UNIT 11 SIMPLE STRESSES AND STRAINS

Structure
11.1 Introduction
Objectives

11.2 Concept of Stress and Strain 11.3 Internal Forces and Stresses 11.3.1 Internal Forces - Method of Sections
11.3.2 Stresses - Normal and Shear 11.3.3 Simple Tension and Compression 11.3.4 Simple Shea11.3.5 Factor of Safety and Allowable Streses

11.4 Strain, Stress-Strain Ciagrams and Hooke's Law

11.4.1 Definition of Strain 11.4.2 Stzess-Strain Diagram 11.4.3 Nooke's Law and Modulus of Eiasticity 11.44 Lateral Strain and Poisson's Ratio 11 4.5 The Principle of Superposition 11.4.6 Gener&ssd Hmke's Law 11.4.7 Shearing Stresses on Mutually Perpendicular Pianm 11.4.8 Hooke's .Law for Shearing Stress and Strain 11.4.9 Volume Strain and Bulk Modulus 11.4.10 Relatiorr between Moddus of Elasticity and Modulus of Rigidity 11.4.1 1 Relation between Modulus of Elasticity and Bulk Nlodulus

11.5 Simple Indeterminate Problems in Tension and Compression - Illustrative Examples 11.6 Summary 11.7 Keywords 1 ! .8 Solutions/Answers to SAQs

11.1 INTRODUCTIOV
In the study of both statics and dynamics, it is assumed that the bodies under consideration are rigid. That is, the distance between any two particles in the body does not change even on the application of external forces. It is, however, common knowledge that all bodies are deformable to a certain extent and change their shape on the' application of external forces.'The study of the internal forces in deformable bodies and the relations between these forces and the deformations produced is another important branch of engineering mechanics. The behaviour of a member subjected to forces depends not only on the fundamental laws of Newtonian Mechanics that govern the equilibrium of forces but also on the physical or mechanical characteristics of the materials of which the member is made. The necessary information regarding the physical characteristics of the materials come from the laboratory where materials are subjected lo the action of accurately known loads or forces and the behaviour of test specimens is observed with particular regard to such phen~menaa s occurrence of breaks, deformation etc. The practical aspects of testing of materials can be learned properly only in a laboratory course. In this treatment, only the end results of such investigation are of interest and this unit is concerned with the analytical or rnatl~ematicapl art of the fundamental topic of behaviour of deformable bodies.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you shol~idb e able to : understand the comept cf stress and strain, distinguish between simple tension, simple compression and simple shear forces, comprehend the terms Hooke's Law, Poisson's Ratio, Modulus of Elasticity, Modulus of rigidity, Bulk Modulus and find the relations between them, and analyse and find solutions to various types of problems involving stress and

1 ~rntroductionto Strurturat
1 Mechanics
-.

11.2 CONCEPT OF STRESS AND STRAIN

If any body is subjected to external forces, then the effect of these forces will be spread all over the body. The point, line or surface over which any exlernal force is acting will have a tendency to move along with this force. In other words, the body will have il tendency of deformation on account of these external forces. This deformation will however be resisted by the adjacent particles surrounding it. As a result of this, there will be internal forces caused by the reaction of the surrounding particles. The resistance set up in the body increases as the deformation increases and when full resistance to the external force is developed, the process of deformation stops. This deformation is called strain and the acconipanying resistance to deformation is called stress. --

11.3 INTERNAL FORCES AND STRESSES

11.3.1 Internal Forces-Method of Sections
The existence of internal forces in a body as discussed above will become clear if the body shown in Figure 11.1 (a) is considered. At the point or section where he internal forces are to be studied, thc body is imagined to be cut into parts (1) & (2) by the plane a-a.
Figure 11.1

Since the whole body is in equilibrium as supporled under the action of the external forces P, & P, and reactive forces R, & R, , i.t can be concluded that each of the parts (1) & (2) are also in equilibrium. The equilibriv,m of each part will be studied separately. For this purpose. both the parts (1) & (2) are shown separately in Figure 11.1 (b). The two parts (1) & (2) can remain in equiliibrium only when forccs are acting at the cut section a-a as shown irn figure. It is these forces which are termed as internal forces. These forces are produced by the mutual action and reaction of the particles in each part. The effect of part (2) on part (1) is such that part (1) is in equilibrium under the action of external forces acting on this part and internal forces. By Newton's third law, the effect of part (1) on part (2) at section a-a can be repre.c;ented by these same internal forces but acting in the opposite directions on part (2'). Tnese forces will keep part (2) also in equilibrium. ' The above ideas are made clear .m Figure 11.1 (b). It will be seen that with the help of the above method known as "method of sections", the internal forces acting in the body can be revealed and calculated. The above considerations lead to the following fundamental conclusion: "The external forcta to one side of an arbitrary cut must be balanced by the internal forces developed at the cut". The above concept will be relied upon as a first step in solving all problems where the internal forces are being investigated. In discussing the method of sections, it is significant to note that some bodies, although not in static equilibrium, may be in dynamic equilibrium. These problems can be reduced to problems of static equilib~iiumF. irst, the acceleration 'a' of the par1 in question is computed, then it is multiplied by the mass of the body, giving a force F = ma. If the force so computed is applied to the body at its mass centre in a direction opposite to the acceleratio~t~h,e dynamic problem is reduced to one of statics. This is the so-called D'Alembert prinlciple which you have already studied. With this point in view, all bodies can be thought of' as being instantaneously in a state of static equilibrium. Hence for any body, whether in static or dynamic equilibrium, a free-body diagram can be prepared on which the necessary forces to maintain the body as a whole in equilibrium can be shown. From there on, the problem is the same as discussed above.

11.3.2 Stresses - Normal and Shear

In general, the internal forces acting on infinitesimal areas of a cut section may be of varying magnitudes and directions. These internal forces are vectorial in nature and maintain in equilibrium the externally applied forces. In mechanics of materials, it is particularly significant to determine the intensity of these forces on the various portions of the cut, as resistance lo deformation and the capacity of the materials to resist forces depend on these intensities. With respect to the body shown in Figure 11.1, consider the part (1) acted upon by external forces P, & R,. Figure 11.2 (a) shows the section made by plane a-a. Let AF be the magnitude of the internal force acting on an elementary area A A. The symbol 'A' is to be understood as referring lo a small quantity. In general, the force AF acting
Figure 11.2

on the elementary area A A varies from point to point and is inclined with respect to the AF plane of the cut. The ratio p = -- means the average force acting on area A A or the AA force per unit area acting on A A. The force 'y ' is also called the resultant stress acting on area AA. In engineering practice, it is customary to resolve this force perpendicular and parallel to the section being investigated. Thus, if AF is resolved into components AN and AT, then the following two ratios can be written down by greek letters : AT z (tau) = - AA a is called average normal stress and z, the average shearing or tangential stress acting on area A A. These stresses too are the forces acting per unit area. Since a particular stress generally holds true only at a point, if the area A A is reduced to the limit zero, then according to calcuius. AF p, = Lim M-tO

z, AT = Lim M + O AA

These stresses are then called the stresses acting on the plane a-a at the point m. p, , a,, z, are now respectively the resultant, normal and shearing stresses at the point m as shown in Figure 11.2 (b). Since force is a vector and area is a scalar quantity, their ratio, which represents the component of stress in a given direction, is a vector quantity. In the SI units, force is
Simple Stresses

and Strains

Introdudioo to structural generally measured

in Newtons (N) and length in metres (m). Accordingly the

units of wil; k Nln~ which is designated as Pascal (Pa). The stress numerically expressed in units of 1 ~ l mi's in general numerically too small. Therefore, it may be mcjre acceptable to think in terms of 1 ~lmrn' Again 1 ~lm,n=' lo6~ l m=' lo6P ascal = h mega pascal = 1 MPa Also 1 Gpa = 1 Giga Pascal = 1 o9 Pa = lo3 MPa The unit of stress expressed as MPa has-gained wide acceptance.
Meehauiol stress

11.33 Simple Tension and Compression

Figure 11.3 sbovs a unif~rmst raight bar of circular cross-section which is subjected to two forces 'N' acting at the ends of the bar along its longitudinal axis passing through the

centroid of the section.

Figure 11.3

If the forces N acting at the end of the bar are acting in the directions shown, trying to pull the bar, then it is said that the bar is in ten:.ion and ibe forces N are lensile fol'ces. On the other band, if the two forces W try to push or pfess the bar. then the b a i~s szid to be in compression and the forces N are termed as compre,~sivfeo rces. The stresses produced by tensile forces are termed as renss'le stresses which are generally regarded as positive. Conversely, compressive forces produce compressive stresses which are generally regarded as being negative (see Figure 11.4). The internal forces acting at any cross-section X - X (see Figure 1 i .3) will now be studied by using the method of sections. Accordingly, it is imagirted that the bar is cut into two parts (1) & (2) by a plane X-X perpendicular to the axis of the bar. The two parts are separated out and the actions and reactions exerted by one part on the oLher is represented by the internal forces acting at the cut as shown in Figure 11.3. The two parts (1) & (2) are separately in equilibrium under he action of the external forces wid internal forces.
Figure 11.4

Now consider either the equilibrium of part (1) or part (2). GeneraUy: the normal force acting on a small elementary area dA situated in the cross-section X-X will be ox dA anrl the tangential force will be T dA. Since part (1) is in equilibrium, j o , d ~ -=~ o or = N Again since there are no forces acting perpendicular to the axis of the bar, It will now be assumed that i) the shearing stresses r are zero all over the cross-section, ii) the normal stresses ox will have the same value o throughout the cross-section. In books on the subject of Theory of Elasticity, it is shown that these assumptions are correct if the cross-section X-X is sufficiently distant from the point of application of the force N. Similar reasoning applies to bars subjected to compressive forces N at ends. The normal compressive stress at any section will be of uniform intensity as long as the resultant force N coincides with the centroid of the area at the cut. However, one must exercise additional care when compression members are concerned. They may be so slender that they do not behave in the fashion considered above. For example, an ordinary meter rod under a rather small axial compressive force has a tendency to buckle sideways and collapse. The consideration of such instability of compression members will be deferred for the time-being and it will be taken up in the subject of "strength of materials" later.

11.3.4 Simple Shear

A situation that frequently arises in practice is shown in Figure 11.5 (a),(b) and (c). In all these cases, the forces are transmitted from one body to another by causing stresses tangential to the cut section. To obtain stresses in such cases, cutting planes such as A-A are selected and free-body diagrams as shown in Figure 11.5 (d), (e) & (f) are used. As mentioned earlier, the forces are transmitted through the respective cut areas. A small unbalance in moment equal to P x e exists in the first two cases but being small is commonly ignored. Assuming that the stresses acting in the plane of these cuts are wiformly distributed, we can obtain a relation P Shear Stress 2 = -

A
Simple Stresses and Strains
(c

1 (f)

Figam 115 : Loading Cwditions Causing Shear Strases lntrodudion to Structural Mechanics

where P is the total force acting across and parallel to the cut, often called "shear force" and A is the cross-sectional area of the cut member. For reasons that may be explained later in the subject of "strength of materials", unlike normal stresses, the shear stress given by Eq. (11.2) is only approximately true. For the cases shown, the shear stresses actually are distributed in a non-uniform fashion. The quantity given by Eq. (1 1.2) represents an average shear stress. Figure 11.5 (b) & (c) represents a typical rivetted connection, the former is a lap joint and the latter is a double cover butt joint. For the case shown in Figure 11.5 (c), there are two planes of the rivet that resist the external force Y as shown in Figure 11.5 (f). Such a rivet is referred to as being in double shear, whereas the rivet in Figure 11.5 (b) is in single shear as indicated in Figure 11.5 (e).

11.3.5 Factor of Safety and Allowable Stresses

The determination of stresses would altogether be meaningless were it not for the fact that physical testing of materials in a laboratory provides information regarding a materials resistance to stress. In a laboratory, specimens of known material, manufacturing process andlor heat treatment are carefully prepared to desired dimensions. Then these specimens are subjected to gradually increasing 1oadsJforces. In the most widely used test for steel, a round bar is subjected to tension and the specimen is loaded until it finally ruptures. The force necessary to cause rupture is called the ultimate load. By dividing the ultimate load by the original cross-sectional area of the specimen, the ultimate strength (or stress) of the material is obtained. More details of a typical tension test will be discussed in Section 11.4. For the design of members, the stress level called the "allowable stress" is set considerably lower than the ultimate stress determined from the so-called static test mentioned above. This is necessary for several reasons. The exact magnitudes of the loads/forces that may act on the designed structure are seldom accurately known. Materials are not entirely uniform. Some materials undergo large deformations prior to actual rupture or failure. In order to limit the deformations under service load, stresses must be kept low. It is also desirable that the stress permitted must be such that no permanent deformation may be caused in the member. Again some materials undergo additional strains under a constant load depending upon the period up to which the load is sustained. For certain applications where a force comes on and off the shucture a number of times called repetitive forces, the material cannot withstand the same ultimate stress obtained from a static test due to a factor known as "fatigue". Fatigue properties are of utmost importance in design of mechanical equipment. The above mentioned facts, coupled with the impossibility of the determining stresses accurately in complicated structures and machines necessitate substantial reduction of stress compared to the ultimate strength of materials obtained in a static test. For example, as will be seen later, ordinary mild steel will withstand an estimate stress of 400 MPa and more. But, it deforms to a very large extent after a stress level of about 250 MPa and an allowable stress of around 150 MPa is used for structural work. This allowable stress is even further reduced to about 100 MPa when the member is subjected to alternating loads because of fatigue characteristics of the material. From the above discussion, it will be noted that the allowable or permissible stresses are

much lower than the ultimate stresses. This allowable stress is obtained by dividing the ultimate stress by a factor known as "factor d safety". Thus ultimate stress Allowable stress = factor of safety ultimate stress Factor of safety = allowable stress The values used for factor of safety are different depending on the reasons discussed above. For concrete, stone, brick and such other brittle materials, the allowable stress is obtained on the basis of Equation (1 1.3) and the factor of safety is usually equal to or more than 3. ror steel, wnlcn uelorrrw: excessively alter a CCIL~I I I~ L I ~ lSevSe r Lallcu ~ I G I Ua ur;ss (discussed further in Section 11.4), the allowable stress is obtained by dividing yield stress by a factor of safety. However, the factor of safety is about 1.7 only since it is a factory controlled material. Example 11.1 In Figure 11.6, determine the normal stresses acting on Sections 1-1 & 2-2, if the cross-sectional area of the bar is 5 sq.cm.
Figure 11.6

Solution The solution is shown in free-body diagrams (b), (c) & (d) of Figure 11.4, Accordingly, the internal force N1 at section 1-1 = 20 kN compression.
Figure 11.0

N1 20 Normal stress at section 1-1 = - -- - = 4 kN / cm2 (compressive) A5 Again, from diagrams (c) or (d), the internal force N, at Section 2-2 is 10 kN tension. 10 Therefore, Normal stress at section 2-2 = - = 2 k ~ / c m(t~en sile)

5
Example 11.2 A hollow cast-iron column carries an axial load of 2000 kN. If the outer diameter of the column is 30 cm and the permissible stress is 8 kN/sq.cm. Find out the thickness of the column. Solution had

Stress = - . Area Let d = internal diameter of column 30 - 24.12

:. Thickness = 5.88 - 2.94cm

2-2 Example 11.3 A steel bar of circular cross-section is 30 m long. It hangs from a fixed support and carries a pull of 8 kN at its lower end. Density of steel = 77 kN1cu.m. If the permissible stress in the material is 7 kN/sq.cm. Find the suitable diameter of the bar.
ll..r.'

-- .

' " """

and Strains

Solution Let d = diameter of bar in cm.

I

X: (d2) x 30 1815 d2

,,

Total weight of bar = - x 7 7 = -

4 lo4 1 o4
Introduction to Structud
Mechanics

86

:. Reaction offered at fixed support = 1815d2

Reaction = Stress x Area
Example 11.4

The concrete pier shown in Figure 11.7 is loaded at top with a uniformly distributed load of 20 k~/m'. Assuming density of concrete as 25 kN/m3, investigate the state of normal stress at a level of lm above the base. If the ultimate compressive stress of concrete is 100 lcIWm2, what is the factor of safety at this level ? 1 . Sideview Solution In Example 11.3, you might have noticed (if you work backwards) that the weight of the steel bar is negligible compared with the applied load at bottom and therefore, could have been neglected. But, in this problem, the weight of the pier itself is appreciable and must be included in the calculations. Applied force at the top = 20 x 0.5 x 0.5 = 5 kN Weight of pier from top up to section 1-1 Total compressive force at section 1-1 = 5 + 9.375 = 14.375 kN Area of cross-section at section 1-1 = 1 x 0.5 = 0.5 m2

:. 14.375 Compressive stress at section 1-1 = -- = 28.75 kNh2

0.5 Factor of safety = -loo -- 3.48 28.75

SAQ 1
Plot the variation of axial force and normal stress in the steel bars shown in Figure 11.8 (a) & (b). Take cross-sectional area = 4 cm2, Take a = lm, P = 20 kN

SAQ 2 Figmre 11.8

A rod of variable cross-section built-in at one end is subjected to three axial forces as shown in Figure 11.9. Find the maximum normal stress.
Simple Stresses and Straios

SAQ 3
A short column is made up of two steel pipes, one on top of the other as shown in

Figure 1 1.10. If the allowahk stress in compression is 100 MPa, (a) What is the allowable axial load PI if axial load P2 = 200 kN ? (b) What is the allowable load PI if load P2 = 80 kN ? Neglect the weight of the pipes.

11.4 STRAIN, STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAMS AND HOOKE'S LAW

11.4.1 Definition of Strain
.In engineering practice, the materials that are used for construction or machine components are elastic. If a body made of an elastic material is subjected to external

forces, then the body will change its shape and will become deformed. However on removal of the forces, thc hody will resume its original shape. This property is termed as elaslicity. Bearing the above in mind, consider once again the bar showii in Figure 11.3. If the bar is elastic, then on subjecting it to axial tension N, it will be found that the bar changes its shape. If the initial length of the bar is 1 , then after deformation its length will change to '1,'. Hence the change in length will be In the case of tension, the final length 'I,' will be greater than the original length '1 ' and therefore '6 1' will be an increase in length or positive. Conversely, if the bar is in compression, then the final length 1, will be less than the original length and 6 1 will be negative. The change in length per unit original length can be written down as The ratio is termed as strain. Thus, strain is defined as change in length per unit original length. From equation (11.6), it can be inferred Uiat strain can be positive or negative depending on the sign of '6 1.' Further, since strain is a ratio of two lengths, it is a dimensionless quantity. Since this strain is a strain along the length of the bar (that is along the x-axis), it is referred to as longitudinal strain.

11.4.2 Stress-Strain Diagrams

In order to find out the physical or mechanical properties of any material, il is necessary to test it in tension or compression in a laboratory. It is apparent from the discussion in 11.4.1 that the deformations of a member in tension or compression are most conveniently expressed in terms of strain. Siiililarly, stress rather than force is the more significant parameter in the study of materials. As a consequence, in the study of properties of materials, it is customary to plot diagrams on which a relationship between stress and strain for a particular test is reported. Such diagrams establish the relationship between stress and strain and for most practical purposes the relationship is assumed to be independant of the size of the specimen. Experimentally determined stress-strain diagrams differ considerably for various materials. Even for the same material they differ, depending upon the temperature at which the test was conducted, the speed at which the specimens are loaded and several other variables. However, broadly speaking, two types of diagrams can be recognizcdone for ductile materials and the other for brittle materials. Materials capable of withstanding large strains like steel, aluminium etc. are referred to as ductile materials. For brittle materials like concrete, cast-iron, stone etc., failure occurs at a very small strain. A ductile material like mild steel is tested in tension. For this purpose, a test specimen is made whose dimensions are as specified in Indian Standard specifications IS 226. The specimen is tested in a tension testing machine. The machine records the force being exerted on the specimen. At the same time, the increase in length of the specimen can be measured by using an instrument known as extensometer over an initial standard length known as "gauge length". With the above observations, stresses and strains can be calculated at gradually increasing loads. Figure 11.11 sliows a typical stress strain diagram for mild steel which is a ductile material. The following points may be noted with reference to the graph shown in Figure 11.1 1. 1) Up to point A, it is found that the graph is a straight line viz - stress is proportional to strain. The stress corresponding to point A is called the proportional limit. 2) After point A, the graph curves a little and strain is no longer proportional to

stress. If the material is stressed beyond point B, then it loses its elasticity and on removal of the load (or stress), the nuterial does not recover its full deformation. A small amount of perrrranent deformation will exist. The point B after which the material loses its elasticity is termed as the elastic limit. Points A and B are very close to each otl~ear nd in practice, they are assumed to coincide.
>

Simple Stmses and Shins

Strain
Figure 11.11 : Stress-strain Curve for Mild Steel

3) Another important point in the graph is point C. Just before point C, the graphs cwe-ppreciably. This point is called the yield point and the stress mesponding to this point is called the yield stress. At this point, the material begins, as it were, to flow. Although the stress remains almost constant at this instant, there is considerable increase in wain. 4) After point C, the curve is almost parallel to theax-axis. At point D, the flow or yield of the materid stops. The nuterial hardens and can now continue to carry more stresses but at a decreasing rate. After point D, the stress and strain continue to increase though they are no longer proportional to each other. 5) At point E, the material is stressed to its maximum. The stress corresponding to this point is called the ultimate tensile stress or the failure stress though the material does not fail at this point. 6) After point E, the stress recorded by the nuchine decreases and at point 'b, the specimen breaks or ruptures. Figure 11.12 shows a tv~icaslt ress-strain curve for a brittle material. Strain
Figure 11.12 : Stress-strain Curve for Brittle Materials Introduction to Siroctural Such diverse materials as

t o ~ s1te el, concrete, cast-iron, copper etc. have curves of

#is
Mechanics variety

although the extreme value of stram that these materials can withstand differs drastically. The steepness ot these curves varies considerably. Numerically speaktng, each material has its own curve. The terminal point such as B on this curve represents the complete failure (or rupture) of a specimen.

11.4.3 Hooke's Law and Modulus of Elasticity

Fortunately, one feature of the stress-strain diagram is applicable with sufficient accuracy for nearly all materials. It is a fact that for a certain distance from the origin, the experimental values of stress vs strain lie essentially on a straight line. It is true for mild steel up to some point such as A in Figure 11 .lo. It holds nearly true up to very close to failure point for many high grade alloy steels. On the other hand, the straight part of the curve hardly exists for concrete, cast-iron or copper. Nevertheless, for all practical purposes, up to some such point as A (Figure 1 1.1 I), the relationship between stress and strain may be assumed to be linear for all materials. This sweeping idealization and generalisation applicable to all materials became known as Hooke's Law after the English scienbst Robert Hooke. He establrshed this law in the early part of the seventeenth century. According to this law, stress is always proportional to strain within certain limits. That is oer-E (1 1.7) E = -o = -st-re-ss E strain In this equation, E is a constant which is termed as elastic modulus, modulus of elasticity

or Young's modulus. Young's Modulus is so called after the English scientist Thomas Young whose published work in the early part of the eighteenth century contain a definition of modulus of elasticity. As strain E is dimensionless, 'E ' will have the same dimension as 'a'. That is, E will be measured in ~ / (Pmasca~l), ~ / c mk~~, / c m ~~ /, r n r n(M~ Pa) etc. in SI units, The value of the elastic modulus 'E ' is a definite property of the material. From experiments, it is known that the strain 'E' is always a very small quantity, hence E must be a large one. For most type of steels, the value of 'E ' lies between 2 x lo5 and 2.1 x 1@ MPa. Generally, 'E ' is interpreted as the slope of a straight line from the origin to a rather vague point A on a stress-stress diagram as discussed earlier. The stress corresponding to the latter point is termed as the "proportional limit''. It follows that Hooke's law is applicable only up to the proportional limit of the material. This is highly significant as in the latter subjects "Strength of Material", "Theory of Structures", "Structural Analysis" etc. which you are going to learn, the derived formulae are based on this law. Clearly then, such fornlulae will be limited to the behaviour of the material in the lower range of stress.

11.4.4 Lateral Strain and Poisson's Ratio

In addition to the deformation of materials in the direction of the applied force, :mother remarkable property can be observed in all solid materials. That is, at right angles to the applied force, a certain amount of lateral (transverse) expansion or contraction takes place. In short, experiments have shown that longitudinal strain is always accompanied by lateral strain. In Figure 11.3, assume that the original diameter of the bar ir; D. After the deformation produced by tension along the longitudinal direction, it will te found that the diameter of the bar will decrease to D,. That is, the final diameter will be less than its original diameter. Thus, the change in diameter is 6D = Final Diameter - Initial Diameters = Dl - D (negative) . Lateral strain = original diameter D In the case of tension in the bar, 6D is negative so that lateral strain is also negative. When the bar is in compr~s ioni,t will get shortened longitudinally and the diameter r' the bar will increase. The lateral strain will thus be positive. Hence the sign of lateral strain is always opposite to the sign of the longitudinal strain.

1 The French scientist S.D. Poisson fourad that the lateral strain is always proportional to
the longitudinal strain. The ratio between the two strains is a definite property of the material and is a constant termed as "Poisson's ratio". It is usually denoted as
p (mew) or v (nu) or -m by different authors. In short, Poisson's ratio 'p' =

Lateral strain Longitudinal strain

The-value of 'p' generally lies between a narrow range of 0.25 to 0.35 for different

materials. In extreme cases, values as low as 0.1 (some concretes) and as high a0.5 (rubber) occur.

11.4.5 The Principle of Superposition

An important principle which will be repeatedly used in the study of strength of materials, structural analysis etc. is the "principle of superposition" which actually follows from Hooke's Law. This principle can be explained as follows : Assume that several external forces are acting on an elastic body producing reactions, stresses, strains etc. which have to be determined. For this purpose, it is assumed that each force is applied separately in turn on the body. Each force will produce its own reactions, stresses and strains which can be more easily determined than if all the forces were considered together at one time. According to the principle of superposition, when all the forces are acting on a body at the same time, their total effect ciui be obtained by algebraically adding up the individual effects of separate forces. This rule is not only applicable to forces but also to many other quantities which you will be learning later. This principle is true only if each quantity/effect is directly and linearly related to the force causing it. It is only approximately true when the deformations or deflections due to one force cause an abnormal change in the effect of another force. Fortunately the magnitude of deflections are relatively small in most engineering structures.
I

Simple Stresses
audstraiap

To make this principle clearer, assume that three forces F,, F2 and F, are acting on an elastic body and at some point 'K ', it is necessary to find the stress 'a'. When the force F, is acting alone, then the stress at the paint 'K ' is calculated to be a,. Likewise, when the forces F2, F, are acting separately on the body, the stresses at the same point are a, & o3 respectively. Then according to the principle of superposition, when all the P forces PI, P2, P, are acting at the same time on the body, then the required stress at the point 'K ' will be a = a, + a, + 0,. ?'he principle is based on the fact that stresses, strains, displacements etc. are linear functions of the external loads within certain limits. If the external loads are increased 'n' times, then the above quantities will also be increaqed in the same proportion. There are very few cases however when the principle of superposition does not apply.

11.4.6 Generalized Hooke's Law

In sub-section 11.4.4, Poisson's ratio was defined as the ratio of lateral sbain to tbe longitudinal or axial strain for an axially loaded member. This applies only to a uni-axial state of stress on an element. Now, a more general state of stress acting upon an isotropic body (properties of the material are essentially the same in any direction) will be considered and equations involving stress and strain will be developed. ~otrod~ct itmo S tructural A block whose sides x e a, b, c respectively and acted upon by only normal te~isile Mechanics stresses ox, o,, o, uniformly distributed on all faces as shown in Figure 11.13 (a) will be considered. ~c tua l lyina general three-dimensional state of stress, in addition to the normal stresses shown, shearing stresses z (shown dotted) will also have to be considered on the various sides as in Figure 11.13 (b). However, for the present, the shearing stresses will not be considered as it is a known experimental fact that the strains caused by normal stresses are independent of small shearing deformations.

In Figure 11.1 3 (b), the shearing stress acting on each surface or plane has been resolved into two components parallel to a particular set of axes. The subscripts of the o's designate the direction of the normal stress along a particular axis while the stress itself acts on a plane perpendicular to the same axis. The first subscript of z associate the shearing stress with a plane that is perpendicular to a given axis while the second subscript designate the direction of the shearing stress. For the moment, attention will be directed in finding the strains in the x-direction with reference to Figure 11.13 (a). To find this, use is made of the principle of superposition explained in the last article. Proceeding on the basis of the above principle. separate effects of the Ihree stresses ox, o,, o, will be considcred one by one. The stress o, in the x-direction causes a positive strain q(,, = -ox Each of the stresses E' a, & o, in the y & z directions causes a negative strain in the x-direction as a result of Poisson's effect. These strains can be written as q(2)= - p 3 and Fg3, = Or - p respectively. The strains in the y- and z-directions can also be obtained in a similar manner. The final strains in the three coordinate directions are The application of Eq. (1 1.11) which is sometimes known as the generalized Hooke's Law is limited to isotropic materials in the linear elastic range. If a particular stress is compressive, the sign of the corresponding term changes.

11.4.7 Shearing Stresses on Mutually Perpendicular Planes

Sub-section'l1.4.6 dealt with a general case of deformation caused by normal stresses. Now, the effect of shearing stresses on deformation will be considered. Before going into the details, some initial remarks are needed. Returning to Figure 11.13 (b) showing a general three-dimensional state of stress, the same is simplified to the case shown in f gure 11.14 (a). In this figure, only th ,eT & ,T shearing stresses are shown for simplicity of explanation. The dimensions of the infinitesimal element considered in Figure 11.14 (a) are dx, dy & dz.
Figom 11.14 : An Element of a Body m Pure ShwW

Although the three-dimensional aspect of the problem should not be forgotten, it is customary, for the sake of convenience, to deal with a plane representation of the problem as shown in Figure 11.14 (b). Using this representation and summing up the moments of the forces about O and equating it to zero for equilibrium of the element, we gel, z, (dy x dz) dx - z, (dx x dz) dy = 0 Simplifying, we get z = z *y Y* (11.12) Similarly, it can be shown that zVZ= z and ,2 = z,, ZY The implication of Eq. (1 1.12) is very significant. It signifies that the shearing stresses on mutually perpendicular planes of an infinitesimal element are numerically equal. Moreover, it is possible to have an element in equilibrium only when the shearing stress occur on the four sides of the plane element simultaneously as in Figure 11.14 (b). That is, in any stressed body where shearing stresses exist, two pairs of such stresses act on mutually perpendicular planes. M = 0 is not satisfied by a single c pair of shearing stresses. Since z, = z, and because situations where more than two pairs of shearing stresses * acting on an element simultaneously will seldom occur in normal engineering practice, the subscripts used for z in the above discussion become superfluous. Therefore, the shearing stresses will normally be designated by 'z' without any subscripts.

11.4.8 Hooke's Law for Shearing Stress and Strain

In sub-section 11.4.7, it was shown that in an element of a body, the shearing stresses must occur in two pairs acting on mutually perpendicular planes. When only these

I stresses occur, the element is said to be in "pure shear". Such a system of stresses
distorts an element of an elastic body in the fashion shown in Figure 11.14 (c). Of course, I such a distortion is true only fw a body possessing perfectly homogeneous, isotropic properties. The diagonals OA' and B'C are axes of symmetry for the distorted element. Under pure shear, there is no change in dimensions of the body such as length, breadth or depth. But the angles such as LBOC = 90' in Figure 11.14 (b) is altered to LB'OC = (90 - y)". Hence the shearing stresses produce changes in right angles of rectangular elements of an elastic body. This angular change 'y' is referred to as shearing strain distinguishing it from linear P strains caused by normal stresses. If the behaviour of the element is considered only in its elastic range, it is again found experimentally that there is a linear relationship between shearing stress 'z' and shearing P strain 'y'. Mathematically, the extension of Hooke's Law for shearing stress and strain is where G is a constant of proportionality called "shearing modulus of elasticity" (in short "Shear Modulus") or "Modulus of Rigidity". Like E , G is a constant for a given material. It is measured in the same units as E while y is measured in radians, a dimensionless quantity similar to 'E'.

11.4.9 Volume Strain and Bulk Modulus

Consider ii rectangular block such as that shown in Figure 11.13. Let the dimensions of the sides be '1 ', 'b ' and 'd '. Due to certain stresses or any other cause, the dimensions
I

of the sides increase to (1 + 64 , (b + Sb) and (d + 6 4 respectively. The original volume of the block = V = lbd The final volume of the block = V, = (I + 69 (b + 6h) (d + M)
= lbd + lblid + bdSl + 1dSb iSimple Stresses and Strains

! fihw+=+ &S_CI+ SESb6d

Neglecting the terms containing the product of two or more s~~l aqluia ntities, we get
Introduction to Stmctural Mechanics

:. change in volume 6V = V, - V

= lbsd

+ bd6l + ld&

:. change in volume Volume Strain =

original volume - lbsd + bd6l + ld& lbd where Ex ; E, , E, are the linear strains in the three directions x, y, z respectively. Therefore, the volume strain is equal to the sum of the three linear strains. When a body is subjected to three mutually perpendicular like normal stresses 'a' of the same intensity, there will be a change in volume 6V. Then, according to Hooke's law, = a constant ' K called Bulk Modulus Volume strain

The reciprocal of bulk modulus is called as compressibility :. Compressibility = 1 Bulk modulus

11.4.10 Relation between Modulus of Elasticity and Modulus of Rigidity

Consider a square element ABCD (Figure 11.1 5(a)) similar to that shown in Figure 11.14(b) subjected to pure shear '7' on its mutually perpendicular faces.
h

'
C D' is shown in dotted line in the same figure.

-c

(42 Figure 11.15

The deformed shape of the element A' I?'

The change in the angle ABC will be equal to propqrtional to the shearing stress '7'.

:+

= y which is the shearing strain

;. Final value of LABC will be LA ' I?'

C = 90" - y & Final value of LDAB will be LD' A' lY = 800 + y

As a result of this defonnatiqn, the diagonal BD will get increased to BD ' and the diagonal AC will get decreased to A' C. The final shape of the element will thus become a rhombus. For the sake of convenience, the element is rotated so that lines BA' and C D' coincide with the lines BA and CD and the points C, C, D & D' lie on a straight line. The element will now assbme the position showri in Figure 1 1.5 (b). Linear strain of diagonal BD - BD'-BD -- BD'- BE - ED' DD' cos 45" BD BD BD
-

TAB

DD' In the above derivation, - AB - tan y = y, since angle y is very small. Now consider the stresses across diagonal AC. Let d be the normal stress on AC as shown in Figure1 1.16 (a)

(a (b)
Figure 11.16

Let AB= BC= 1.AC = fi Consider the equilibrium of the elcment ABC q' x fi = T x ~ x c o s ~ ~ ~ + T ~ =x f~ i xT c o s ~ ~ ~ o' = T (tensile) Now consider the stresses across diagonal BD and let d' be the normal stress on BD as shown in Figure 1 1.16(b). From equilibrium of the element ABD, working as the same lines as above.

we get o" = 2 (compressive) Let us now consider an element PQRS inside the element ABCD as shown in Figurc 11.17 such that PQ, RS are parallel to BD and PS, QR are parallel to AC. I As derived above, this element PQRS will be subjected to tensile stresses o' = 'T' in the direction of the diagonal BD and compressive stresses o" = 2 in the direction of the diagonal AC.
Simple Stresses and Strains

I
Mechanics

~ntrodu&nn to structural Now

the linear slrain of diagonal BD can be derived alternatively fro111

Figure 1 1.17 as follows : Linear strain of diagonal BD (noting that o" is compression)

I From equations (1 1.14) & (1 1.15), we get

The above expression (1 1.16) establishes the relation between the three constants E, (3 & F.

11.4.11 Relation between Modulus of Elasticity and Bulk Modulus

In sub-section 11.4.9, it was established that o Bulk Modulus K = - 6Vn' for a body subjected to three mutually perpendicular like normal stresses o of the same intensity. Again from the same sub-section, it can be seen that Voluxne strain -6- v = E~ + 4 + cZ v In this case when ox = oy = o, = 0,

:. Froxn equations (1 1.17) & (11.18), it can be seen that -f "*

The above expression establishes the relationship belween the three constants E, K and F. Example 11.5 A steel rod ABCD of stepped section is loaded as shown in Figurc 11.18. The loads are assumed to act along the centre line of the rod. Estimate the displacenxnt of D relative to A. Assume E = 2 x 10' ~ / m r n ~ .
Figure 11.18
,-%

Solution

In general, the displacement of any portion of a rod of uniform section can be calculated as follows : Suain E = Change in length - 61 original length 1 o P Also& = - and, o = - E A From the above, we can get For the above problem, the displacement will have to be calculated separately for the three parts AB, BC & CD and algebraically added up.

P, = Internal force in the portion AB = 4 kN tension P2 = Intemal force in the portion BC = (1 0 - 4) = 6 kN compression & P, = Internal force in the portion CD = 2 kN tension.

Displacement of PI 11 2 2 P3 13 D relative to A = - + = 0.00375 mm.

+ - A I E A2E A 3 E

Example 11.6 A short timber post of rectangular section has one side of cross-section equal to twice the other. When the post is axially loaded with 10 kN (compression), it contracts by 0.0521 rnrn per metre length. Calculate the cross-sectional dimensions of the post if E for timber = 1.5 x lo4 ~ l m m ' . Solution If one side of cross-section = d , then the other side = 2d ~ = x 2dd = 2 d 2 From eq. ( 1 1.20),
Simple Stresses and Stmins

:. cross-sectional dimensions are = 80 mm x 160 mm

Example 11.7

A straight flat of steel is 3 metres long and has cross-section varying uniformly from 8 x 1 cm at one end to 2 x 1 cm at the other end. If it is subjected to an axial pull of 20 kN, find the change in length of the flat if E = 2.1 x 10' ~/mm?.
Figure 11.19

Solution

Consider a section distance 'x ' from end A as shown ui Figure 11.19. xx 60 Area of the section = (20 + ---) x 10 mm2 3000 Stress on the section -- 2ox1o3 .-X

2000 X (20+5j) x 10 (20+-) 50

~/mmz

Strain of the short element 'dn ' = -stre-ss E

:. Extension of the element 'dx stress ' = E

x length of the element

:. Total extension of the flat

- -1 x log, 4 = 0.66 mm
2.1 Example 11.8 A bar of steel is in simple tension so that a stress of a, = 14 kN/cm2 is produced in

it. If E = 2 x lo4 kN/cm2 and p = 0.3, then calculate the percentage change in the volume of the bar.
Solution

From sub-section 1 1.4.9, In this case, = ox - ox E & Ey = EZ = -px c It is found that the change in volume is very small.

Example 11.9

A steel pipe is of length 10 m at 1WC. If the temperature is increased to 3@C, find its firm1 length. If this increase is prevented, find the axial stress produced in the pipe. Assume a = coefficient of linear expansion = 12.5 x 10"f~ & E = 2 x 1 6 N/rnm2.
Solution

Change in length of bar '61' =lat = 10 x lo00 x 12.5 x 10" x (30 - 10) = lo4 x 12.5 x lo4 x 20 = 2.5 mm

:. Final length = 10 x 1000 + 2.5 = 10002.5 rnm

= 10.0025 m If the above expansion of the bar is prevented, then stresses known as "temperature stresses - o," will be produced in the bar such that there is no change in the length of the bar. The change in the length caused by o, should be equal and opposite to the change in length caused by the free expansion or contraction of the bar due to rise or fall of temperature. In this case, strain = -61 = -0, 1E = 50 N/mmz (compression)
Simple Stresses and Strains

SAQ 4
A steel bar of diameter 10 cm and length 20 m is hung from one end. If the density of steel is p = 78 kN/m3 and E for steel = 2 x 10' N/rmnz , find the increase in length of bar.
lntmdudioo to Structural
Mechanics

SAQ 5
A test specimen comprises a steel bar of diameter 32 mrn and length 35 cm. It is subjected to a tensile load of 135 kN in a tensile testing machine. It is found that its diameter is reduced by 0.0062 rnm and its length increased by 0.28 mm. Find the value of E and poisson's ratio.

SAQ 6

11

A steel bar 4 cm diameter and 5 m long is heated through 60OC with its ends clamped i before heating. Calculate thrust exerted by the steel bar on the clamps if E = 21000 -1

kN/cm2 and coefficient of expansion a = 11 x 10-' per 'C. If the clamps yield by 0.05 cm, what would then be the thrust exerted.

-j
SAQ 7
A steel rod, circular in section, tapers from 2 cm diameter to 3 cm diameter in a length of 60 cm. Find out the increase in length of the bar under a concentric pull of 30 kN. Take E = 2.1 x lo4 kN/cm2.

11.5 SIMPLE INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS IN TENSION AND COMPRESSION-ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

The simplest problems in mechanics of inaterials are externally statically determinate. In

such cases, the reactions and the intemal forces at a section can be determined from equations of statics or equilibrium. If the ilumber of reactions and internal forces exceed the number of equilibrium equations, then the structure is said to be statically indeterminate. To analyse an indeterminate structure, viz: to calculate the reactions and internal forces at any section, it is necessary to formulate extra equations. These extra equations are invariably obtained by considering the geometry of deformation of the structure. In other words, the additional equations required will be formulated using displacement compatibility conditions. Simple problems in tension and compression involving statical indeterminacy will be explained by the following illustrative examples. Example 11.10 A steel tube 3.2 cm in internal diameter, 0.25 cm thick and 4 melres long is covered and lined throughout with copper tubes 0.20 can thick, 7he three tubes are finnly attached to each other and united at their ends. This compound tube is subjected to axial tension and the stress produced in the steel tube is 60 N/mm2. Determine (a) the elongatio~oi f the tube (b) the stress in the copper tubes and (c) the load carried by the combined tube. Efor steel = 2.1 x 1 6 N/mm2 and, E for Copper = 1.1 x 1 o5 N/mm2
Rgure 11.20

solution

of cross-section of steel tube = A, + - (3.7* - 3.22) = 2.71 cm2 4 Area of cross-section of copper tubes = A,
7t Area

= -IE (3.22 - 2.82) + (4.12 - 3.72) 44 Since the tubes are firmly united at their ends, the strain in each tube will be the same.

:. Stress in the copper tubes = 3 1.43 N/rnrn2.

. oc
'

Elongation of the compound lube =

'

x L (or -- x L)

Es

= Load carried by the combined tubes

Example 11.11 Referring to'Figure 1 1.21, a composite memiker is madc by a steel bar and a copper rod rigidly fixed at their ends. Find the maximum stresses in steel and copper when
S i p l e Stresses and Strains Iniroductioo to Structural Mechdm

the assembly is subjected to a axial compressive force of 14.4 kN. E, = 200 GPa, E, = 100 GPa.
Solution

Area of BC= 2 (10)~ = 78.54 mm2 4

Figure 11.21

Area of DE = -X4 (20)~= 314.1 6 mm2

\

We have PA, + P,, = P and SAC = S,, Also PAC = PA, = YE, and ~ A C= ~ A B+ ~ B C
~ A B+ ~ B C= ~ D E

From (5) Substituting PA, = PB, = PA,-, we get (0.6366 + 2.546) PAC = 2.546 Pm 3.1826 PA,, = 2.546 PDE .*. PAC = 0.8 PoE Substituting in (1). we get 0.8 PDE + PDE = 14.4 PDE = 8 kN PA, = P, = PB, = 6.4 IrN Maximum stress in steel bar will w u r in portion BC Maximum stress in copper for portion DE Example 11.12 A rigid bar AB is supported by 3 wires 1,2,3 of cross-sectional areas 1.1.5.2 sq.cm respectively. Wire-1 is of copper, wire-2 of steel and wire-3 of aluminium (See Fi 5u re 11.21(a). The moduli of elasticity of these materials are 1 x lo4, 2 x lo4, 0.7 x 10 kN/sq. cm respectively. Find the tension in each of the wires if the rigid bar carries a load P = 60 kN as shown.
--

Elgore 11.22

Solution Let N,, N2, N3 be the tension in the wires made of copper, steel & aluminium respectively. Under the action of the load 'P ', since the wires are supported by a rigid bar AB, the bar remains straight after the deformation of the wires takes place. In the final position of equilibrium, the bar AB occupies the inclined position A'H as shown in Figure 1 1.22 (b). Let & , 62 & 63 be the final elongation of the wires. The equilibriumequations can be written as N1 + N2 + N3 = P = 60 W (1) and taking moments about wire-I, Since there are 3 unhowns Nl, N2 & N3, these two equilibrium equations are not sufficient to solve the problem. The third equation will be formed from the deformation compatibility of the wires in the final position of equilibrium. It can be easily seen from Figure 11.21 (b) that viz 1.25 6, - 2.25 62

+ a3 = 0

2.5 Nl - 1.125 N2 + 1.43 N3 = 0 The solution of the three simultaneous equations (I), (2) & (3) gives N, = 1.1 W; N2=34 kN& N3=24.9kN.
Simple Stresses and Strains

Example 11.13

A steel tube 4.5 crn external diameter and 3 mnm thick e~~closceesn trally a solid copper bar of 3 crn diameter. The bar ,and the tube are rigidly connected together at the ends at a temperature of 30C. Find the stress in each metal when heated to 180C. Also find the increase in length of the assembly if the original length is 30 cm. Coefficients of linear expansion for steel and copper are 1.08 x 1c5 and 1.7 x respectively per degree centigrade.

E, = 2d x ld Wmm2 andEc = 1.1 x lo5 NIIIIIII~.

Figure 11.23

Solution Figure 11.23 (a) shows the assembly before heating. Figure 11.23(b) shows the free expansion of the steel tube and copper bar if they are not rigidly connected together at their ends. Since the tube and bar are rigidly connected at their ends, the copper bar will be forced to expand less than the free expansion of 1 a, r and the steel tube will be forced to expand more than 1 as t. Thus the assembly after heating is shown in Figure 11.23(c). Thus, compressive stresses a, will be caused in copper bar and tensile

stresses

will be caused in steel tube.

2.1 o,+ 1.1 a,= 214.83 As there is no external load on the compound bar, A, = qy As a, . = 1.786 a, Fron~( 2 ) & (2), it can be seen that a, = 52.85 N/mm2 compressive & as = 94.39 N/mm2 ten.ile Increase in length of the assembly = 6

SAQ 8
0, =

( a t - 6 = ( [act- - x l )

Ec
Figure 11.24

Referring to Figure 11.24, a rigid steel plate is supported by three pillars of high strength concrete each of height 2 m and 300 x 300 m in cross-section. Before the symmetric axial load P is applied on the steel plate, the middle pillar is shorter than the other two by 1 rnm. Determine the maximum load P if the allowable stress in compression in concrete is 20 MPa and its modulus ot'elasticity is 3 x lo4 MPa.

SAQ 9
A composite bar made up of steel and aluminium is held between two supports as shown in Figure L1.25. The bars are stress-free at a temperature of 3SC. What will 'be the stresses$ the two bats when the temperature is 21C if
Simple Stresses
and Strains

Introduction to Structural

Mechanics

(a) the supports are ui~yielding (b) the supports yield and come nearer to each other by 0.1 mrn. Assurrle that the change of temperature is uniform over the length of the bar. E for steel = 2.1 x lo5 MPa and E for aluminium = 7.4 x lo4 MPa coefficient of expansion/contraction for steel & alu~niniuma re 11.7 x ~ O ' ~a/nd~ 2C3.4 x ~ o - ~ I O C respectively.

Steel bar Aluminium bar

Figure 11.25

SAQ 10
Figure 11.26 shows a rigid bar ABC hinged at A and suspended at points B & C by two wires BD & CE made of aluminium and steel respectively. The bar carries a load i of 20 kN midway between B and C. The cross-sectional areas of aluminium and steel bars are 3 sq.mm & 2 sq.mm respectively. Determine the load carried by the two wires if E for aluminium = 7 x lo4 MPa & E for steel = 20 x lo4 MPa
Figure 11.26

116 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have been made familiar with the terms stress, strairi, Hook's law, axial tension, axial compression, simple shear etc. You have also studied the physical properties of materials like poissons ratio, modulus of elasticity, Modulus of rigidity, Bulk Modulus etc. and the relations between them. You have also learned about the stress - strain diagrams ai~dfr om this tried to distinguish between ductile and brittle materials. With the help of illustrative examples, the methodology df solving various types of problems involving the elastic behaviour of members and systems carrying axial tension, axial compression or subjected to temperature changes have been explained. This will serve as a fundamental base for studying various other topics such as bending stresses, shearing stresses, complex stresses and strains, deflections, strain energy etc. in the subject matter of "strength of materials" or "soil Mechanics" later on.

117 KEY WORDS

Stress Strain Ductile Material : Internal Force/Resistance per unit area. : Ratio of change in length to original length. : Materials capable of withstanding large strains before failure. Brittle Material : Materials in which failure occurs at a small strain. Modulus of Elasticity : Ratio of normal stress to normal strain within proportional limit. Poisson's Ratio : Ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain. Modulus of Rigidity : .Ratio,of shear stress to shear strain. Bulk Modulus : Ratio of normal stress to volumetic strain for a body subjected to three identical mutually perpendicular like normal stresses.

11.9 SOLUTIONSIANS WERS TO SAOs

SAQ 1 For plotting the variation of N(x) and o (x) along the lengthpf steel bar, consider sections 1.1,2.2 & 3.3 and draw free-body diagrams below these sections as shown in Figure 11.27. From equilibrium of the free bodies, it can be seen that the internal

forces are + 20 kN (tension),+ 60 kN (tension) and zero respectively at 1.1, 2.2 & 3.3 respectively.

33
1m 1m 20 kN 20kN 20kN 20kN N (XI C(X I (variation of ( varjation of

axial force) a x ~ a flo rce)

Fsgure 11.27

Again, ol-l = -N1-l = 20 = 50 bI/mm2 = 50 MPa (tension) '4 4 x 1 0 2

- 60 lo3= 150 IV/mm2 = 150 MPa (tension) 02-2 = A4x102

-=

50 MPa 20 kId 20kN ZOkN 20kN Id ( p ) vari otion

r.x(j
var~at~on
Figure 11.28 Simple Stresses and Strains Introdudon to structural Proceeding

along the same lines as in SAQ 1 [Figure 11.8(a)], we get the variation

of
Mechauics N

(x) & u (x) as shown in Figure 11.28. In the previous case, only tensile stresses were induced but in this case, both tensile and compressive stresses are induced in the bar.

E4.01-1= = lo3= 5 6 MPa (compression) N3-3 40 lo' = 100 M P ~(te nsion) 03-3 - A - 4 x lo2 SAQ 2
l 1 20
\

Figure 11.29

Proceeding as in SAQ 1, Nl-I = 180 kN (tension), N2-2 = 90 kN (tension), N3-3 = 400 kN (tension) Ul-1 = lo' = 150 ~ / m m= ~15 0 MPa (tension) 0.0012 x lo6

P1
I
03-3 =

400 lo3 = 160 ~/mm' = 160 MPa (tension) 0.0025 x lo6 :. Maximum normal stress = 160 MPa SAQ 3 Let PI and P2 be in kN units Proceeding as before in SAQ 1, NlU1 = PI (compression) N2, = PI + P2 (compression) N p1xld P1

u l - l 1=.5xAld-1.5= M-Pa N2-2 (PI + 200) ld (PI + 200)

02-2 =

7 =-

2.6 MPa

2 2..6

x ld As per data given, max. value of al-l or a2-2 = 100 MPa PI + 200 If a2, = 100, then 2.6 =I 0 0 .: P1 =60 kN

;. Maximum allowable load PI = 60 kN

Proceeding as abve in (a)

:. Maximuin allowable load Y, = 150 kN.

Figure 11.30

(The solution to he attempted by the reader and the answer to be checked.)

SAQ 4

Considcr any section of bar distance x metres from the lower end as shown in Figure 1 1.31. The weight of tlle bar below the section will be
Figure 11.31

W(x) = Volume x Density

Simple Stresses and Strnins

m e stress at this sectionmA= x x p = px This stress would be varying along the length of the bar. Now, a small element of length 'dx' is cut from the bar as shown in figure. The stress on both faces of this element can be considered as constant (since the length of the element is very small) :. change in length of element 'dx' = 6 (dr) = Strain x dx .. Total change in length of bar = 61 In this example, substituting the numerical values with E = 2 x 10' N/mm2 = 2x108 kN/m3 we get 6178 x (20)~ m = - 7 8 2 X 2 X 1 O 8 lo6 = 0.078 mm
SAQ 5

Longitudinal stress in the bar = -Load = 139 x lo3 = L68 Longitudinal strain - - - = 0.8 x

N,mm2

_ -6- 1 - 0.28
1 . 350

:. E = --- 168x--1-0 7 = 2 . 1 ~ 1 6N /mm2

strain 0.8 Also Lateral strain = Poisson's ratio x longitudinal strain
Introdudion b Structural
Mechanics Lateral

strain = -6d = -0.0062

d 32

. Poisson's ratio =
0.19375 x lo-" = 0.242 0.8x10-~ SAQ 6

Free expansion = 1 a t a) when clamps do not yield, strain = -l a t 1 at stress = E x strain = E a t

:. Thrust P = stress x area= A E a t

= 174.2 kN b) ' when clamps yield by 0.05 cm, Expansion prevented = 1 a t - 0.05

. strain ,=
lat-0.05 - 0.05 1 - a t - ---500 = 11 x 106 x 60 - 1 0 - ~= 5.6 x 104

:. Stress = Ex strain = 21000 x 5.6 x lo4 = 11.76 kN/cm2 :. Thrust P = stress x area 7C = 11.76 x - (4)2 = 147.8 kN
4 SAQ 7 Proceeding along the same lines as in Illustrative Example 11.3 Consider a section at a distance 'x' from the end with 2 cm diameter.

Diameter of the section =

2+ -

cm

Stress on the section = 30 kN/cm2 4 Extension of a short length 'dx' -- 30 x dx. E X F4 P + $ ]

:. Total Extension =
7CE

--

"p
+

clx

ICE 0

(2

Simple Stresses

and Strains

= 0.0182cm

SAQ 8 Refer Figure 1 1.23 The problem has to be considered in two stages. Load P = Pl is shared equally by two outer pillars only till the shortening of these

pillars reaches 1 mm After stage-1, the load P = P2 is shared equally by all the three pillars. Load on each of the outer pillars = -p1 2 = 27 x105 N = 2700 kN Load Stress in the outer pillars = Area
Stage 2 Maximum permissible stress = 20 MPa

:. Extra stress that can be carried by columns = 20 - 15 = 5 MPa

Now, load on each column p2 = - 3

..

-3- -

Area = 1050 kN

:. Final maximum load = PI + P2 = 2700 + 1050

= 3750kN SAQ 9

Free contraction = I, a, t + I, a, t =60 x 11.7 x lod x 17 + 30 x 23.4 x l o d x 17 = 0.023868 cm = 0.23868 mrn Let o, & o, be the stresses in steel and aluminium respectively. Also let 8, & 8, be
Introduction to Structural Mechanics

the chimge in length in steel & alurniniuni. Since Ltie contraction is prevented. tensile stress will be set up in the bars. 0'2 & t i a = - X I , = O" x 300 mm. E, 7.4 x lo4
Case (a)

Since the supports are unyielding, the full contraction is prevented.

:. or + 1.419 o, = 83.54
Since the same force will act on both steel and aluminium bars, 40, = 0, From (1) & (2), we get o, = 12.51 MPa tensile o, = 30.04 MPa tensile
Case (b)

Since the supports yield by 0.1 mm comlng nearer to each other, Contraction prevented = 0.23868 - 0.10 = 0.13868 rnrn

:. o, + 1.4190, = 48.54
As in case (a), 4 o, = o, From (3) & (4) o, = 7.27 MPa tensile & o, = 29.08 MPa tensile