INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

I. Industrial Revolution in Britain a. Agricultural Revolution in Britain i. 1688-1832: British govt in hands of squirearchy, landowners on estates looking to increase money incomes improved techniques: animal fertilizer, scientific crop rotation, scientific breeding, growth of new crops (Townshends turnips), new implements (Jethro Tulls drill seeder) & horse-hoe ii. ENCLOSURE ACTS: old common lands & unfenced fields were enclosed; small farmers could not make a living from own plots & land ownership = more concentrated b/c now in control of wealthy landlords productivity of land & labor increased, labor released for other pursuits 1. labor force dependent on daily wages, mobile & could move to new cities b. Industrialism in Britain: Incentives and Inventions i. Britain had essential preconditions 1. Colonial empire, world markets, huge mercantile marine 2. Markets available for woolen cloth & possibilities in cotton cloth 3. Capital available & mobile b/c banking, credit & stock companies a. Conditions led to textile developments: flying shuttle = loom efficiency, spinning jenny = mechanized spinning wheel, power driven looms & spinners, key to cotton use = cotton gin, technology for more quality thread ii. Development of steam engine 1. THOMAS NEWCOMEN: 1702 developed inefficient steam engine to pump out mines 2. JAMES WATT: 1769 more efficient model development of transportation systems c. Political consequences i. Rise of Communism & Socialism ii. Laissez-faire d. Social Consequences of Industrialism in Britain i. 1750-1780: population of Britain tripled primarily in industrial cities & north (coal/iron centers); urbanized population ii. Manchester expanded from market town to populous city; problems w/ crime, water purity, sewers, garbage, poverty iii. Mills needed unskilled labor w/ low status & pay; poor conditions, long hours iv. Factory owners & new cotton lords = first industrial capitalists e. Classical Economics: Laissez-Faire i. Attitude of industrialists strengthened by political economy begun w/ ADAM SMITHS Wealth of Nations 1. Attacked govt interference w/ economy; natural working of laws of production & exchange ii. Manchester School of classical economics worked out laissez faire capitalism 1. Free market w/ natural laws law of supply & demand w/ law of diminishing 2. Each individual = free to follow self interest 3. Govt should only secure life & property for its people w/ reasonable laws & reliable courts 4. Education & charity = personal decision iii. DAVID RICARDO: working man should expect only bare minimum living 1. iron law of wages: worker receiving more than subsistence wage = more children eat up excess & reduce working class to subsistence iv. THOMAS MALTHUS: growth of population more rapid than food production; those w/o work must starve w/ war, disease & famine to keep population in check Advent of the isms a. Romanticism i. Theory of literature & arts: basic questions on the nature of significant truth, importance of human faculties, & relation of thought and feeling, on meaning of past and time itself ii. Rejected emphasis on classical rules & rational order iii. New way of sensing all human experience: love of moods, impressions, experiences, idiosyncrasies iv. Valued emotions & the subconscious, feeling & reason but challenged Enlightenment ideas v. Love of the mysterious, nostalgia for middle ages vi. Expression of inner genius w/ own rules & laws, genius of an individual, a people (Volksgeist) of Herder b. Classical Liberalism i. Represented the ideas of men of business & professional classes w/ landowners ii. Belief in modern, efficiency, fairness, enlightenment and reason wanted parliaments, govt, free press, speech, assembly; rejected democracy iii. Rights of man but mostly property; favored laissez-faire w/ limits on govt; lower tariffs, free trade; progress through wealth, production, invention & scientific progress; anti-military c. Radicalism, Republicanism, Socialism i. English Philosophical Radicals: (JEREMY BENTHAM: wanted to reform English criminal & civil law) included working class leaders, new industrial capitalists 1. Reconstruct laws, courts, prisons, poor relief, municipal organization, rotten boroughs 2. Reform Parliament, the Church of England, & squirearchy; demanded male suffrage ii. militant republicanism: intelligentsia such as students and writers, working-class leaders protesting social injustice & elderly veterans or descendants of veterans 1. Formed secret societies prospect of further revolutionary upheaval w/ cause of liberty, equality & fraternity

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2. Wanted political equality, demanded universal male suffrage, favored parliamentary govt, anticlerical Socialists attacked power & wealth of owners, private enterprise & idea of competition; wanted communal ownership & social justice through govt 1. ROBERT OWEN: worked to improve lives of his workers; paternalistic capitalism but can be considered a founder of British Socialism 2. HEART COMTE DE SAINT-SIMON: supported revolutions, planned society, public ownership of equipment & capital; supported social engineers 3. CHARLES FOURLER: French thinker who wanted to replace institutions w/ phalansteries of 1620 people each follows own pursuits; utopian idealist inspired Brook Farm 4. LOUIS BLANC: French journalist favoring workingmans socialism; proposed social workshops

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d. Feminism e. Nationalism in Western Europe f. Nationalism in Eastern Europe g. Other Isms Dike and Flood Domestic i. Settlement of 1815 rep institutions in German states; cycle of repression - revolt - repression b. Reaction after 1815: France & Poland i. white terror @ republicans, bonapartists & protestants intensified after LOUIS XVIIIs death, replaced by CHARLES X 1. Attacked liberalism ii. Nationalism in Poland Alexander I first had constitution & limited freedoms formation of secret societies c. Reaction after 1815: Germanic States, and Britain i. German universities = nationalism & republicanism 1. Assassinations by students Metternichs Carlsbad Decrees: dissolved student groups & censored ideas ii. CORN LAWS: tariff on grain; Peterloo Massacre Six Acts: outlawed seditious & blasphemous literature Dike and Flood International i. Holy Alliance to gradually suppress revolutionary & liberal activity b. Congress of Aix-La-Chapelle 1818 i. Agreed to suppress slave trade but illicit trade continued b/c only Britain had power to do so c. Congress of Troppau 1820 i. Revolutionary demonstrations in Spain & Naples = collapse of corrupt govt ii. Metternich & Alexander agreed to Protocol of Troppau = collective security 1. France & Britain refused; Russia, Prussia, & Austria agreed to send Austrian army to Naples d. Spain and the Near East: Congress of Verona i. 1822: Neapolitan revolutionaries to Spain = revolution; YPSILANTI led force into Rumania 1. Greeks defeated Congress sends French Army to Spain to crush constitutionalists, liberals, & revolutionaries e. Latin American Independence i. Split b/w criollos (Spanish born in America) & peninsulares (born in Spain) b/c Spanish America opposed Spanish control ii. Revolutions led by JOSE DE SAN MARTIN & SIMON BOLIVAR against Joseph Bonaparte & intensified after Ferdinand VII refused concessions 1. Columbia, Venezuela, Chile, Argentina & Peru free f. End of the Congress System i. Alexander hoped for joint intervention in Spanish America; British & USA unsupportive end of congress b/c members supported own interest instead of cooperation The Breakthrough of Liberalism in the West a. Russia: The Decembrist Revolt i. 1825: Alexander dies ii. Secret society made brief rebellion in support of more liberal successor Constantine crushed iii. NICHOLAS I ROMANOV took power iv. First manifestation of modern revolutionary movement in Russia v. Dike holding back revolutionary flood b. The Breakthrough of Liberalism in the West i. 1825: most of LA independent ii. Revolution again in Greece w/ aid of NICHOLAS I & France & Britain iii. 1827: independent Greece & autonomous Balkan states of Serbia, Wallachia, & Moldavia iv. Egypt = autonomous, center of Arabic & anti-Turkish feeling Revolutions of 1830-1832 a. France 1820-1830 July Revolution i. CHARLES X issued July Ordinances: press censorship & aristocratic legislature 1. Bourgeoisie out of power, Parisian republics set up barricades Charles abdicat ed & fled a. Bourgeoisie in power under Lafayette; LOUIS PHILIPPE = constitutional monarch b. Revolutions of 1830: Belgium and Poland i. Paris insurrection set off Belgium and Poland. ii. Polish revolt crushed by Nicholas and rejoined to Russia russification iii. In the Netherlands, the Dutch union made sense economically but not politically. 1. The Belgians won independence and chose a German who had married into the British royal family as king. iv. Britain and France (Talleyrand), agreed to guarantee the neutrality of Belgium, and all Europe signed. v. Small scale revolutionary acts broke out all over Europe (especially in Italy). 1. All were crushed, but it was obvious that basic problems needed to be solved.

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Reform in Great Britain i. Under prime ministers like Peel and Channing, the Tory government was moving towards liberalism: 1. freer trade, religious toleration expanded to political rights, reduction of capital punishment, development of a police. 2. The main blocks were the Corn Laws and the need to reform of the House of Commons. ii. Any attempt to reform Parliament was blocked by the House of Lords and Wellington. iii. A Whig government pushed reform and the Lords were forced to yield by the threat to create enough new Whig lords to pass the bill. 1. Reform Bill of 1832: more voters, but only from the middle class; elimination of rotten boroughs and provision for reps from the new industrial cities. iv. Liberal Party was formed, made up of aristocratic Whigs, radical industrialists, and liberal Tories. v. The old Tories became the new Conservatives d. Britain after 1832 i. 1833: abolition of slavery ii. 1834: new Poor Law iii. 1835: modernized municipal structure iv. House of Commons open to reporters (1836) v. Conservatives became the new champions of the workers: Factory Act of 1833 was the first to have enforceable child labor laws; Ten Hours Act of 1847, limiting labor hours of women and children--and effectively of men also. vi. The Anti-Corn-Law League was formed in 1838--industrialists and workers against Tory land-owners. vii. The Tory government was finally forced to yield in 1846, due to the influence of the Irish famine. viii. Industry was the governing element; free trade was the basis of the economy. Britain ruled the sea and its governments were willing to throw their weight around Triumph of the West: European Bourgeoisie a. Frustration and Challenge of Labor i. Republicans in France, radical democrats in England felt cheated. Excluded from government, they sought change through revolutionary or utopian channels. 1. began to advocate violence. The British working poor were upset by the Poor Law of 1834; it corrected abuses, but it granted relief only to persons willing to enter a workhouse or poorhouse. 2. They objected to the idea of a labor market, where workers were bought and sold. One answer was the union movement. b. Socialism and Chartism i. Socialism was another answer; many looked back to the ideas of Robespierre and the egalitarian ideals of the First Republic. ii. In Britain, socialism blended with the idea of parliamentary reform in the anti-capitalist mass movement called Chartism. 1. Chartisms goals were to secure universal manhood suffrage and abolition of property qualifications for membership in Parliament. the movement died out; a major impact on the labor laws of the 1840s, and by 1918 all major provisions of the Chartist program had been accepted.