2) bit & byte

What is a "bit"?A bit is the smallest possible piece of information. If you have heard someone say that "everything in the computer is all one's and zero's," they are actually referring to bits. A bit can have only two possible states: 1 or 0. As humans, we may find it useful to think of this in terms of "yes or no," "true or false," "on or off," and so on. They all mean the same thing. The key is that there are only two possibilities, and nothing in between. What is a "byte"?Although a single bit can have only one of two possible values, by gathering groups of bits together, we can make much more complicated (and interesting) information. A byte is simply a group of 8 bits. How many different possible values can a byte have? There turns out to be a simple way of calculating this: 1 bit --> 2^1 = 2 different possible values 2 bits --> 2^2 (2x2) = 4 different possible values 3 bits --> 2^3 (2x2x2) = 8 different possible values ... 8 bits (one byte) --> 2^8 (2x2x2x2x2x2x2x2) = 256 possibilities So now we have a useful "chunk" of information: a byte, which can have 256 different values. All bytes are composed of 8 bits, and each bit is either a 0 or a 1.

3) Write a

short note on alphanumeric codes

In general, in computing, an alphanumeric code is a series of letters and numbers (hence the name) which are written in a form that can be processed by a computer. Specifically, in computer hacker terminology, alphanumeric code is machine code that is written so that it assembles into entirely alphanumeric ASCII or Unicode characters such as 0-9, A-Z and a-z.[1][2] This type of encoding was created by hackers to hide working machine code inside what appears to be text. This can be useful to avoid detection of the code and to allow the code to pass through filters that modify or remove non-alphanumeric characters unchanged. A similar type of encoding is called printable code and uses all printable characters (0-9, A-Z, a-z, !@#%^&*() etc...) It has been shown that it is possible to create shellcode that looks like normal text in English.[3] Writing alphanumeric or printable code requires good understanding of the instruction set architecture of the machine(s) on which the code is to be executed. It has been demonstrated that it is possible to write alphanumeric code that is executable on more than one machine. Types: MORSE CODE BAUDOT CODE HOLLERITH CODE American Standard-Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC) UNICODE

8)

Name the two classifications of RAM

(i) Dynamic Ram (ii) Static RAM Dynamic RAM : loses its stored information in a very short time (for milli sec.) even when power supply is on. D-RAMs are cheaper & lower. Similar to a microprocessor chip is an Integrated Circuit (IC) made of millions of transistors and capacitors. In the most common form of computer memory, Dynamic Memory Cell, represents a single bit of data. The capacitor holds the bit of information a 0 or a 1. The transistor acts as a switch that lets the control circuitry on the memory chip read the capacitor or change its state. A capacitor is like a small bucket that is able to store electrons. To store a 1 in the memory cell, the bucket is filled with electrons. To store a 0, it is emptied. The problem with the capacitors bucket is that it has a leak. In a matter of a few milliseconds a full bucket becomes empty. Therefore, for dynamic memory to work, either the CPU or the Memory Controller has to come along and recharge all of the capacitors holding it before they discharge. To do this, the memory controller reads the memory and then writes it right back. This refresh operation happens automatically thousands of times per second. This refresh operation is where dynamic RAM gets its name. Dynamic RAM has to be dynamically refreshed all of the time or it forgets what it is holding. The downside of all of this refreshing is that it takes time and slows down the memory. Static RAM uses a completely different technology. S-RAM retains stored information only as long as the power supply is on. Static RAMs are costlier and consume more power. They have higher speed than D-RAMs. They store information in Hip-Hope. In static RAM, a form of flipflop holds each bit of memory. A flip-flop for a memory cell takes four or six transistors along with some wiring, but never has to be refreshed. This makes static RAM significantly faster than dynamic RAM. However, because it has more parts, a static memory cell takes up a lot more space on a chip than a dynamic memory cell. Therefore, you get less memory per chip, and that makes static RAM a lot more expensive. Static RAM is fast and expensive, and dynamic RAM is less expensive and slower. Static RAM is used to create the CPUs speedsensitive cache, while dynamic RAM forms the larger system RAM space.

AND Gate The AND Gate performs a logical multiplication function. An AND Gate has multiple inputs and a single output. Most commonly used AND Gates are two input AND gates. An AND Gate is represented by the symbols shown in Figure 5.1 Figure 5.1 Symbolic representation of AND Gate