Ethyl p-hydroxybenzoate sodium salt E218 Methyl p-hydroxybenzoate E219 Methyl p-hydroxybenzoate sodium salt Sources The esters

of p-hydroxybenzoic acid are produced by reacting the respective alcohols with p-hydroxybenzoic acid. The acid itself is made by reaction of potassium phenate with carbon dioxide under pressure at high temperature. Function in Food The p-hydroxybenzoate esters are preservatives against yeasts and moulds; they are less effective against bacteria, especially Gram-negative species. Their effectiveness is dependent on the individual species and they are often used in combination or with sorbic or benzoic acid. They are commonly used in cosmetic and personal care products.
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Benefits The esters tend to be more effective antimicrobial agents than benzoic and sorbic acids, and their effect increases with chain length of the ester group. Unlike some other preservatives, they are effective in water at pH from neutral to mildly acid. They are moderately soluble in oils. They tend to be used in combination as their effect is additive but their taste is not. Limitations The taste of the esters is detectable even at low levels in food products, so the rate of use is self-limiting. They are only slightly soluble in water. They are permitted in a limited range of snacks, confectionery and pate, with maximum concentrations defined by Annex III of Directive 95/2/EC. E220 Sulphur dioxide E221 Sodium sulphite E222 Sodium bisulphite, sodium hydrogen sulphite E223 Sodium metabisulphite E224 Potassium metabisulphite E226 Calcium sulphite E227 Calcium hydrogen sulphite, calcium bisulphite E228 Potassium bisulphite Structure All the substances that are listed as E220 E228 are equivalent when they are present in food. E221E228 are all salts of sulphurous acid. This is formed when sulphur dioxide E220 is dissolved in water. The actual species that are present in food depend upon the nature of the food and not upon the chemical form of the additive. It is only in the most acid of foods, e.g. lemon juice and wines, that significant levels of E220 itself occur. Otherwise, the preservative is converted, upon addition to food, into ionic species, mostly hydrogen sulphite and sulphite ion, and into ionic reaction products, all of which are non-volatile. The reason for the relatively large number of equivalent substances is technological. Thus, E220 would be used as the additive of choice when fruit is fumigated, or when it is desired to use the substance as an acidulant as well as a preservative. E223 and E224 are particularly stable when stored or handled in the factory environment. On the other hand, E226 is relatively insoluble in water and would be used in situations in which solubility must be minimised. The most widely used form of this preservative is sodium metabisulphite, E223. The term sulphur
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dioxide is used conventionally in the food industry to refer collectively to all these additives, because the recognised methods of analysis convert the additive, in whatever form it is, into sulphur dioxide gas. Legal specifications refer to the mass of sulphur dioxide released upon the analysis of 1 kg of food. However, the individual substances need to be listed with E-numbers because the same mass of each is equivalent to a different amount of sulphur dioxide, and each substance has defined purity criteria. In this section, the term sulphites will be used to refer collectively to substances E220E228, to avoid confusion with the specific substance, sulphur dioxide. Sources All substances in the range E221E228 are obtained by the addition of sulphur dioxide to the appropriate alkali (sodium, potassium or calcium hydroxide) until the stoichiometric amount has undergone reaction, and the product is then crystallised. Sulphur dioxide is produced synthetically by burning sulphur or, for example, various metal sulphides. It is the starting material for the production of sulphuric acid and so is available cheaply and in a pure state. Function in Food Sulphites are the most versatile of all food additives. They have been used in foods since the times of the ancient Romans and Greeks, and are important ingredients in certain traditional foods. Their listing as food preservatives indicates that a primary function is to act as an antimicrobial agent. In this role, sulphites are most effective in acid foods in which the efficacious agent is sulphur dioxide itself. However, sulphites are also added to food to control chemical spoilage, in which capacity they play a unique role. The most well known applications are the control of enzymic browning at the cut or damaged surfaces of plant foods, and non-enzymic browning of sugars or vitamin C when foods are processed thermally or stored. Sulphites inhibit most forms of enzymic spoilage in foods, e.g. those involving oxidising enzymes such as peroxidases and lipoxygenases, which can otherwise cause off-flavours. They prevent oxidative rancidity when unsaturated fats are oxidised non-enzymically in plant foods, and help to preserve vitamins A and C. E223 is used exceptionally as a processing aid to modify the physical characteristics of wheat flour for biscuit manufacture. Sulphites are used to bleach cherries before they are coloured artificially. Contrary to some belief, sulphites do not restore the colour of discoloured meat, but help retain the red colour when used in sausages. The effect of sulphites on any food product is thus seen to be complex and it is recognised that the sensory properties of foods treated with this range of additives differ uniquely from those of the untreated foods. This includes a contribution to the characteristic taste of some foods from sulphur dioxide.
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Benefits As an antimicrobial agent, sulphites are used widely to preserve fermented and non-fermented beverages. Their primary purpose here is to prevent spoilage in storage and after the beverage container has been opened. In winemaking, the resistance of specific yeasts to sulphur dioxide is used to select against wild yeasts in fermentation and subsequent storage. It is also thought to contribute to the characteristic dry taste of some white wines. The additive is used against salmonellae and the spoilage yeasts in meat products such as sausage, thus

extending the shelf-life of this food. As an anti-browning agent it is used in food production to control enzymic browning after fruits and vegetables are peeled before processing. For this reason, some catering packs of fresh peeled potatoes are treated with this additive. It is essential in the production of pale-coloured dried fruit such as apricots, peaches and sultanas. Vegetable dehydration depends critically on sulphites to prevent discoloration during production. Subsequently, sulphites allow dehydrated fruits and vegetables to be stored for long periods of time without specialised storage requirements. In these respects, there are no practical alternatives. As an enzyme inhibitor, sulphites prevent the formation of off-flavours, particularly those that arise from the action of oxidising enzymes on fats. As an anti-oxidant, they help to extend the shelf-life of dehydrated vegetables such as potato and increase the retention of vitamins A and C. They also increase the stability of natural food colours such as the carotenoids (e.g., in dehydrated carrot, peppers, tomato). Sulphites are unique in their control of the staling of beer. As a processing aid, they allow accurate control of the physical properties of wheat flour for biscuit manufacture to ensure a consistent product. A combination of these functions allows fruit to be stored in pulp for many months for jam manufacture without the need for freezing. Limitations Sulphur dioxide and the sulphites are permitted under Directive 95/2/EC, as amended by Directives 96/85/EC, 98/72/EC and 2006/52/EC. Sulphites are a normal part of human metabolism even when there is none of the additive in the diet. Whilst the human body is remarkably well able to metabolise and detoxify this additive when ingested, that which is inhaled (as sulphur dioxide gas) can cause an adverse reaction (sometimes severe) in a small number of individuals, particularly those who suffer from asthma. Small concentrations of this gas are present in the headspace above foods in which the additive is present, the highest concentrations being found in acidic food products. There is some concern that individuals who consume large amounts of wine, or have a diet biased towards foods treated with sulphites, can exceed the acceptable daily intake of ingested additive, but there is no known adverse effect arising from such excessive consumption. The classical antinutritional behaviour of the additive is
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that it destroys vitamin B1 in food, but this is not thought to give rise to vitamin deficiency. A technical limitation is that the amount of the additive present in most foods decreases with time as a result of the many chemical reactions that are required for it to exert its preservative effect. This means that food treated in this way has a limited shelf-life. On the other hand, there are toxicological implications arising from the reaction products. Evidence suggests that a major reaction product formed from sulphite is metabolically inert and, therefore, harmless. Typical Products Foods that contain sulphites are too numerous to mention individually but fall into the following classes: soft drinks and fruit juices; fermented drinks, including beer, wine, cider and perry; dehydrated vegetables; dehydrated fruits; peeled potatoes; maraschino cherries; sausages and burgers; jam (as a result of use in fruit pulp); and biscuits. Sulphites may also be present at a very low level in foods where the additive does not serve a technological function, as a result of carry-over in the ingredients or from pre-processing operations.

E234 Nisin Sources Nisin is an antimicrobial peptide (small protein) or bacteriocin produced by certain strains of the lactic acid bacterium Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis. Commercial preparations, standardised to 2.5% nisin (one million international units per gram), are prepared by the controlled fermentation of nisinproducing L. lactis subsp. lactis strains in a milk-based medium, recovery and drying of the nisin and blending with salt. Dry nisin preparations are very stable, providing storage is below 25 C. Function in Food Nisin is used as a food preservative and shows strong antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive bacteria but no activity against Gram-negative bacteria, yeasts and moulds. Amongst Gram-positive bacteria, nisin is particularly active against the spore-forming genera Clostridium and Bacillus. Both spores and vegetative cells are sensitive to nisin, although spores are usually more sensitive than their vegetative cell equivalent. Other non-spore-forming bacteria that are sensitive to nisin are lactic acid bacteria, and Listeria monocytogenes.
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Benefits Nisin is an important preservative in foods that are pasteurised but not fully sterilised, since pasteurisation kills Gram-negative bacteria, yeasts and moulds but not bacterial spores. In heat-processed foods, nisin can be used to allow a reduction in the heat-processing regimes, which has the benefit of protecting food against heat damage, thus improving nutritional content, flavour, texture, and appearance, and providing an energy saving. As an antimicrobial agent against lactic acid bacteria, nisin has applications in low-pH (high-acid) foods such as sauces and salad dressings, and for the control of spoilage lactic acid bacteria in beer, wine and spirit manufacture. In certain foods, such as ricotta, feta and cottage cheese, it can be used to inhibit Listeria monocytogenes. After consumption in food, nisin is degraded by digestive protease enzymes; thus no passage or accumulation of nisin will occur. There are no reported allergic responses of human beings against nisin in food. Nisin is recognised as being of very low or no toxicity and has GRAS (generally recognised as safe) status in the U.S. Limitations The Scientific Committee on Food of the European Commission allocated an ADI of 0.13 mg/kg body weight. Usage levels range from 0.5 to 15 mg/kg of food. Under Part C of Annex III of Directive 95/2/EC, nisin is permitted in ripened cheese, processed cheese, clotted cream, mascarpone, semolina, tapioca and similar puddings with individual maximum levels laid down. Typical Products Nisin is used in many different foods, e.g. pasteurised processed cheese products, pasteurised dairy desserts, pasteurised milk and milk products, pasteurised liquid egg products, crumpets, canned vegetables, Continental sausages, sauces and salad dressings, and in beer production.