A(-8, 2) and B(3 , - 2), find the following with respect to the line AB: (i) Gradient, m (ii) midpoint, M (iii) length of the line AB (iv) Gradient of XY which is parallel to AB (v) the gradient of AC which is perpendicular to AB. The following are the three methods which are commonly used to find the equation of a straight line. (i) Evaluating the equation given the gradient m and the intercept c.

(a) The equation of the line above is y = mx + c. (i) State the value of c. (ii) Determine the value of m. (iii) Determine the coordinates of the midpoint of the line segment AB. (b) The point (-2, k) lies on the line. Determine the value of k.

EXAMPLE
Find the equation given that m = 3/4 and c = 1.

SOLUTION
(i) c is the y coordinate of A. From the graph, A has coordinates (0, 7) c = 7. (ii) Since B has coordinates (2, 0) and A (0, 7) Gradient, m, of AB = y2 - y1 = 7 - 0 x2 - x1 0 -2 Gradient, m = 7 = - 7 -2 2 (iii) M, the midpoint, = x2 + x1, y2 + y1 = 0 + 2 , 7 + 0 2 2 2 2 = 1, 7 2 (b) From the above, m = -7 and c = 7. 2 the equation of AB is y = -7 x + 7 2 2y = -7x + 14. Since (-2, k) lies on the line, substituting -2 for x, 2y = -7 x -2 + 14 = 14 + 14 = 28. y = 28 = 14. 2 k = 14.

SOLUTION

The equation is y = mx + c. Substituting y = 3 x + 1 or 4y = 3x + 4. 4 Answer is 4y = 3x + 4. This method can be extended to a given line on a graph. In this case, both the gradient and the intercept can be found from the graph and the equation determined. (ii) A feature of the second method is: Given the coordinates of two points, (x1 , y1) and (x2 , y2), the equation is y - y1 = y2 - y1

(iii) The length of AB2 = (x2 - x1)2 + (y2 - y1)2 Substituting AB2 = (3 - -8)2 + (-2 -2 )2 = (11)2 + (-4)2 AB2 = 121 + 16 = 137 AB = 137 = 11.7 the length of AB = 11.7 (iv) Since XY is parallel to AB Then the gradient of XY = gradient of AB = - 4 11 (v) Since AC is perpendicular to AB, let AC = m1 and gradient of AB = m. m x m1 = -1. m1 x - 4 = -1 11 m1 = 11 4 The gradient of AC = 11 4 We will continue with coordinate geometry by considering:

x - x1

x2 - x1

Using the points A(4 , - 1), B(1 ,1) in the above, then y - -1 = 1- -1 = 2 x - 4 1 - 4 -3 y + 1 = -2 x-4 3 3y + 3 = -2x + 8 3y + 2x = 5. Answer is 3y + 2x = 5. (iii) The formula given in (ii) may be expressed as y - y1 = m x - x1 where m is the gradient of the line. I am sure you realise that m = y2 - y1 x2 - x1 This formula is used, given the coordinates of a point on the line and the gradient of the line.

HOMEWORK
1. A straight line HK cuts the y axis at H (0 , -1). The gradient of HK is?. Show that the equation of the line HK is 2x - 3y = 3. 2. A straight line is drawn through the points A(- 3 , 2) and B(4 , 1). (i) Determine the gradient of AB. (ii) Write the equation of the line AB. I must emphasise again that the problems based on this topic are fairly routine. It will do you well to practise them so as not to miss out on the opportunity to score full marks for the question if it is presented in the June exam this year. Have a productive week.
Clement Radcliffe is an independent contributor. Send questions and comments to kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com

EXAMPLE
Find the equation of the line if the gradient m = ? and the point (1 , 2) is on the line. y - y1 = m, that is y - 2 = 2/3 x - x1 x-1 3y - 6 = 2x - 2 3y - 2x = 4 Answer is 3y - 2x = 4
YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | FEBRUARY 19-25, 2013

EQUATION OF STRAIGHT LINES

Reminders  All straight lines have the equation: y = mx + c where m is the gradient and c is the intercept; m and c are constants.

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